Alcoa Foundation’s Conservation and Sustainability Fellowship Program

Sustainable Use of Papyrus Cyperus papyrus at Lake Victoria wetlands

in Kenya: A case study of Dunga and Kusa swamps

Papyrus swamps along lake Victoria

Mercy Mwanikah Ojoyi

Alcoa Practitioneer Fellow (2006)

Sustainability Institute :Tecnologico’ de Monterrey, Mexico

Mercy Mwanikah

DECLARATION
This report is my original work. Therefore, views expressed here in are those of the author
and do not necessarily reflect the opinions of Alcoa Foundation and Institute of
International Education.

Sustainable Use of Papyrus Cyperus papyrus at Lake Victoria wetlands in Kenya

i
Mercy Mwanikah

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This project would not have been complete without support from many people and
organizations to whom the highest possible accolades will not be adequate to register the
thanks that l feel.

I would like to express my deepest sense of gratitude to Alcoa Foundation and Institute of
International Education (I.I.E) New York for generously supporting this project.

This work would not have been possible with the local community’s co-operation and all
stakeholders that l interacted with on the ground. I express my deepest sense of gratitude for
their views, participation and co-ordination throughout the project period.

I acknowledge with gratitude the technical expertise from Tecnologico’ de Monterrey

(Mexico) with the great support and insight from Dr. Miguel Romero, my fellow 2006
(ITESM) practitioner fellows and Department of Ornithology, National Museums of Kenya
who provided important assistance throughout the project period.

Many thanks to my mentors Dr. Fabian Lozano and professor Nelly Adriana from
Tecnologico’ de Monterrey Sustainability Institute for their valuable input.

My utmost gratitude to Dr. Muchai Muchane, George Amutete, Philip Osano, Handa
Collins, and Philista Malaki from Nairobi for the vast time they gave me in matters of
technical advice and logistical support.

I am very grateful to Dr. James Kairo (Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute)
Bernard Kirui (PhD student, Napier University, Scotland) and Joseph Lang’at (Msc. Student,
Egerton University, Kenya) for their output .

A complementary word of appreciation is due to my research assistants Maurice Ogoma and

Leonard Akwany.

I acknowledge with gratitude, members of Lake Victoria Sunset Birders, Wildlife Clubs of
Kenya, Kisumu, National Environmental Management Authority (Kisumu) and
OSIENALA for their endless support throughout my fieldwork period.

I am also indebted to the convivial staff and research associates of the Department of
Ornithology, National Museums of Kenya for their valuable contribution.

I acknowledge with deep appreciation the tireless moral support of my parents, brother, and
sisters.

This work would not have been complete without the elegance of the Almighty God whose
help has always been eminent.

God bless you all!

Sustainable Use of Papyrus Cyperus papyrus at Lake Victoria wetlands in Kenya

ii
Mercy Mwanikah

Executive Summary
The value of papyrus Cyperus papyrus in the past has not been fully recognized globally and
especially around Lake Victoria region. Wetlands are vital parts of a watershed. Loss and
degradation not only affects the existence and health of an individual wetland and causes
local suffering, but also affects the ecosystem as a whole and can contribute to regional and
even global environmental problems. The need to use these swamps wisely is greatest as
biodiversity is higher in these regions and basic human needs are most acute. Unfortunately,
the exploitation of these swamps around Lake Victoria region; Dunga and Kusa has been so
extensive leading to their decline in quality and functioning. These swamps are under
increasing threat. The research done indicates degradation by unsustainable levels of
resource extraction and structural modification. Large areas of the two swamps have been
altered to other forms of land use namely settlement (52.7%), industrial development (22%)
and agriculture (25.3%). Alternative sustainable development options have been studied to
be of significant help in improving the livelihood of adjacent communities. Some of which
include recreation and eco-tourism, research, business, educational sites, horticulture and
agro forestry. The swamps can be utilized sustainably through value addition techniques.
This report shows the role that wetlands valuation can play in improving environmental
quality. There is need for an environmental impact assessment, prior to the decision to be
developed, made mandatory, and strictly implemented. Local involvement and participation
should be present in all stages of their management. The roles for women, children and
youth should as well be strengthened. Such management principles should help meet the
needs of the ever increasing human population, which will ensure these swamps, will have a
future.

Keywords: Papyrus, swamps, exploitation, sustainable use, alternatives

Sustainable Use of Papyrus Cyperus papyrus at Lake Victoria wetlands in Kenya

iii
Mercy Mwanikah

TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION ................................................................................................................. i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................... ii
Executive Summary ............................................................................................................ iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................. iv
LIST OF TABLES............................................................................................................... v
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................ v
LIST OF PLATES............................................................................................................... v
1.0 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Background Information ............................................................................................ 1
1.2 Objectives .................................................................................................................. 3
1.2.1 Specific objectives................................................................................................ 3
2.0 STUDY AREA ............................................................................................................. 3
2.1 Human population ..................................................................................................... 4
2.2 Land use activities in the area ..................................................................................... 5
3.0 METHODOLOGY ....................................................................................................... 6
3.1 Study approach........................................................................................................... 6
3.2 Data analyses .............................................................................................................. 8
4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS .................................................................................. 8
4.1 Papyrus changes ......................................................................................................... 8
4.2 Effects on biodiversity................................................................................................ 9
4.3 Papyrus History ........................................................................................................ 11
Villages ............................................................................................................................. 12
4.4 Land ownership, period of stay and ooccupations among the respondents ............... 12
4.5 Sociometry and ANOVA results .............................................................................. 13
4.6 Major causes of papyrus exploitation ........................................................................ 13
4.7 Factors Contributing to Habitat Loss and Degradation ............................................ 14
4.7.1 Papyrus harvesting and weaving......................................................................... 14
4.7.2 Lack of awareness.............................................................................................. 15
Knowledge about effects of over harvesting ................................................................. 15
4.8 Age and Gender ....................................................................................................... 16
4.8.3 The importance of gender in papyrus harvesting.................................................. 17
4.9 Effects of over harvesting and action needed ........................................................... 18
5.0 Contingent Valuation Method Results (CVM) .......................................................... 18
5.1 Value Addition and sustainable use options .............................................................. 18
5.2 Cost-benefit analysis (CBA)...................................................................................... 20
5.3 Conservation Efforts ................................................................................................ 23
5.2 Assumptions............................................................................................................. 23
6.0 LIMITATIONS ........................................................................................................... 23
7.0 PROJECT OUTPUT ................................................................................................... 23
8.0 CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT RECOMMENDATIONS.................... 24
The following are some of the recommended activities that can help restore degraded
papyrus swamps, as is the case with Lake Victoria swamps................................................. 24
7.0 CONCLUSIONS......................................................................................................... 24
7.0 REFERENCES............................................................................................................ 25

Sustainable Use of Papyrus Cyperus papyrus at Lake Victoria wetlands in Kenya

iv
Mercy Mwanikah

8.0 APPENDICES ............................................................................................................ 27

8.1 Appendix 1. Questionnaires & warranty cards & pantry audits ................................. 27
8.2 Appendix 2. ANOVA Tables ................................................................................... 32
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Villages and frequency of individuals interviewed ................................................. 12
Table 2. Land ownership by the locals................................................................................ 12
Table 3: Summary of percentages in occupations among the locals interviewed ................. 13
Table 5. Approximations of product prices in local markets in the study area..................... 21

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Map of the Study Area (Owino 2005) .................................................................... 5
Figure 2 : Papyrus habitat fully converted into farmland near Kusa beach .......................... 10
Figure 3; Papyrus habitat being converted into farming near Dunga beach......................... 11
Figure 4: Percentages by respondents on major causes of papyrus degradation .................. 14

LIST OF PLATES
Plate 1: Papyrus habitat being converted into rice farming at Kusa site around Lake Victoria
........................................................................................................................................... vii
Plate 2: Main products displayed at Kibuye market, Kisumu .............................................. 20
Plate 3: Leonard at one of the cottages in Kisumu town where book shelves and baskets are
added value to improve on their marketing ........................................................................ 23

Sustainable Use of Papyrus Cyperus papyrus at Lake Victoria wetlands in Kenya

v
Mercy Mwanikah

Glossary

Contingent valuation-a valuation from a survey technique using direct questioning of

individuals to estimate individuals willingness to pay

Cost-benefit analysis-the appraisal of all the social and economic costs and benefits
accruing from a decision or project.

Demand-the desire for a good or service supported by the means to purchase it.

Supply-the quantity of good or service available for purchase

Willingness to pay-the amount that someone is prepared to pay to purchase a good or

use of a service regardless of whether there is a prevailing market price or the good or
service is available free of charge.

Sustainable Use of Papyrus Cyperus papyrus at Lake Victoria wetlands in Kenya

vi
Mercy Mwanikah

Plate 1 Papyrus habitat being converted into rice farming at Kusa site around Lake Victoria

Sustainable Use of Papyrus Cyperus papyrus at Lake Victoria wetlands in Kenya

vii
Mercy Mwanikah

1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background Information
Sustainability is a systemic concept, relating to the continuity of economic, social,
institutional and environmental aspects of human society, as well as the non-human
environment. It is intended to be a means of configuring civilization and human activity so
that society, its members and its economies are able to meet their needs and express their
greatest potential in the present, while preserving biodiversity and natural ecosystems, and
planning and acting for the ability to maintain these ideals in a very long term. Sustainability
affects every level of organization, from the local neighborhood to the entire planet.
Sustainable wetland utilization is the wise use of wetland resources for the benefit of
mankind in a way that is compatible with the maintenance of the natural properties of the
ecosystem. Thus sustainability serves human interests while conserving natural values. The
Ramsar Convention Bureau (1991) declared the wise use of wetlands to be “their sustainable
utilization for the benefit of humankind in a way compatible with the maintenance of the
natural properties of the ecosystem.”
Wetlands can be defined as transitional zones between land and open water, where plants
and animals show adaptation to permanent water logging. These wetlands are characterized
according to the dominant vegetation; papyrus wetlands being dominated by Cyperus papyrus
(papyrus). The plant communities in wetlands of Lake Victoria are part of a vegetation
continuum from dry land to open water. There are two functional types of wetlands: rooted
and floating (Howard-Williams and Gaudet, 1985). In a rooted wetland, the dominant
vegetation is attached to a substratum. This is mainly sediment or mud, which acts as a
source of nutrients to aquatic plants. Floating wetlands are not attached but occur as floating
mass on water column, becoming as deep as 2-3 m as one moves towards the open water. A
floating wetland can be formed when a rooted mat gets detached from the substratum. The
rooted mat is made up of interlacing rhizomes and roots, which interlock and intertwine to
form a floating mat, which acts as a base for the vegetation. These papyrus wetlands occupy
the transitional zone between permanently wet and generally dry environments. Papyrus
swamp is an aquatic ecosystem. Papyrus fragments are patches of papyrus stands that are left
isolated as most of the neighboring mass is cut down or burnt leaving an open space all
round or nearly all round it. These wetlands are highly productive and provide important
ecological services. This can easily be discerned as one walks around a wetland.

These wetlands perform a myriad of functions: they recharge and discharge groundwater,
control flooding, help stabilize shorelines and prevent erosion, retain sediment, toxins and
nutrients, export biomass, provide storm protection, water transport, recreation and tourism.
They can generate products such as forest, wildlife, fishery, forage and agricultural resources,
as well as water supplies. They also perform ecosystem services such as soil stabilization,
biological diversity, natural heritage and cultural uniqueness. In the past, wetlands have been
undervalued because of the ecological services, biological resources and amenity values they
provide are not bought and sold and hence are difficult to provide a monetary value.
(Barbier et al. 1997)
Out of Kenya’s total area of 582,646km², wetlands occupy up to 6% percent of the land
surface (Republic of Kenya 2002-2008).In the drive for economic growth, agricultural
practices and development continue to threaten wetlands and their biota. Among the major
threats facing papyrus wetlands are drainage, clearing, filling and reclamation for subsistence
crop production, road building, construction of dams or barrages for water storage, flood
protection, irrigation and hydroelectric schemes, construction of waterways and irrigation

Sustainable Use of Papyrus Cyperus papyrus at Lake Victoria wetlands in Kenya

1
Mercy Mwanikah

channels, pollution, especially by pesticide and fertilizer residue, overgrazing by livestock,

over fishing, and conversion to aquaculture ponds. Moreover, development planning has
proceeded without local involvement, and without considering what the local population
really needs, the losses and gains, and who loses and who gains. Natural threats to wetlands,
such as climate change, drought and floods may be unavoidable, but man-made threats can
be prevented. Exploitation of papyrus swamps along Lake Victoria is carried out in
unsustainable way. This has led to cascading negative impacts on wide range of biodiversity
in this important ecosystem. These resources continue to be over-exploited but limited
research work is being conducted to elucidate the problem (Nasirwa et al, 1995b). Past aerial
surveys on changes in papyrus cover around the lake shows a remarkable loss: and papyrus
harvesting (Van de Weghe 1981; Mafabi 2000). A comparative aerial survey between 1969
and 2000 showed 50% loss in Dunga and 47% and 34% loss in Koguta and Kusa
respectively. Papyrus height and density are inversely related to human disturbance including
footpaths, cutting, burning, grazing and farming (Owino 2005). Further within the wetlands,
there exist human-wildlife conflicts in addition to conflicts over papyrus and agricultural
space which to the locals is a common resource (Hardin, 1968). Land use activities around
papyrus swamps of Lake Victoria are dominated by cultivation, livestock grazing and
settlements (Mafabi 2000).

Local communities whose livelihoods have been fishing over the years are now turning to
alternative sources of income such as papyrus-based products such as mats and basket
weaving cottage industries. This is attributed to reducing fish catches in L. Victoria. The
reduced fish catches have also been compounded with the presence of water hyacinth, an
exotic weed that has prevented fishermen from fishing, forcing them to seek alternative
forms of livelihood adding greatly to the human pressure on wetlands (Johnstone and
Githongo 1997). Given the existing pressure on papyrus, this resource may soon be
harvested beyond its regenerative capacity. These activities have intensified in recent years
and are of particular concern as they have led to other forms of disturbance to papyrus such
as pollution and burning. They are threatened by unsustainable cutting of papyrus and
overgrazing by cattle during the dry season when the water level recedes.

In developing countries, the need to use natural resources wisely is greatest as biodiversity is
higher in these regions and basic human needs are most acute. Papyrus provides an
ecosystem service to surrounding communities in the form of building and craft making
materials such as mats, baskets, chairs, tables, beds, just to mention but a few which
eventually are sold to other internal and external markets. The main market in this region is
Kisumu and is a good source of fuel.Many wetlands in East Africa are designated as
protected areas on the basis of the threatened bird and animal species they contain. As for
wetlands all over the world; papyrus swamps in East Africa are under increasing threat.
(Chrisman et al., 1996).Conversion and unsustainable use of wetland resources of Lake
Victoria, is almost always human induced. It’s often associated with rice growing, dry season
crop agriculture and animal husbandry, urban settlements, and industrial expansion as well as
with intense wetland resources, harvesting for income generation. All those activities are
exacerbated by increase in human population (Kansiime and Nalubega,1999) The main
environmental impacts to the lake ecosystems include enhanced siltation, nutrient
enrichment and pollution leading to destruction of the buffering capacity of the wetlands;
receding of wetland due to loss of capacity to conserve and store water, serious degradation
of biodiversity and other wetland resources and degradation of fish habitats and fish stocks.

Sustainable Use of Papyrus Cyperus papyrus at Lake Victoria wetlands in Kenya

2
Mercy Mwanikah

Site-specific protection measures have limited success and such initiatives though with good
intentions have alienated the locals’ composition and aspirations are rapidly changing. Once
such information is available, actions are required that will address the management
challenges and to reduce threats to biodiversity around the lakes and associated swamps.
Dunga and Kusa wetlands have undergone considerable decline due to clearance for
settlement, agriculture and industrial development. A study was done to examine ways in
which papyrus can be sustainably harvested and used. This was carried out in a field survey
from March to September 2006. Other alternatives to papyrus use and value addition
strategies were studied.

1.2 Significance of the study

Papyrus dominates the wetland, which is home to a range of papyrus endemic bird species
e.g. papyrus yellow warbler, papyrus gonolek, papyrus canary & white-winged warbler. Little
is known about other fauna although the swamp is noted as a fish nursery for Lake Victoria
and Sitatunga Tragelaphus spekii are known to occur (Bennun & Njoroge 1999). Exploitation of
papyrus swamps along Lake Victoria is carried out in unsustainable way, which has led to
environmental degradation, unsustainable development and increased poverty.
The study identifies the main driving forces behind the papyrus loss and recommends
positive measures that need to be taken towards their sustainable use.It also identifies
sustainable papyrus industry by putting emphasis on quality rather than quantity crafts.

1.2 Objectives
The overall aim was to sustain the supply of goods and services derived from papyrus
swamps in Lake Victoria, Kenya.

1.2.1 Specific objectives

i. To find out local human activities associated with papyrus exploitation in Dunga and
Kusa swamps around Lake Victoria Kenya.

ii. To quantify the financial value of papyrus-based products in local markets around L.
Victoria

iii. To find out means of value addition of papyrus based products and other income
generation activities

2.0 STUDY AREA

The research was carried out in the continuous papyrus system at the Lake Victoria shores.
Lake Victoria, the second largest fresh water body in the world occupies an area of 68,800
km² with a maximum depth of 84m and a mean of 40m. The lake has an irregular shoreline
of about 3440km in length and is served by a catchments of about 184,000km². The lake lies
astride the equator between latitude 2.5° and 1.5°N, and longitude 32° and 35° E, shared by
three riparian states (Kenya 6%, Tanzania 51% and Uganda 45% by area). The two papyrus
swamps, Dunga (01° 10’S, 34°47’E), Kusa (0’ 19’ S, 34° 51’E) are located in Western Kenya
in the shores of the lake (Bennun and Njoroge, 1999).

Sustainable Use of Papyrus Cyperus papyrus at Lake Victoria wetlands in Kenya

3
Mercy Mwanikah

Dunga swamp is in Kisumu district, Winam Division and lies 10 km south of Kisumu City at
an altitude of 1,130m with an approximated area of 500ha, extending south-eastwards along
the lakeshore, for about 5 km varying in widths between 50 m and 800 m (Bennun and
Njoroge 1999). It has considerable ecotourism potentials for Bird watching (Nasirwa and
Njoroge, 1997; Bennun and Njoroge, 1999). The proximity of the swamp to Kisumu puts
particular strain to the swamp through pollution in the form of sewage and solid wastes
(Nasirwa and Njoroge, 1997). At the western limit is a beach, used as a major fish landing
point. A number of streams drain into the lake through the swamp, the main one being the
Tako River. Papyrus dominates the wetland, which is home to a range of papyrus endemic
bird species e.g. papyrus yellow warbler, papyrus gonolek, papyrus canary & white-winged
warbler. The swamp is known as the fish nursery for Lake Victoria. The endangered
mammalian species, Sitatunga, occurs here.

Kusa swamp is in Nyando District, Lower Nyakach Division and occurs at the easternmost
end of Winam Gulf, Lake Victoria, at an approximated area of 1,800 ha, and is close to a
major fish landing beach and settlements. Kusa is found on the eastern shores of Lake
Victoria in Winam Gulf adjacent to Nyakach Bay at the mouth of river Nyando. The study
site is situated at 00◦18’ S and 34◦53’E in Nyando at an altitude of 1,130m (Nasirwa and
Njoroge, 1997)

2.1 Human population

According to the Central Bureau of Statistics, in 2000 the population of Dunga was about
30,202; while Kusa had 22,163 (Government of Kenya, 2000). The Luo community
dominates the study area. However, as a result of intermarriages, there are a few scattered
tribes within the area for instance, the Luhya and Kisii tribes from the adjacent western
province. Gender parity in the lake region is characterized by a situation where women bear
disproportionately large share of both domestic and agricultural work. Their contribution to
family income is considerable. They are faced with inhibitive cultural norms like traditional
divisions of labor, lack of access to land and property, wife inheritance, exclusion of women
in decision making and restriction on family inheritance. This has impacted negatively on the
contribution of members of female gender as most of their time is spent on household
chores thus jeopardizing their levels of income and economic well being and affect their
access to basic social services (Johnstone and Githongo 1997).

Sustainable Use of Papyrus Cyperus papyrus at Lake Victoria wetlands in Kenya

4
Mercy Mwanikah

Kenya

Figure 1. Map of the Study Area (Owino 2005)

2.2 Land use activities in the area

Land use activities around these papyrus swamps are dominated by cultivation, livestock
grazing and settlements (Mafabi, 2000). These activities have intensified in recent years
and are of particular concern as they have led to other forms of degradation such as
pollution, burning and papyrus harvesting (Van de Weghe, 1981; Mafabi, 2000). In
Kenya these activities have increased at an alarming rate (Keya and Michieka 1993;
Government of Kenya 1994; 1995; Bennun and Njoroge 1999; Kairu, 2001) and these
have had negative impacts on the overall biodiversity of the swamps (Fishpool and
Evans, 2001.)Fishing is a major livelihood of the local community of these two villages.
Taco beach, directly adjacent to Dunga swamp is one of the main fish landing points in
the local area. In general fishing has little direct impact upon the swamps themselves,
although there is some evidence that the swamp suffers some cutting and burning of
papyrus to allow access for fishing of swamp fish species. Papyrus swamps have only
recently been recognized as being important as nursery areas for lake fisheries,
additionally supporting a range of fish species not found in the lake.

Human induced stresses on natural resources around Kusa have recently increased. This has
come through a combination of local population growth and an increase in agricultural
globalization, leading to much of Kenyan commercial agriculture being unable to compete
with foreign competitors. This has resulted in a move back to subsistence agriculture, which
has a less efficient land-use.  

Sustainable Use of Papyrus Cyperus papyrus at Lake Victoria wetlands in Kenya

5
Mercy Mwanikah

These 2 factors have resulted in increased areas of papyrus being cleared for agricultural
land, primarily for crops, a practice that poses a major threat to the future of the two
swamps.
Swamps make poor agricultural land, as they are prone to flooding, as well as crop
damage flooding strips nutrients from the soil resulting in the need for increased rates of
fertilizer application of fertilizers, themselves.
 
There is subsistence farming with crops like arrowroots, horticulture, maize, bananas,
vegetables, sugarcane (Government of Kenya, 2000). The poor performance of fisheries
due to water hyacinth infestation of Lake Victoria in the 1990s and low market prices for
fish has changed focus more towards farming around the swamps, livestock keeping and
papyrus harvesting for mat making as a source of income (Bennun and Njoroge, 1999;
Aseto and Ong’ang’a, 2003). Energy demands for domestic use around these two sites
have increased and papyrus is additionally harvested and dried for domestic fuel
(Gichuki et al., 2001).

2.2.1 Papyrus Harvesting

The swamps have traditionally been used as sites for the harvesting of papyrus used in local
cottage crafts to make mats, chairs and baskets. The rate at which the papyrus is harvested
has increased markedly in recent years; this is largely due to the increase in the local
population and to some extent as a result in changes to the local fishing economy.
Traditionally women undertake the harvesting, who also undertake the mat making, and the
men traditionally make the chairs and baskets. Currently, the rate of harvest of the papyrus is
largely felt to be unsustainable.

3.0 METHODOLOGY
3.1 Study approach
Population census data for the two sites was collected from the Ministry of Planning, Kenya
2000-2008.A total of 91 individuals were interviewed. Local human activities associated with
papyrus exploitation in Dunga and Kusa swamps were documented by use of depth
interviews and schedules outreaches, and focussed group discussions. Visual observations
and photography of human activities carried out within these sites were made. The
assessment of disturbance levels was done focusing on burning, papyrus cutting, livestock
grazing, footpaths/trampling, and farming. These factors directly affect papyrus habitat
conditions at the two sites (Bennun & Njoroge 1999). Use of biodiversity as an indicator
species was applied by estimating the number of two threatened species namely Sitatunga
Tragelaphus spekii and Papyrus Canary Serinus koliensis in both sites. GPS was used to plot high
intensity exploitation areas in the two sites. Relevant information was also generated from
literature review of similar experiences around Lake Victoria and other parts of the world.
Semi-structured interviews were conducted randomly with households, harvesters, papyrus
weavers and the administration in the study area. This was done from March, to August
(2006). A general questionnaire documented frequency and type of wetland use, the age and
gender of household members. Information on people’s perception of wetland use and the
sustainability of wetland resource extraction was collected. Specific user groups (papyrus
harvesters, people cultivating crops in reclaimed swamp and fishers) were targeted for
interview. People harvesting papyrus, were asked how much they harvest, why they do this

Sustainable Use of Papyrus Cyperus papyrus at Lake Victoria wetlands in Kenya

6
Mercy Mwanikah

and for what they use in cutting papyrus. Interviews with people cultivating crops in the
swamp covered topics such as the frequency, timing and extent of swamp drainage, reasons
for doing so. All users were asked how much of each good they sold, market prices and
costs of obtaining goods (labor, transport, tools and other production costs). All interviews
were conducted with the local conservation group, who were employed and trained to
conduct these interviews in the local language (Luo). They were briefed extensively on the
intended use of the work and also provided invaluable input into the survey design.

Description of variables

Variables tested Description

Importance of papyrus Aware/not aware
Land ownership Acreage
Papyrus history Knowledge
Occupation Main activity done for living
Age Years
Sex Male/female
Main products Names of products produced
Price of products Kshs. per product
Income from papyrus products Kshs. per day
Need for clearing Reasons for current and future clearing
Efforts in harvesting Time taken per month/year
Habitat decline High/low
Rate of harvesting per day/week/month
Quantity harvested In kilos/bundles
Effect on habitat positive/negative
Education level highest level of study
Conservation need Encourage/discourage
Sustainable use methods Suggestions
Value addition strategies Suggestions
Other income generation activities Suggestions
Effects of over harvesting Aware/not aware
Demand High/low
Supply High/low

Contingent valuation method (CVM) was used to survey the local’s willingness to limit use
on these swamps with other substitutes such as recreation, horticulture and educational
purposes.
In order to establish the value of papyrus-based products in local markets around Lake
Victoria, there were outreaches; visits to local markets and the main market at Kisumu town
were made.
The users/buyers of the products addressed issues regarding value addition, sustainable
alternatives, and willingness to pay for extra value addition on the products. All interviews
were conducted with the local conservation group, who were employed and trained to
conduct these interviews in the local language (Luo). They were briefed extensively on the
intended use of the work and also provided invaluable input into the survey design.

Sustainable Use of Papyrus Cyperus papyrus at Lake Victoria wetlands in Kenya

7
Mercy Mwanikah

Population census data for the two sites was collected from the Ministry of Planning, Kenya
2000-2008.
Projective interviews were employed in assessing the local’s willingness to limit use on these
swamps with other substitutes such as recreation, horticulture and educational purposes.
A cost-benefit analysis (CBA) of the market prices for the papyrus products and some
benefits, which were traded, was carried out. In addition inventories of papyrus products and
prices were collected in warranty cards and pantry audits. Financial accounts of the products
with and without value addition were collected. An integration of a database with products
and prices by each of the local markets was done.

For documentation of means of value addition of papyrus-based products, the projective

techniques were used especially where respondents tended to be unco-operative. Focussed
group discussions with the locals at various outlets were done.
During the interviews and discussions, other alternative income generation activities were
identified. Literature review of similar studies was carried out.

3.2 Data analyses

Data analyses were done using SPSS. Causes of harvesting and variations in occupations
among the respondents were determined by use of percentages in the frequencies obtained
using Excel Spreadsheet.
Percentages in frequencies were carried out between the respondents and their villages of
origin to determine the main population involved in the harvesting and use of these swamps.

Sociometry and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was done to establish correlations in

variables related to harvesting namely: age, land ownership, supply and demand for papyrus
products. The differences in exploitation and associated activities between the two sites were
analyzed using mean comparisons.

Differences in prices between products and markets was obtained using ranking of
alternative activities in the two study sites.
Cost-benefit analysis (CBA) of the respondents’ willingness to pay in terms of prices and
cost of action was carried out.

4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 Papyrus changes

Field surveys done showed that papyrus stands in Kusa site were less dense than at Dunga.
site. There were more accessible landward areas that experienced most disturbances from
farming and had short and less dense papyrus stands than Dunga from visual observations,
response from interviews carried out with representatives from the local NGOs and
administration in the two study sites. Assessment done on the habitat, burning and
uprooting levels indicated higher rates of habitat destruction at Kusa than Dunga. Results
indicated that the locals harvested more of the papyrus on the landward sections after which
they opened them further for settlement (52.7%), industrial development (22%) and
agriculture (25.3%). In Dunga, the harvesters cut the papyrus from the bottom hence
enhancing regeneration than Kusa, where it was done by uprooting the papyrus completely,
to create more room for farming. Papyrus swamps in Kenya are viewed as non-productive

Sustainable Use of Papyrus Cyperus papyrus at Lake Victoria wetlands in Kenya

8
Mercy Mwanikah

nuisance areas, and efforts have focused in draining them for cultivation, agriculture, sand
harvesting (Muthuri 1989; Lake Basin Development Authority 1989; Juma 1989).
Conversion and unsustainable use of these resources is almost always human induced.
Papyrus harvesting has intensified at Dunga and Kusa as a result of human pressure, poverty
and reduced fish catches in the sites ( Aseto and Ong’ang’a 2003).The main environmental
impacts to the lake ecosystem include enhanced siltation, nutrient enrichment and pollution
loading due to destruction of the buffering capacity to conserve and store water, serious
degradation of biodiversity and other wetland resources; and degradation of fish habitats and
fish stocks.

4.2 Effects on biodiversity

The swamps contain a unique flora and fauna. In particular, several species of threatened
birds are endemic to papyrus swamps. The study area has been designated as Important Bird
Areas on the basis of the threatened bird species they contain (Bennun, L & Njoroge, P.,
1999). The threatened mammal species, the East Africa's only truly amphibious antelope,
the sitatunga Tragelaphus spekii are also found in papyrus swamps in the area (Hilton-Tailor
2002).The results

Biodiversity was also used as an indicator species in measuring the effects of swamp
overexploitation on these two species. The threatened mammal species, the East Africa's
only truly amphibious antelope, the sitatunga Tragelaphus spekii , threatened papyrus bird
species were recorded in the two sites. More of these species were found in Dunga than
Kusa (Table 1).

Table 1: Faunal density in Dunga and Kusa

Species Sites
Dunga Kusa

Sitatunga Tragelaphus spekii 12 5

Papyrus Canary Serinus koliensis 6 4

Sustainable Use of Papyrus Cyperus papyrus at Lake Victoria wetlands in Kenya

9
Mercy Mwanikah

Comparisons in exploitation at Dunga and Kusa sites

Figure 2 : Papyrus habitat fully converted into farmland near Kusa beach

Sustainable Use of Papyrus Cyperus papyrus at Lake Victoria wetlands in Kenya

10
Mercy Mwanikah

Figure 3; Papyrus habitat being converted into farming near Dunga beach

4.3 Papyrus History

Papyri were originally made for religious documents and texts, with sheets added to the rolls
as needed. The sides of a papyrus are the recto, where the fibres run horizontally, and the
verso, where the fibres run vertically. The recto was preferred, but the verso was used for
documents as well, allowing separate texts to be included on a single papyrus.

Amongst the local communities around Lake Victoria, most of the locals were not interested
in the idea of using papyrus as a writing material since the users of the final products who
were mainly locals from the locality with limited interest in the final products. The
processors of these products explained the need for patience, advanced facilities and time for
investment in the processing.

Majority of the respondents indicated that they had realized the values of papyrus in science
and society. Most were in favor of papyrus conservation but lacked the awareness and
income to supplement their daily income. Out of the total number of individuals
interviewed, Dunga had the highest number of people interviewed (n=40, 44%) while Kusa
had the least. However, a sizable percentage of the respondents came from other areas. This
was attributed to its closeness to the fast growing Kisumu town. Majority of the users
originated from Dunga and Kusa villages/study sites.

Sustainable Use of Papyrus Cyperus papyrus at Lake Victoria wetlands in Kenya

11
Mercy Mwanikah

Table 2. Villages and frequency of individuals interviewed

Villages

Dunga Kusa Other Villages Total

Frequency 40 23 28 91
Percentages 44.0 25.3 30.7 100

4.4 Land ownership, period of stay and ooccupations among the respondents

Majority of the respondents have lived in the area for over 15 years when the papyrus stands
were thick. Land ownership is mainly communal. Among those interviewed 33% of the
people owned private lands. Neither sex nor age was a contributing factor towards the
ownership of land.

Table 3. Land ownership by the locals

Ownership Frequency Percentages

Communal 61 67.0
Privately 30 33.0
Total 91 100.0

Among the people interviewed, most of them were involved in farming n =21, 23.1%,
weaving n =20, 22% and fishing n=17, 18.7% (Table 4). Crops cultivated included
sugarcane, vegetables, maize, rice and arrowroots and livestock kept included cattle, sheep,
and goats. Majority of the weavers depend on papyrus as a major source of income for the
local community. Fishing also was a major activity though being affected by market
conditions, thus it was not a surprise to find those involved in fishing also engaged in
farming to supplement income from fishing. The local community are mainly fish eaters
having lived near the resource since the history of migration. However, due to an increase in
population coupled with demands, they were forced to create other avenues for income
generation hence the weaving industry gaining a lot of popularity.

Sustainable Use of Papyrus Cyperus papyrus at Lake Victoria wetlands in Kenya

12
Mercy Mwanikah

Table 4: Summary of percentages in occupations among the locals interviewed

Occupation Frequency Percent

Administration 1 1.1
Business 4 4.4
Farming 21 23.1
Farming/fishing 1 1.1
Fishing 17 18.7
Fishing/farming 1 1.1
Harvesting 15 16.5
Masonry 3 3.3
Pupil 4 4.4
Teaching/farming 4 4.4
Weaving 20 22.0

4.5 Sociometry and ANOVA results

There were no significant results (alpha >0.05) between the frequency of harvesting and
quantity of papyrus harvested, stage of harvesting, methods applied, demand and supply of
papyrus. These results have implications on the conservation of this swamp resource. There
is need to put measures and control on stage and seasons of harvesting papyrus. When the
respondents first settled in the study area, the papyrus stands were thick.With the ever
increasing human pressure, it has had a negative impact on the wetland overtime. Most of
the respondents (65.9%) were very much aware of the effects of over harvesting papyrus.
There is need to control the stage at which papyrus is harvested at least after every 4 months
to help in their regeneration. The frequency of harvesting ought to be at least 3 times
annually. The quantity harvested should as well be controlled. This implies that there is need
for intervention from all sides i.e. government, local NGOs and other authorities on the
ground to reduce this threat. There were no significant results (p > 0.05) between the
frequency of harvesting and quantity of papyrus harvested, stage of harvesting, methods
applied, demand and supply of papyrus. However, there is a risk in harvesting the papyrus
which ought to be controlled. As the lake level decreases, the rate of papyrus recovery slows
at the two sites. The outer fringes of the swamps become more accessible for papyrus
clearance and livestock grazing. The rate of cultivation encroachment also increases towards
the interior of the swamps considered more fertile for cultivation by the local people
(Owino, 2005).

4.6 Major causes of papyrus exploitation

The results collected on the rankings done by the locals’ highlighted settlement as the major
cause of degradation (n = 48; 52.7%) while industrial development posed the least threat (n
= 20; 22%) (Figure 4). Papyrus areas at Kusa had decreased markedly over the last two years
compared to Dunga. This was contrary to the report by Owino (2005) that Kusa was less
degraded than Dunga. Human activities especially farming and sand harvesting had
contributed significantly to these decreases. As the lake level decreases, the rate of papyrus
recovery slows at the two sites. The outer fringes of the swamps become more accessible for
papyrus clearance and livestock grazing. The rate of cultivation encroachment also increased

Sustainable Use of Papyrus Cyperus papyrus at Lake Victoria wetlands in Kenya

13
Mercy Mwanikah

towards the interior of the swamps and was considered more fertile for cultivation by the
local people (Owino, 2005).

70

60
% of majore land uses in the study site

50

40

30

20

10

0
Agriculture settlement Industrial development

Figure 4: Percentages by respondents on major causes of papyrus degradation

4.7 Factors Contributing to Habitat Loss and Degradation

The present study focused on the loss and degradation of swamps fringing the lake. A
number of activities take place in the swamps impinging directly on the swamps and
consequently the lake ecosystem. These activities included farming, unsustainable fishing,
clearing papyrus etc. A number of goods and services derived from the swamps, that benefit
the livelihoods of local people, are lost when these activities are carried out unsustainably.
The swamps provide papyrus, which is used for Handcrafts, such as carpets, mats, trays and
baskets are all woven from thin strips of papyrus stem and sold primarily on the domestic
market, but also increasingly to tourists.

4.7.1 Papyrus harvesting and weaving

The table below shows the main reasons for the locals’ involvement in papyrus activities.The
highest percentage (50.6%) of the respondents carry out the papyrus activities in groups for
sale in cottage industries.A small percentage of the respondents make products for their
own use and those living near the lake make baskets and drying mats from papyrus for the
fishing activities. A relatively higher percentage (38%) of the individuals make products
specifically for sale.This suggests the importance of papyrus as sources of livelihood in
Dunga and Kusa.

Sustainable Use of Papyrus Cyperus papyrus at Lake Victoria wetlands in Kenya

14
Mercy Mwanikah

Table 5. Reasons for papyrus harvesting and weaving

Frequency Percentage
Cottage Industries 46 50.6
Home based products for use 6 6.6
Products for sale 38 41.8
Fishing products 1 1.1
Total 91 100.1

4.7.2 Lack of awareness

Majority of the respondents indicated that they had realized the values of papyrus in science
and society. Most were in favour of papyrus conservation but lacked the awareness and
income to supplement their daily income (Table 5)

Table 6. Individual’s response on effects of over harvesting

Knowledge about effects of over harvesting Frequency Percent

Aware 60 65.9
Not aware 27 29.7
Not sure 4 4.4

Studies on perceptions and attitudes showed that communities recognize the importance of
papyrus swamps as a natural resource. Most are in favor of papyrus conservation but lack
the awareness and income to supplement their daily income. Out of the total number of
individuals interviewed, Dunga had the highest number of people interviewed (n=40, 44%)
while Kusa had the least. However, a sizable percentage of the respondents came from other
areas not original inhabitants in the study area. This is attributed to its closeness to the fast
growing Kisumu town.
Survey results showed that a number of people involved in the papyrus business were not
aware of the indirect role of papyrus as a part of biodiversity. Most of those interviewed
were particularly interested in the short term gains as opposed to the long term ecosystem
gains. Understanding the structure and functions wetlands perform and how these functions
are linked to the provision of goods and services, is of primary importance if intelligent
decisions concerning the management and use of wetlands are to be made (Gichuki, 2000).).
The swamps in the study area are being cleared for agricultural production which is short
lived.

Sustainable Use of Papyrus Cyperus papyrus at Lake Victoria wetlands in Kenya

15
Mercy Mwanikah

4.8 Age and Gender

4.8.1 Age
Table 7 shows papyrus harvesting activity is dominated by a people in the age bracket of 20-
40 years. Age is a very important determinant of entry into production sector since most
young people are normally more innovative, risk takers and have low discount rates for the
future (Mwakubo 2003).This harvesting activity is rigorous and demanding and all
techniques used are basically manual, which requires a lot of energy.

Table 7: Informants’ age description on papyrus harvesting

Age Frequency Percent

Below 20 23 25.3
20-40 years 48 52.7
Above 40 20 22.0

4.8.2 Gender parity in other occupations around the lake region

Even though results did not show significant differences between age, gender with respect to
papyrus harvesting, the understanding of root causes of wetland loss and degradation have is
important in conservation measures have to be put in place. However, if policy makers are
to make use of this information, it is necessary to establish the users to whom benefits and
costs accrue. It is essential to recognize which sectors of society are responsible for
exploiting resources. Moreover, if the use of swamp resources in a manner which does not
maximize societal welfare, is to be addressed by providing economic incentives or through
education, it is more efficient if the necessary resources can be targeted towards the
appropriate groups. Successful local level wetland resource management relies on the
identification of true stakeholders.

Around Lake Victoria, stakeholders are often represented by specific gender and age groups.
Gender has an important bearing on both the levels and types of goods obtained from the
wetland directly or manufactured from swamp products. For example, fishing is traditionally
an exclusively male practice and male harvesters were also responsible for harvesting more
papyrus than females. In general however, females were more likely to make crafts from
papyrus, although our results showed that males made more crafts and were involved in
weaving than females (Figure 5).

Sustainable Use of Papyrus Cyperus papyrus at Lake Victoria wetlands in Kenya

16
Mercy Mwanikah

Business female
males
Teaching

Student

harvesting

Fishing

Masonry

Farming

weaving

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Figure 5: Number of males and females engaged in different professions around the
swamp resource.

Almost certainly, tradition plays an important role in determining how specific gender and
age groups make use of swamp resources. Fishing and papyrus harvesting are traditionally
male dominated whereas crafts are made almost exclusively by women (GOK, 2001).
Nevertheless, practices appear to be changing. Young men in particular, are becoming more
involved in crafts such as hat making it is possible that these patterns reflect market changes.
Whereas mats, crops, and trays are made primarily for domestic use or sold locally; hats
particularly are usually sold to people from outside the region. With the improvement in the
region’s transport networks, the market for goods sold to people outside the region has
expanded rapidly. Younger people may have adapted more quickly to these changes and this
premise is supported by evidence indicating that younger women are also more likely to
make hats than their older counterparts. Papyrus also has a number of other gender or age
specific uses. Most importantly, it is used as fuel, either collected directly or bought in
bundles from harvesters.
4.8.3 The importance of gender in papyrus harvesting
The table below indicates that 61% of the people involved in the papyrus harvesting are men
while women are 30%.This is related to the physical requirements of the activity hence need
for energy to carry the wet and heavy bundles. There are also risks attributed to the
harvesting for instance; snake bites, cuts by sharp papyrus remains, fear of illnesses
associated with the lake water especially in seasons of high rains.

Table 8: Gender among the papyrus harvesters

Frequency Percentage

Male 61 67.0
Female 30 33.0
Total 91 100.0

Sustainable Use of Papyrus Cyperus papyrus at Lake Victoria wetlands in Kenya

17
Mercy Mwanikah

4.9 Effects of over harvesting and action needed

When the respondents first settled in the study area, the papyrus stands were thick. With the
ever-increasing human pressure, it has had a negative impact on the wetland overtime. Most
of the respondents (65.9%) were very much aware of the effects of over harvesting papyrus.
There is need to control the stage at which papyrus is harvested at least after every 4 months
to help in their regeneration. The frequency of harvesting ought to be at least 3 times
annually. The quantity harvested should as well be controlled. This implies that there is need
for intervention from all sides i.e. government, local NGOs and other authorities on the
ground to reduce this threat. There were no significant results (p > 0.05) between the
frequency of harvesting and quantity of papyrus harvested, stage of harvesting, methods
applied, demand and supply of papyrus. However, there is a risk in harvesting the papyrus
that ought to be controlled. (See Appendix)
Papyrus has a remarkable rate of regeneration at Dunga than Kusa. This would indicate that
papyrus can still be harvested fairly intensively without a decline in the total cover. However
although the papyrus itself may be able to recover at a very fast rate it is doubtful that the
suite of species that live within it would have similarly fast recovery rates, therefore caution
is advisable before considering sustainable rates of harvest.

5.0 Contingent Valuation Method Results (CVM)

Out of the total number of individuals questioned, only 29.7% were willing to limit their use
on the swamps for recreation, horticulture, eco-tourism and educational purposes while the
highest percentage 70.3% of the locals preferred to continue using the swamps irrespective
of being reminded about the effects of overexploitation. These results showed that the only
possible substitute was value addition on the papyrus products made and improved
marketing.

5.1 Value Addition and sustainable use options

The results obtained indicated various ways through which these papyrus swamps can be
sustainably used and managed by implementing other alternative uses such as recreation and
eco-tourism for instance, at Dunga beach, research, business, horticulture, educational sites
and agro forestry. The full value of such alternatives may not always be realized currently,
but may only become apparent as these wetlands are preserved over time (Barbier , E.B.et al
1997).Some of which include improved marketing and value addition strategies. The locals
can get involved in other activities such as juakali, business, carpentry, artwork, and livestock
keeping. Wetlands have important natural functions, which can be utilized by man for his
benefit while at the same time maintaining the ecological integrity. The main value addition
strategies for the products include: variety in patterns and designs, use of paints, improved
grading systems especially on the mats, use of dyes and preservatives, improved density, use
of nails and metals, diversity of products. However, the type of product being processed
determines this.
As a response to the unsustainable level of papyrus harvesting groups such as the Lake Basin
Development Authority have been exploring and promoting better use of the papyrus
harvested, e.g. producing ‘quality’ items such as chairs that get a better financial return per
kilo of papyrus harvested than ‘quantity’ items such as mats.

Sustainable Use of Papyrus Cyperus papyrus at Lake Victoria wetlands in Kenya

18
Mercy Mwanikah

Most interview respondents stated that the primary reason that they extracted goods from
the swamp was that they wished to boost their income. Although many were aware that their
levels of resource use were unsustainable, or negatively affected the overall value of goods
and services derived from the swamp, most of these people stated that they simply had no
alternative ways of obtaining income.
There is need to extend support to the regional capacity to emphasize on the importance and
methods for promoting sustainable development. (Johnstone and Githongo 1997).For
sustainable use of these swamps, an environmental impact assessment, to the decision need
to be developed, made mandatory, and strictly implemented. There is need to build the
capacities. Groups are equally important in the sense that through them, public goods can
effectively be utilized. These groups are able to lay down rules of access and thus indirectly
control access that may lead to sustainable use. Other literature shows that the sustainable
utilization of wetlands is a great hope for the future of our wetlands (Denny, 1993).

Table 9: Summary of value addition strategies

Item Value addition techniques

Wall hangings Variety in patterns, use of dyes

Chairs Improved density, use dyes or paints
Book shelves incorporate metals and designs and patterns
CD racks incorporate metals and designs and patterns
Baby coat incorporate metals and designs and patterns
Lamp shade Designs, paints and patterns
TV Stand Use of dyes, designs and patterns
CD stands incorporate metals, variety in designs and patterns
Beds Variety in designs, incorporate metals
Trays Designs, grading, paintings, patterns
Book shelf incorporate metals, designs and patterns
Stools Use of paints, variety in patterns
Tables use of metals, use soft materials e.g. cushion, and variety in
designs
Mats and baskets grading, use of dyes, variety in patterns

Sustainable Use of Papyrus Cyperus papyrus at Lake Victoria wetlands in Kenya

19
Mercy Mwanikah

Plate 2: Main products displayed at Kibuye market, Kisumu

5.2 Cost-benefit analysis (CBA)

Market prices reflected the willingness to pay for the papyrus products and some benefits
that were traded for instance fishing and educational purposes. Financial accounts to
compare alternative wetland uses were carried out from those in the industry. The study
carried out indicated market imperfections hence failing to reflect on their true economic
value to society. In instances where many makers were involved in the business, they diluted
the markets. This however varied with seasons; December, January and April, were termed
to be the peak seasons compared to the rest of the months.
Value added products were more expensive compared to those without value addition in the
local markets. The interest for purchase of the value added products was there, but buying
reduced due to limited funds. More supplies were done during festivities and in known
occasions such as exhibitions; whereby more of these products were sold at higher prices
than normal as a result of increase in demand with many of the buyers coming from outside
the locality. Supply was low due to limited finances and harvesters find this exercise very
tedious and risky. However, majority of the supplies were done on order.

Sustainable Use of Papyrus Cyperus papyrus at Lake Victoria wetlands in Kenya

20
Mercy Mwanikah

Table 1. Approximated product prices in local markets in the study area.

Commodity Price Wva Price VA

Baskets 400 600
Mats 150 250
Chairs 450 800
Stools 200 350
High density chairs 500 1000
Small tables 350 400
Larger tables 350 1000
Quarter tables 2500 3000
Video rack 2800 3200
CD rack 1200 1500
Corner shelf 3000 4000
Cabinets 3500 3800
Video rack 2800 3200
Lamp shade 100 150
Baby coat 750 1200
Beds 800 2500
Door mat 150 250
Tray 200 400
TV Stand 600 1200
Book shelf 800 2000
Wall hanging 600 800

wVA = without Value addition and VA = with Value Addition

Sustainable Use of Papyrus Cyperus papyrus at Lake Victoria wetlands in Kenya

21
Mercy Mwanikah

Table 10. Approximated production of papyrus products and their supply in the market (per
month per outlet)

Item Production Supply

Chairs 4 sets 1 set
Baskets 10 4-5
Stools 5 1-2
Tables 6 1-2
Trays 20 8-10
Foot rest 8 3-4
Baby coat 10 4-5
TV Stand 10 3-4
Mats 12 4-5
Book shelf 10 4-5
Lamp shade 9 3-5
Dressing tables 5 2-5
Dining tables 10 3-5
Tourist paintings 20 7-8
Beds 15 4-7

Sustainable Use of Papyrus Cyperus papyrus at Lake Victoria wetlands in Kenya

22
Mercy Mwanikah

Plate 3: Leonard at one of the cottages in Kisumu town where book shelves and
baskets are added value to improve on their marketing

5.3 Conservation Efforts

One of the most prominent factors underlying wetland management problems in Kenya as
expected elsewhere (Mafabi 2000, Gichuki 2000) has been said to be lack of or insufficient
awareness of the functions and benefits of wetlands leading to inappropriate use of swamp
resources.Innovative co-operative ways need to be devised to sustain the conservation of
biodiversity while addressing their needs and development issues. Other locals adjacent to
the lake need to be encouraged in conservation oriented enterprises for instance cropping,
bird shooting, monitoring activities and ecotourism. Locals can only benefit directly by
participating in conservation efforts. Activities like ecotourism among many, with local help
can enlist the support of the local people in conservation (Western 1982, Dugan 1990).Rural
development programmes and Community Development Funds from the government
should support their needs.
Diversification and investing in the swamp economy, while enhancing rural economy of the
local population by development assistance and other conservation oriented groups will go
along way with the lake conservation. Use rights of wildlife will go along way towards
creating sustainable development like fishing (Leakey 1991).

5.2 Assumptions
(i) No discount rates offered on the products were considered.

(ii) Market prices of the papyrus products served as a measure of value; subsidies or taxes,
monopoly conditions were not considered.

6.0 LIMITATIONS
(i) There was inefficiency in prices hence not reflecting the true economic value of the
papyrus products that were traded in both local and international markets.

7.0 PROJECT OUTPUT

This report is valuable to the management of papyrus wetlands because;
(i) The levels of papyrus exploitation in the two study sites have been documented.
(ii) Appropriate alternative uses of wetlands have been identified which can be integrated
into poverty reduction activities within sustainable development framework.
(iii) The outreaches and focussed group discussions held increased awareness and
participation in conservation initiatives by locals around Lake Victoria therefore
enhancing environmental concerns.
(iv) Appropriate recommendation measures to conserve these swamps have been
identified.
(v) Some papers from this report have been prepared for publication in reputable
scientific journals and scientific conferences:

Sustainable Use of Papyrus Cyperus papyrus at Lake Victoria wetlands in Kenya

23
Mercy Mwanikah

8.0 CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT RECOMMENDATIONS

The following are some of the recommended activities that can help restore degraded
papyrus swamps, as is the case with Lake Victoria swamps.
(i) There is need to restore, re-create and rehabilitate the destroyed papyrus swamps
especially at Kusa site.
(ii) Efforts should be made to promote the establishment of cottage industries with the aim
of creating employment opportunities and improving the income of people.
(iii) There is need to promote the establishment of other income generation activities such as
small businesses and juakali enterprises.
(iv) More studies should be done in all communities surrounding the lake in order to come
up with a recommended carrying capacity that is in line with proper conservation measures
for purposes of safeguarding the swamps.
(v) There are several tourist attraction sites like Kit Mikai and Dunga Game Reserve.
Tourism should be promoted by putting up more tourist hotels, developing sporting
activities as well as beaches along the lake which will as well provide employment
opportunities.
(vi) Proper buffer zones should be designed where appropriate for papyrus protection.
Correct use of agricultural inputs is essential, and safe alternatives to toxic chemicals should
be preferred.
(vii) National policies on wetland conservation management which can conform with
agricultural development policies are vital. Attention must be paid to the fragility of the
ecological and hydrological processes of each wetland and how different types of agriculture
will impact its ecosystem.
(viii) Management programmes need to be implemented and developed. A Site Action Plan
should seek to gain better formal protection for the sites, promote environmental awareness
through an education programme and develop alternative forms of local land-use and
employment, including developing its considerable potential as sites for bird-watching and
eco-tourism
(ix) Economists, planners and decision makers need to be trained in wetland valuation
techniques as part of a broad based environmental management courses.
(x) Strategies and actions for ensuring sustainable harvesting of papyrus need to be
established.
(xi) There’s need for creation of appropriate tools necessary to manage and monitor the
natural potential of the region's wetlands without compromising the future availability of
these resources. Innovative approaches to monitoring of wetlands should be developed and
tested using state of the art monitoring techniques combined with remote sensing
capabilities.
7.0 CONCLUSIONS

Based on the available data collected by this study, the following conclusions can be made:

(i) Papyrus swamps are critical ecosystems that require sustainable use

Sustainable Use of Papyrus Cyperus papyrus at Lake Victoria wetlands in Kenya

24
Mercy Mwanikah

(ii) Human demographic factors such as burning, papyrus cutting, livestock grazing,
footpaths/trampling, and farming directly affect papyrus habitat conditions. Settlement
however contributes significantly to papyrus loss.

(iii) Value addition contributes significantly to the sustainability of papyrus.

(iv) Multipurpose use and conservation of papyrus swamps should be viewed with the
context of equity and sustainable development.

7.0 REFERENCES
Aseto, O. and Onga’nga, O. (2003). Lake Victoria (Kenya) and its Environs: Resources,
Opportunities and Challenges. OSIENALA (Friends of Lake Victoria), Kisumu,
Kenya.
Barbier, E.B. (1993). Valuing Tropical Wetland Benefits: Economic Methodologies and
Applications. Geographic Journal. Part 1,59 : 22-32.
Barbier B. E., M. Acreman and Knowler, D. (1997).Economic valuation of Wetlands, A
guide for policy makers and planners, Ramsar Convention Bureau, Gland,
Switzerland.
Bennun L.A and Njoroge, P. (1999). Important Bird Areas in Kenya. The East Africa
Natural History Society, Nairobi.
Chrisman, T.L.,L.J Chapman and C.A. Chapman (1996).Conserving tropical wetlands
through sustainable use.Geotimes,41:23-25
Denny, P. (1993). Wetland of Africa. In: Whigham, D.F, Dykyjova, and Hejny, S (eds.)
Wetlands of the world 1. Inventory, ecology and management. Kluwer Academic Publishers,
Dordrecht. Pp.1-128
Fishpool, L. D. C and Evans, M. (2001). Important Birds Areas in Africa and Associated
Islands: Priority Sites for Conservation. Pisces Publications and Birdlife
International, Newbury and Cambridge.
Gichuki, J.,Guebas, F. D., Mugo, J., Rabuor, C.O., Triest, L. and Dehairs, F.2001. Species
inventory and the local uses of the plants and fishes of the Lower Sondu Miriu
wetland of Lake Victoria, Kenya. Hydrobiologia 458: 99-106.
Government of Kenya (2000). Kisumu District Development Plan. Government Printer, Nairobi

Government of Kenya (2002-2008).National Development Plan 2002-2008.Nairobi:

Government Printer,Nairobi
Hardin, G. (1998). Extensions of “The tragedy of the commons”. Science, 280 (5364): 682-
683
Howard-Williams, C. and Gaudet, J. J. (1985). The structure and functioning of African
swamps. In: Patrick Denny,ed. Ecology and management of African wetland vegetation,
Dr.Junk Publishers, Dodrecht.
Johnstone, F. and Githongo, J.(1997). Killer weed. Swara , 20 (4) : 28-29.
Juma, C. (1989). Public policy and the Yala swamp. Resources, 1: 21-22.
Kairu, J. K. (2001). Wetland use and impact on Lake Victoria, Kenya region. Lakes Research
and Management, 6: 117-125.
Kansiime, F and Nalubega, M.(1999).Wastewater Treatment by a Natural wetland; The
Nakivubo swamp, Uganda, PhD Theisis. Balkema, Rotterdam.

Sustainable Use of Papyrus Cyperus papyrus at Lake Victoria wetlands in Kenya

25
Mercy Mwanikah

Keya, S. O. and Michieka, R. W. (1993). Agricultural sector development. In: F.M. Mugenyi
and J.A.Odondi (eds.). Nyanza 30 years After Independence, pp 33-42. Provincial
Monitoring and Evaluation Committee (PMEC) Workshop Proceedings, 9-10
December 1993, Kisumu, Kenya.
Krummel, J.R., Gardener, R. H., Sugihara, G. O’Neill, R. V. and Coleman, P. R. (1987).
Landscape patterns in a disturbed environment. Oikos, 48: 321-324.
Leakey, R.E. (1991).Kenya’s policy on wildlife research and commercial use of wildlife,
wildlife research for sustainable development. KARI, KWS and NMK. Major
Printing Works Ltd, Nairobi, Kenya.

Leon, B. and Peter Njoroge; (1999): Important Bird Areas in Kenya, East Africa Natural
History Society.
Mafabi, P. (2000). The role of wetland policies in the conservation of water birds: the case of
Uganda.Ostrich 71:96-98.
Muthuri, F.(1989). Swamps- Do we need them? Resources 1: 15-17.
Nasirwa, O. and Njoroge, P.(1997). Papyrus-endemic birds in the fringing swamps of Lake
Victoria, Western Kenya. Research Reports of the Centre for Biodiversity, National
Museums of Kenya; Ornithology, 28.
Nasirwa O., Oyugi, J., Jackson, C., Lens, L. Bennun, L. and Seys, J. (1995). Surveys of
waterbirds in Kenya, 1995; Lake Victoria wetlands, South Kenya Coast and Tana
River dams. Research Reports of the Centre for Biodiversity, National Museums of
Kenya: Ornithology Department of Ornithology, 28.
Owino, A. O. (2005). Papyrus swamp habitat loss and degradation: Impacts on endemic
birds in Kenya. (Msc Theisis)Percy FitzPatrick Institute of African Ornithology,
University of Capetown, Rondebosch, 7701 South Africa.
Van der Weghe, J.P. (1981).Avifauna of papyrus in Rwanda and Burundi. Gerfaut 71:489-
536.

Sustainable Use of Papyrus Cyperus papyrus at Lake Victoria wetlands in Kenya

26
Mercy Mwanikah

8.0 APPENDICES
8.1 Appendix 1. Questionnaires & warranty cards & pantry audits

Questionnaire 1

SUSTAINABLE USE OF PAPYRUS SWAMPS AT DUNGA AND KUSA SWAMPS.

A: PERSONAL DETAILS
Name ……………………………………………
Date of visit ...................Sub-Location....... ……………….Village..............................

Sustainable Use of Papyrus Cyperus papyrus at Lake Victoria wetlands in Kenya

27
Mercy Mwanikah

1. Age: (01) Below 20 (02) 20-40 years (03) Above 40

2. Sex: (01) Male (02) Female
B: SOCIO-ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES
3. Please rank the most common causes for the clearing of papyrus by the people around
here:
(01) To create more agricultural land (02) To create more place for settlement
(03) To allow for more industrial development (04) any other specify
4. What is the mode of ownership of papyrus swamps?
(01) Communal (02) Private (03) Trustland
5. How many acres of land do you own?
(01)Less than 10 acres (02) More than 10 acres
6. Of these, what proportion is papyrus?
(01) Half (02) Quarter (03) All (04) None
7. Of this, initially, what proportion was papyrus?
(01) Half (02) Quarter (03) All (04) None
8. Do you have plans of clearing this portion in future? (01)Yes (02) No
If yes, for what reason(s)?.......................................................................................................

C: PAPYRUS AND USES

9. Are you aware of papyrus use?
(01) Not aware (02) Aware
10. Please rank the comparative advantage in terms of economic values of the following
papyrus Uses in your home area:
(01) Commercial (02) Home products (03) Tourist products (04) Conservation
11. Do papyrus play any traditional role to the people of this region?
(01) Yes (02) No
If yes specify …………………………………………………………..
12. Apart from the tangible products, is there any other intangible values e.g. spiritual,
aesthetic, e.t.c?
(01) Yes (02) No
13. Do you know of any traditions prohibiting the conservation of papyrus?

Sustainable Use of Papyrus Cyperus papyrus at Lake Victoria wetlands in Kenya

28
Mercy Mwanikah

(01) Yes (02) No

If yes, give reasons for their protection…………………………………………………
D: PAPYRUS HARVESTING AND REGENERATION
14. Do people harvest papyrus around here?

(01) Yes (02) No

If yes, rank the reasons why they harvest
(01) Cottage industries (02) Products e.g. home based (03) Sale
(04) Fishing
15. What are your feelings about papyrus harvesting?
(01) Like (02) Dislike (03) No feeling
Others, specify ……………………

16. How do you harvest papyrus (methods?)

(01) Cut from top (02) cut from bottom (03) Uproot

Any other, specify……………...

17. How often do you harvest?
(01) Daily (02) Weekly (03) Monthly

Any other, specify………………..

18. What quantity harvested per hectare?
(01) 1-10 Bundles (02) 10 -50 Bundles (03) >100 Bundles
Any other, specify………………
19. At which stage do you harvest?
(01) <1 month (02) 1-3 months (03) > 3months
Any other, specify……….
E: MARKET
20. How is the demand in the market for the products?
(01) High (02) Low

21. How is the supply of the products in the markets?

Sustainable Use of Papyrus Cyperus papyrus at Lake Victoria wetlands in Kenya

29
Mercy Mwanikah

(01) High (02) Low

22. How much do you earn out of one product per day?
(01) < 70 (02) > 70
Any other, specify………..
F: CONSERVATION OF PAPYRUS
23. What is your opinion about papyrus conservation?
(01) In favor (02) against (03) Undecided
Others specify……………………………………
24. When did you start seeing papyrus in this area (estimate how long ago)?
(01) Less than 5 years (02) between 5 and 10 years (03) 10 to 15 years (04) Over 15
years
25. How was the papyrus when you first settled here?
(01) Thick (02) Scattered, Any other, specify………
26. Are you aware of the effects of over-harvesting papyrus?
(01 ) Yes (02 ) No (03 ) Not sure
If yes, specify…………………………..
27. Please rank the comparative advantage that you think should be done to sustainably use
the Papyrus around the lake?

(01) Add value to the products (02) control harvesting (03) Alternative economic
uses e.g ecotourism (04) Alternative livelihoods
G: VALUE ADDITION OF PRODUCTS
28. If more value was added to your products, would it earn you more money and reduce on
Over-harvesting?
(01)Yes (02) No (03) Not sure
If yes state the amount per product…………………………………………..
29. What are some of the value addition strategies?
(01) Decorations (02) Better quality products, Any other,
specify………………………..
30. Apart from this papyrus harvesting, which other income generating activities are you
involved
in?.....................................................................................................................................................

Sustainable Use of Papyrus Cyperus papyrus at Lake Victoria wetlands in Kenya

30
Mercy Mwanikah

Information on Warranty and pantry audits

Value Addition Strategies
1. Suggest some value addition strategies
2. Approximate the prices of each of these products without value addition.
3. List some value addition strategies for each of these products.
4. What are consumers’s willing to pay for each of these values added products?
5. What would be the final price for each of these products after value addition?
6. What will be the demand like for each of the products after value addition?
7. How will be the supply after value addition of each of these products?

Value Quantity Price Price Quantity

Addition sold per (wVA)* (VA)** sold (per
Strategies month) day0
Chairs
Baskets
Stools
Tables
Trays
Foot rest
Baby coat
TV Stand
Mats
Book shelf
Lamp shade
Dressing
tables
Dining tables
Tourist
paintings
Beds
*wVA (without Value addition) and *VA (with Value Addition)

Sustainable Use of Papyrus Cyperus papyrus at Lake Victoria wetlands in Kenya

31
Mercy Mwanikah

8.2 Appendix 2. ANOVA Tables

ANOVA Results between frequency of harvesting and other variables

Variable Sum of Df Mean F Sig.

Squares Square
Quantity harvested Between Groups .821 2 .410 .720 .490
Within Groups 49.579 87 .570
Total 50.400 89
Stage of harvesting Between Groups .751 2 .375 1.223 .299
Within Groups 27.008 88 .307
Total 27.758 90
Method of Between Groups 1.502E-02 2 7.511E-03 .229 .796
harvesting
Within Groups 2.886 88 3.280E-02
Total 2.901 90
Demand Between Groups .327 2 .164 1.250 .292
Within Groups 11.519 88 .131
Total 11.846 90
Supply Between Groups .183 2 9.129E-02 .487 .616
Within Groups 16.499 88 .187
Total 16.681 90

Sustainable Use of Papyrus Cyperus papyrus at Lake Victoria wetlands in Kenya

32
Mercy Mwanikah

ANOVA results comparing age and landownership

Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Between .863 2 .432 .441 .645
Groups
Within 86.038 88 .978
Groups
Total 86.901 90

ANOVA comparisons between sex and landownership

Sum of df Mean F Sig.

Squares Square
Between 1.784 1 1.784 1.865 .175
Groups
Within 85.117 89 .956
Groups
Total 86.901 90

Plate 5: Papyrus chair being processed at a local outlet by a local boy at the study
site.

Sustainable Use of Papyrus Cyperus papyrus at Lake Victoria wetlands in Kenya

33
Mercy Mwanikah

Value added papyrus chair and TV Stand at a local market in Dunga.

Sustainable Use of Papyrus Cyperus papyrus at Lake Victoria wetlands in Kenya

34