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How does one measure the productivity of an individual participating in a team sport? The
purpose of this inquiry is to answer this question via an econometric model that links the
player’s statistics in the National Basketball Association (NBA) to team wins. This model
will then be employed in the measurement of each player’s marginal product. Such a
measurement is useful in answering the question offered in the title, or a broader list of
questions posed by both industry insiders and other interested observers. Copyright © 1999
John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Player value=
[(PTS− FGA + RBO + RBD +AST +STL+BLK− PF− TO+ (t Wins 10)) 250)]
, (1)
[tPTS − tFGA +tRBO + tRBD + tAST+tSTL+ tBLK−tPF−tTO]
Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Manage. Decis. Econ. 20: 411–427 (1999)
NATIONAL BASKETBALL ASSOCIATION 413
Siegfried (ZHS, Zak et al., 1979). This model has spective, players with identical statistical perfor-
inspired the work of Scott, Long and Sompii mances offer the same impact on team outcomes.
(SLS, Scott et al., 1985), McCormick and In other words, a player’s statistical value is inde-
Clement (1992), and Hofler and Payne (1997). pendent of whatever teammates he has been be-
The model presented by ZHS examined the stowed.
relationship between wins and a variety of statis- Given the widespread employment of the
tics. To incorporate both the team and its oppo- Cobb–Douglas production function, one can
nent’s production, ratios were constructed of the conclude that researchers in general support the
team’s accumulation of each factor relative to its arguments offered by ZHS. Fortunately, the is-
opponent. The relationship between these ratios sue of functional form is not strictly a function
and wins was then proposed to follow the of the popularity of the theory. Rather, the
Cobb–Douglas functional form. The task laid proper functional form can be ascertained via
forth in this paper is to link the player’s produc- statistical analysis.
tion to team wins. Can the work cited in the The obvious starting point in such analysis
literature accomplish this objective? Three poten- would be to estimate the model via each func-
tial problems exist with the basic approach of- tional form and then ascertain which model offers
fered by ZHS: the choice of functional form, the the greatest explanatory power of the dependent
utilization of the opponent’s statistics, and the variable. Although one cannot compare the R 2
issue of team tempo. Although the issue of team from two equations estimated via differing func-
tempo is best clarified in the context of the tional forms, one can construct a quasi-R 2 that
model reported herein, the former two issues are allows for such a comparison.6 The quasi-R 2 is
examined directly below. ascertained by taking the anti-log of the double-
logged residuals and then utilizing this series,
The Issue of Functional Form In addition to along with the unaltered dependent variable, to
noting the popularity of the Cobb – Douglas pro- re-estimate the R 2 for the Cobb–Douglas equa-
duction function and the ease by which one can tion. One can then compare the R 2 from the
interpret the estimated coefficients, ZHS also linear form to the quasi-R 2 calculated from the
sought to theoretically justify their choice of double-logged model to ascertain which model
functional form. According to these authors, the offers a better fit for the data.
marginal product of each factor should depend A more sophisticated test for functional form is
upon the team’s accumulation of other statistics. offered by Mackinnon, White and Davidson
In the words of ZHS, the value of shooting skills (MWD, Mackinnon et al., 1983)7. The MWD test
should depend upon the team’s ability to acquire proposes estimating a particular equation with
the ball (i.e. via rebounds, turnovers) (Zak et al., both a linear and double-logged specification. The
1979, p. 382) From this line of reasoning, teams predicted values of the dependent variable from
that fail to rebound sufficiently are not only pe- each regression are used in the construction of
nalized by this shortcoming but also are handi- two variables. The calculations are detailed in
capped because each resulting shot has less of an Equations (2) and (3):
impact on team wins. According to this perspec-
tive, identical player performances on different Z1 = (ln(h)− g], (2)
teams will be of different value, depending upon
the performance of a player’s teammates. Such a Z2 = [antilog(g)− h], (3)
feature may make the comparison of players
across teams somewhat problematic. where h is the estimated value of the dependent
An opposing view would be that the marginal variable from the linear regression, and g is the
value of each statistic is constant from team to estimated value of the dependent variable from
team. According to this viewpoint, teams that the logged regression
lose frequently do so not because their accumu- The double-logged model is then re-estimated
lated statistics are of less value, but rather be- with Z2 as an additional independent variable. If
cause they have either failed to accumulate a Z2 is statistically significant according to the stan-
sufficient number of positive statistics or tallied dard t-test, then this is taken as evidence that
too much of the negative factors. From this per- the linear formulation is likely to be the most
Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Manage. Decis. Econ. 20: 411–427 (1999)
414 D.J. BERRI
Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Manage. Decis. Econ. 20: 411–427 (1999)
NATIONAL BASKETBALL ASSOCIATION 415
surrenders per game is a good approximation of and fi = team specific fixed effects; n= 1, . . . , z
team wins. Therefore, the value of a player should with z= 114; m= 1, . . . , 29 with 1=Atlanta and
be simply a function of how many points he 29=Washington. The theorized impact of each
scores and allows the opponent to score per con- factor is listed in parentheses.
test. Given that we know how many points each In essence, this model presents the basic theory
player scores, the task before us should be to find of basketball, with the primary determinants of
an estimate for how many points each player offense and defense laid forth and then connected
surrenders. With such an estimate in hand, we to wins. Equation (5) essentially relates wins to
should then know how many wins each player points scored and points surrendered. As noted,
produces. points scored is a function of how the team
As noted by Berri and Brook (1999), such an acquires the ball (DTO, RBD, DPTS), the effi-
approach, although simple and straightforward, is ciency of its ball handling (ASTO), and its ability
likely to be incorrect and misleading. To say that to convert possessions into points (PPS, FTA, FT,
a player’s value is simply a function of his scoring RBO).13 Given that this list of determinants in-
and defensive prowess neglects the fact the player cludes how many points a team surrenders, Equa-
is participating in a team sport. Professional bas- tion (5) is simply a restatement of the basic
ketball is not five games of one-on-one basketball, proposition that wins are determined by points
but rather one game of five-on-five. To evaluate a scored and points surrendered.
player strictly according to points scored and The determination of the opponent’s scoring
surrendered would lead one to neglect such fac- begins with a factor not generally accounted for
tors as rebounding, turnovers, steals, and assists. in previous academic studies14, team tempo. Al-
In fact, if a player believed that this is how he is though not typically determined by the individual
to be evaluated, then his wisest course of action players, this factor that follows generally from the
would be to expend his finite efforts strictly to- philosophy of the coaching staff is crucial in
wards out-scoring his defensive responsibility. accurately measuring a player’s statistical output.
An alternative to the simplistic view of a play-
First, the number of shots (FGA, FTA) a team
er’s production is to recognize that the number of
takes on average per game plays a significant role
points a team scores or surrenders is determined
in determining how many opportunities the oppo-
by various factors that can be quantified. A
nent will have. If a team chooses to play at a
team’s scoring should be a function of how the
slower tempo, and hence take fewer shots, the
team acquires the ball, the efficiency of its ball
opponent will find the amount of time they have
handling, and its ability to convert its possessions
the ball will decrease. Hence, given less time the
into points. Likewise, the opponent’s scoring
opponent will, ceteris paribus, score fewer points.
should be determined by the same factors. In
If one controls for RBOs and TOs, then the
terms of the variables listed in Table 1, the follow-
ing system of equations should connect the play- number of shots a team takes represents the num-
er’s statistics to team wins: ber of opportunities the opponent has to score.
7
Secondly, tempo also represents the number of
Y2n = f2i + % a2kX2kn +a9Y2n +e2n, (5) opportunities a player is given to score, rebound,
k=1 etc. A team playing at a faster tempo will have
9 more opportunities, therefore, players from these
Y3n = f3i + % a3kX3kn +e3n, (6) teams will accumulate greater numbers of statis-
k=1
tics. By weighting each player’s production by the
where
tempo the team played, this bias is mitigated.
Y2 =WINS X21 =PPS (+) X31 =DPPS (+) In addition to team tempo, the ability of the
Y3 =DPTS (−) X22 =FT (+) X32 =DFT (+) opponent to convert its opportunities into points
X23 =FTA (+) X33 =PF (+) can be measured by several other quantifiable
X24 =RBO (+) X34 =RBD (+) factors. First, similar to Equation (4), the effi-
X25 =ASTO (+) X35 =DASTO (+) ciency of the opponent’s ball handling is a signifi-
X26 =DTO (+) X36 =TO (−) cant determinant of scoring. This factor is
X27 =RBD (+) X37 =RBO (−) measured by the opponent’s assist-turnover ratio
X38 =FGA (+) (DASTO). If the opponent can maintain posses-
X39 =FTA (+) sion of the ball, its ability to turn its possessions
Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Manage. Decis. Econ. 20: 411–427 (1999)
416 D.J. BERRI
into points is measured via (DPPS, DFT, PF, significant at the 99% level and of the expected
RBD). sign. Such findings are evidence that the produc-
tivity of both an NBA player and a team can be
The Empirical Results empirically derived, and thus, the value of an
Having laid forth a rudimentary theory of basket- NBA player can be objectively and accurately
ball, it is now possible to ascertain the impact determined.
each of these factors has on the percentage of Before a player’s value can be ascertained, how-
games a team wins. These two linear equations15 ever, the marginal value of each statistic must be
were estimated with four seasons of data, begin- determined. The calculation of marginal values
ning in 1994–1995 and concluding with the 1997– involves moving from the two-equation system to
1998 campaign.16 Given that these equations are a single equation linking each factor directly to
simultaneously determined, the estimation method wins. This single equation, though, includes six
was three stage least squares. The results are ratios, PPS, FT, ASTO, DPPS, DFT, and
reported in Tables 3 and 4.17 DASTO. The interpretation and utilization of
The results listed in Tables 3 and 4 indicate that each would be eased if the components were
much of the variation in PCT and DPTS can be examined individually. This can be accomplished
explained by the chosen independent variables. by taking the derivative of PCT with respect to
Furthermore, each variable is both statistically each of the elements of the aforementioned ratios.
Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Manage. Decis. Econ. 20: 411–427 (1999)
NATIONAL BASKETBALL ASSOCIATION 417
With this information in hand, the impact of easy to conclude that a player should not be
three-point field goals made18, two-point field strictly evaluated in terms of how many assists he
goals made, missed field goals, assists, turnovers, accumulates. Rather, the more important issue is
free throws made, and missed free throws could how many turnovers the player commits.
be ascertained for both the team and the oppo- Given that this is a linear model, the elasticity
nent. These marginal values19 are listed in Table of PCT with respect to each factor will vary from
5, along with those that were not derived from the team to team. However, one can glean valuable
aforementioned ratios, in descending order from insights by examining the average elasticity across
highest marginal value in absolute terms, to the the teams considered in this study. From Table 5
lowest. it is revealed that if one ignores the tempo factors,
An examination of the marginal values indi- which are discussed below, PCT is most respon-
cates that there is a substantial difference in the sive to missed field goal attempts. The relative
impact each additional statistic has on wins. Inter- importance of missed field goal attempts suggests
estingly, the factor with the greatest marginal that a player’s shooting efficiency is more impor-
impact is offensive rebounds. Such a result should tant than the total number of points the player
not surprise, though, when one considers the im- scores. In other words, scoring 30 points a contest
pact of an additional missed field goal attempt is not likely to lead to many wins if the player
and defensive rebound. Given that a team must misfires on a large number of shots in his effort to
first miss a shot before an offensive rebound is achieve such a substantial point total.
possible, the net impact of a team’s offensive The findings reported in Table 5 reveal that a
rebound is similar to the marginal impact of a player’s production of wins is primarily a function
defensive rebound. of his ability to acquire and maintain possession
These results also indicate the importance of of the ball, and his ability to convert his field goal
ball handling. Both a player’s turnovers and attempts consistently. Factors such as assists and
turnovers by the opponent have a greater mar- personal fouls, while having some impact on wins,
ginal impact than any factor but three point field are of relatively little importance. Therefore, a
goals made and offensive rebounds. When one player’s contribution to team success depends
notes that an additional assist has only a third of most heavily on his accumulation of rebounds,
the absolute impact a turnover has on wins, it is avoidance of turnovers, and shooting efficiency.
Player statistics
Offensive rebound 0.058 1.506
Three point field goal made 0.052 0.574
Turnovers (0.042) (1.333)
Opponent’s turnover (steal) 0.037 1.188
Two point field goal made 0.026 1.648
Defensive rebound 0.026 1.483
Missed field goal (0.025) (2.222)
Made free throw 0.021 0.847
Assist 0.014 0.616
Missed free throw (0.012) (0.173)
Personal foul (0.007) (0.333)
Tempo statistics
Field goal attempt (0.023) (3.805)
Free Throw Attempted (0.009) (0.488)
Defensive statistics
Opponent’s three point field goals made (0.026) (0.286)
Opponent’s two point field goal made (0.013) (0.818)
Opponent’s missed field goal (blocked shot) 0.013 1.104
Opponent’s assist (0.012) (0.565)
Opponent’s free throw missed 0.009 0.126
Opponent’s free throw made (0.003) (0.127)
Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Manage. Decis. Econ. 20: 411–427 (1999)
418 D.J. BERRI
Step One: Examining the Statistics Kept for the Step Two: Examining the Statistics Kept for the
Player Team
In addition to the factors listed in Table 5, the list At this point the other ingredients, team tempo,
of statistics utilized in evaluating a player also and team defense, come into play. For each
includes blocked shots and steals. Although of these factors, one can determine the
blocked shots and steals were not explicitly a team’s production, but the individual’s contribu-
factor in the system of equations, the value of tion is unclear. For example, given that it is not
each can be derived from the variables that were possible to separate each player’s impact on the
included in the model. As mentioned, the oppo- opponent’s shooting, the approach taken herein
nent’s turnovers include team steals. Given that is that each player’s responsibility will be as-
each of the opponent’s turnovers leads to an signed according to the minutes each player
additional 0.037 wins, the value of an additional played.22
steal is assumed to have the same impact. In To incorporate team tempo into the player’s
considering the opponent’s turnovers, then, steals production of wins one must determine the
are utilized in evaluating individual players while, team’s per-minute tempo factor. This is calcu-
as explained below, the opponent’s turnovers that lated by first multiplying the values of a field
were not steals are employed in constructing the goal and free throw attempt, listed under tempo
team defensive factor. statistics in Table 5, by the team’s total accumu-
The value of a blocked shot20 is ascertained in lation of these statistics for the regular season
a similar fashion. From Table 5 it can be seen or playoffs one is considering. This value is then
that an opponent’s missed shot produces 0.013 divided by the total minutes the team has
wins. In essence, a blocked shot produces a played. Equation (8) below illustrates this calcula-
missed shot for the opponent. Therefore, the op- tion:
ponent’s missed shots that were blocked are allo- As illustrated in Equation (9), similar calculations
Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Manage. Decis. Econ. 20: 411–427 (1999)
NATIONAL BASKETBALL ASSOCIATION 419
are made with respect to the team’s per-minute the player’s per-minute production is weighted
team defensive factor:23 according to each of these team factors by adding
Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Manage. Decis. Econ. 20: 411–427 (1999)
420 D.J. BERRI
Production of wins Bulls and Michael Jordan, not the Jazz and Mal-
one. Was this because Jordan’s performance sur-
= [PM+TF+TDF −PA +TA]
passed Malone when the games were the most
× Total minutes played, (10) significant? To answer such a question objectively
and accurately, the same methods are again ap-
where PM=per-minute player production, TF= plied to analyze each player’s performance the
per-minute team tempo factor, TDF = per-minute NBA post-season. Table 7 lists the relevant ingre-
team defensive factor, PA=average per-minute dients necessary to estimate the number of wins
production at position27 and TA = average play- each player produced in the 1998 playoffs.
er’s per-minute production. The post-season value of each player is summa-
rized in each player’s per-minute wins and total
win production. Although Jordan had only a
WHO IS ‘MOST VALUABLE’? slight edge in per-minute productivity to Malone
(0.00442 versus 0.00437), Jordan is credited with
Michael Jordan Versus Karl Malone
0.38 additional post-season victories primarily due
After all of these additions and subtractions, it is to the additional 77 min Jordan played. Hence,
now possible to answer the question posed at the between these two players, Jordan was the most
outset of this paper. Which player is most valu- productive in the post-season.
able to his team, Michael Jordan or Karl Malone? Does this result imply Jordan was the most
Before such a question can be answered, one must productive when the games mattered the most? To
first define what is meant by ‘most valuable’. The further explore this issue, the performance of each
definition employed in this discussion connects player in the 1998 NBA Finals was examined, the
value to production. Most valuable is not defined results of which are detailed in Table 8. From this
as ‘most popular’, ‘most talented’, or ‘most pro- table it can be seen that when the games truly
lific scorer’. Rather, most valuable is simply de- mattered the most, Malone was both the better
fined as the player whose production is estimated per-minute and aggregate performer. Why then
to represent the most wins.28 Table 6 lists the did the Bulls win the 1998 championship? In
relevant ingredients needed to measure the regular addition to Jordan’s above average per-minute
season production of wins for both Michael Jor- performance30, the Bulls also received above aver-
dan and Karl Malone. age performances from three of the other six
From Table 629 it can be seen that in the players who averaged at least 12 min a game in
1997–1998 regular season Jordan played 3181 the Finals. In contrast, of the players the Jazz
min for the Bulls, and per-minute produced an most frequently employed in the NBA Finals,
estimated 0.0052 wins. On average, Jordan pro- only one player in addition to Malone was able to
duced approximately one win for Chicago every offer an above average per-minute performance.
193.4 min he played. The Utah Jazz employed Hence, despite Malone’s ability to produce more
Karl Malone for 3030 min in 1997 – 1998, during than Jordan, the Jazz as a team were unable to
which Malone produced approximately 0.0062 overcome the Bulls.
wins per-minute. Given this result, it is estimated
that Malone produced one win for Utah every
160.9 min he was on the court. Overall, Malone Table 6. Calculating Regular Season Wins for
produced an estimated 18.8 wins for Utah while Jordan and Malone
Jordan provided the Bulls with approximately Factor Michael Karl
16.4 regular season victories. Hence, by the meth- Jordan Malone
ods presented, Karl Malone’s regular season pro-
Per-minute production 0.0081 0.0126
ductivity eclipsed Michael Jordan. Per-minute team tempo (0.0089) (0.0084)
Success, however, is not measured in profes- Per-minute team defense (0.0001) (0.0002)
sional sports solely by an athlete’s regular season Per-minute position average (0.0040) (0.0002)
Per-minute player average 0.0021 0.0021
performance. The true measure of greatness is Per-minute wins 0.0052 0.0062
how a player performs in the post-season. Recall Minutes 3181 3030
that the team and individual post-season honors Wins 16.44 18.83
for the 1997–1998 season went to the Chicago
Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Manage. Decis. Econ. 20: 411–427 (1999)
NATIONAL BASKETBALL ASSOCIATION 421
Table 7. Calculating Wins Post-season for Jor- Table 8. Calculating Wins in the Finals for Jor-
dan and Malone dan and Malone
Factor Michael Karl Factor Michael Karl Malone
Jordan Malone Jordan
The Most Valuable Player for his prolific rebounding ability, and led the
NBA in this statistical category seven consecutive
From the proceeding discussion one might con-
seasons beginning with the 1991–1992 campaign.
clude that Malone was the most valuable per-
In essence, Rodman’s rebounding prowess is a
former during the regular season and Finals, significantly positive factor. An analysis of
hence confirming the IBM result. However, the Chicago’s allocation of minutes during the 1997–
proceeding analysis was limited to the examina- 1998 season reveals that Rodman likely split his
tion of only two players. When one analyses all time on the court between the position of center
players in the NBA for the 1997 – 1998 regular and the position of power forward. In this season,
season, another name emerges as the most pro- the average power forward garnered 0.233 re-
ductive player. Table 9 lists the ten most produc- bounds per minute, while the average center gath-
tive players for the 1997 – 1998 regular season.31 ered 0.263 rebounds per minute. Had Rodman
The player who emerges as the most productive been as productive as the average player at these
player during both the 1997 – 1998 regular season positions, he would have averaged 8.8 rebounds
is the infamous Dennis Rodman. Karl Malone per game, rather than the 15.0 rebounds he did
produced an estimated two wins fewer than Rod- gather per contest. According to the presented
man during the regular season, while Jordan pro- methods, the difference of 6.2 rebounds per game
duced more than four fewer estimated regular was worth an estimated 18.4 regular season wins
season victories. to the Chicago Bulls. Although the measure of-
Why is Rodman estimated to be more produc- fered in this discourse examines every aspect of a
tive than either Jordan or Malone? The primary player’s statistical production, one can see that
reason lies in the type of production Rodman Rodman’s rebounding alone is the primary reason
offers his team. Rodman is predominantly known he was so valuable to Chicago.32
Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Manage. Decis. Econ. 20: 411–427 (1999)
422 D.J. BERRI
And noted in Table 10, for the entire post- ence in excess of five victories and not one team
season, the player members of the media have registered an error of ten wins. The average error,
frequently named the ‘greatest player ever’ in absolute terms, was 2.6 wins. Such evidence
emerged as the most productive. Michael Jordan would suggest the evaluations of Jordan, Malone,
produced an estimated 3.86 wins in the 1998 and Rodman are accurate estimations.
post-season to lead all post-season performers.
However, his final total is only 0.1 wins more
than teammate Scottie Pippen and only 0.2 victo- CONCLUSION: THE APPLICATION OF
ries greater than Rodman. Clearly, Jordan’s per- THE RESEARCH
formance alone did not carry the Bulls to their
sixth championship in the 1990s. In fact, on a How productive is each NBA player? The meth-
per-minute basis both Pippen and Rodman ods presented in this discourse take the given
eclipsed the production offered by Jordan. NBA data and provide an accurate answer to this
question. As noted, if the NBA tabulated a wider
range of statistics, this accuracy could be im-
The Accuracy of the Presented Method
proved. Nevertheless, the picture painted by the
The idea that Dennis Rodman offers production presented methods does provide a fair evaluation
that either surpasses or is nearly equivalent to the of each player’s contribution to his team’s relative
illustrious Michael Jordan rests entirely upon the success or failure. Such evaluations can obviously
validity of the model and methods presented in be utilized with respect to free agent signings,
this investigation. Does the method utilized to player-for-player trades, the allocation of minutes,
evaluate the players result in an accurate depic- and also to determine the impact changes in
tion of the player’s contribution? In an effort to coaching methods or strategy have had on an
answer this question, the estimated wins of each individual’s productivity.
player was summed across each team. This sum- With respect to the academic literature the
mation was then compared to the actual wins methods reported here are also likely to be useful.
each team registered in both the 1997 – 1998 regu- Previous methods cited appear to have used the
lar season and the playoffs. The results are re- incorrect functional form, an incorrect set of data,
ported in Table 11. and failed to account for the importance of team
The results appear to indicate that the method- tempo. The correction of each of these shortcom-
ology paints an accurate depiction of each play- ings has led to an accurate appraisal of playing
er’s production. Of the 29 teams listed, the talent that can be utilized in the study of such
difference between the summed player wins and issues as racial discrimination and worker remu-
the actual team wins is less than one for nine neration under the auspices of differing institu-
organizations. For only four teams is the differ- tional arrangements.
Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Manage. Decis. Econ. 20: 411–427 (1999)
NATIONAL BASKETBALL ASSOCIATION 423
Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Manage. Decis. Econ. 20: 411–427 (1999)
424 D.J. BERRI
estimated under the assumption of equal coeffi- Scott et al., 1985; Hofler and Payne, 1997; as well
cients and with the coefficients unconstrained. as Chatterjee et al., 1994; for examples in the
literature that did not account for team specific
PCT= f(PTS, FGA, RBO, RBD, AST, STL, fixed effects).
BLK, PF, TO). 11. Equation (4) was estimated with a Cobb – Douglas
An F test was then performed to test whether or production form. The quasi-R 2 for the double-
not these estimated coefficients are indeed equal. logged model was 0.92, indicating that the linear
The result of this test was that the null hypothesis formulation is the more appropriate form. The
(equal coefficients) was rejected. Results are avail- MWD test offers additional evidence in support for
able from the author upon request. this finding. The t-statistic for Z2 is 4.83, indicating
6. The quasi-R 2 label is suggested by Studenmund that the appropriate model is not a Cobb – Douglas,
(1992), although the estimation of this factor with- but rather a linear form. However, the t-statistic
out the corresponding label is also detailed in Gu- for Z1 is 1.79, indicating that at the 8% level of
jarati (1995). significance one cannot reject the hypothesis that
7. The following discussion comes from both Green the true model should be a double-logged func-
(1992) and Gujarati (1995). As Gujarati notes, a tional form. Although this latter result casts some
similar test is offered by Bera and Jarque (1982). doubt on the utilization of the linear form, the
8. Is an economist qualified to construct a theory of other reported results appear to indicate the appro-
basketball? Certainly my limited skills upon the priateness of the linear equation.
basketball court indicate a lack of credentials. 12. One could question whether it is appropriate to
However, countless hours of watching and dis- aggregate data over four distinct seasons. Although
cussing the sport does allow one to develop some researchers analysing sports economics data fre-
insights into the nature of the game. It is from this quently ignore this issue (with respect to baseball
experience that I offer my observations. To the and basketball see the previously cited Scully, 1974;
extent this experience is inadequate, the following Medoff, 1976; Scott et al., 1985; Blass, 1992; Zim-
observations will suffer. I do not think, though, balist, 1992a,b; Berri and Brook, 1999), a Chow
that the sport of basketball is the intellectual equiv- test (Chow and Gregory, 1960) was conducted to
alent of ‘rocket science’ or even the mundane sub- see if breaks exist in the aggregate four-season data
ject of economics. In other words, even a casual set. The results of this inquiry indicate that the
observer should be able to offer relevant insights. aggregated data set utilized in Equation (4) is ap-
9. The model utilized here is similar to that which was propriate. Results are available from the author
employed in Berri and Brook (1999). The basic upon request.
differences are as follows: (1) The model presented 13. FTA is included to capture the ability of a player to
here incorporates explicit measures of the oppo- draw a personal foul from his opponent. This
nent’s scoring and ball handling. The Berri–Brook factor was also omitted from the previously cited
model ignored these factors, an omission that sug- work of Berri and Brook.
gests the previous model was misspecified. (2) The 14. With the exception of Berri and Brook (1999).
Berri–Brook model failed to account for the team 15. The model presented is slightly more efficient than
specific fixed effects, a failing corrected herein. (3) the structural, three-equation model. A single equa-
The issue of functional form is also more com- tion would offer further efficiency gains. However
pletely addressed in this exposition via the MWD it is necessary to estimate two equations if both the
test, an issue not fully explored by Berri and Brook. positive and negative impact free throw attempts
(4) The model presented here accounts for both have on team wins is to be accurately measured.
regular and post-season performance, whereas the 16. The Chow test, referenced earlier with respect to
previously cited model only focused on the regular Equation (4), was also conducted for the reduced
season. (5) The accuracy of the reported methods is form equation derived from the model reported in
examined in greater detail. Despite these improve- Equations (5) and (6). This test indicated that
ments, much of the discussion regarding the utiliza- aggregating data across these 4 years was appropri-
tion of a two-equation system and the measurement ate. Results are available from the author upon
and employment of team tempo follows from the request.
earlier work. 17. This system of equations was also estimated utiliz-
10. A panel data set is utilized in this study, with the ing the Cobb – Douglas functional form. The quasi-
cross-sectional units consisting of the 29 current R 2 for each Equation (5) and (6) was 0.936 and
NBA teams. As noted by Hylan et al. (1999) in 0.986, respectively. For the reduced form equation,
their study of professional baseball, not controlling the quasi-R 2 was 0.917. The reduced form R 2 for
for individual specific fixed effects can bias the the linear formulation is 0.943. From Tables 3 and
estimates of the coefficients for the independent 4 it can be seen that these results are each less than
variables. To account for this potential bias, the the R 2 reported for the linear estimation of Equa-
models presented herein employ team specific fixed tions (5) and (6), although the difference is quite
effects, rather than the more traditional common small with respect to the latter equation. The re-
constant term utilized generally in the academic sults with respect to the MWD test also point
literature (see the previously cited Zak et al., 1979; to the superiority of the linear equation. The
Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Manage. Decis. Econ. 20: 411–427 (1999)
NATIONAL BASKETBALL ASSOCIATION 425
t-statistics for Z2 for the double-logged formulation it is likely that a higher percentage of these shots
of Equations (5) and (6) was 7.05 and 2.53, indicat- would have been successful than the opponent’s
ing the linear formulation is more appropriate. The overall PPS would indicate. Given this difficulty,
t-statistics for Z1 in Equation (5) was 1.07, indicat- the value of each blocked shot is set equal to the
ing that one would only accept the Cobb–Douglas impact of the opponent’s missed shot, even though
form at the 28% significance level. The results for it is acknowledged that this practice overstates the
Equation (6) were even more convincing with a value of a blocked shot for those shot attempts that
t-statistic of 0.57, or a p-value of 0.568. The results were likely to be unsuccessful.
with respect to both the quasi-R 2 and the MWD 22. Such an approach follows from the work of Scott
test all indicate that the linear formulation, rather et al. (1985).
than the widely utilized Cobb–Douglas form, is the 23. As noted, the accumulation of the opponent’s
most appropriate functional form for both Equa- turnovers and the opponent’s missed shots does not
tions (5) and (6). include the player’s production of steals and
18. By taking the derivative of wins with respect to the blocked shots, respectively. Furthermore, because a
numerator of PPS, one can determine the value of certain number of turnovers a team accumulates
a point from a field goal attempt. The derivative of are assigned only to the team, not any individual
wins with respect to the denominator of PPS yields players, this factor is also added to the list of
the value of a field goal attempt. The impact of a defensive factors examined in Equation (9).
made three-point field goal is then ascertained by 24. An astute reader may note that the value of an
multiplying the value of a point from a field goal opponent’s statistic is substantially less than the
attempt by three, and then adjusting this total by value of the corresponding team statistic. For ex-
the value of a field goal attempt. The value of a ample, the value of a missed field goal made is
two-point field goal made is determined in a similar −0.025 for the team but only 0.013 for the oppo-
fashion, while the value of a missed field goal is nent. This difference in value comes about because
simply the value of a field goal attempt. Except for of the substantial role team tempo plays in deter-
the independent impact of a player’s ability to draw mining the opponent’s scoring. The value of the
a foul, as measured by the inclusion of free throw opponent’s statistic is ascertained given the tempo
attempts, the value of a free throw made and the team has chosen to play. As noted in the text,
missed is determined in a similar fashion. The it is this choice of tempo that is a primary determi-
derivative of PCT with respect to both free throws nant of the opponent’s scoring.
made and attempted was calculated. Then the value 25. To determine the positions of each player, the
of a free throw made is the respective derivative, following sources were consulted: The Pro Basket-
plus the dual impact of a free throw attempt via FT ball Bible (Barry and Cohn, 1994, 1995, 1996), The
and FTA. The value of a missed free throw is Complete Handbook of Pro Basketball (Hollander,
simply the dual value of a free throw attempt. 1995, 1996, 1997; Hollander and Compton, 1998);
19. As mentioned, PCT is determined by dividing wins and The Official NBA Register (Puro et al., 1995;
by the number of games played. Given that the Bonavita et al., 1996, 1997, 1998). After determin-
independent variables are per-game totals, and ing the position each player likely played most of
hence are simply team totals divided by games his minutes, the minutes of each team were exam-
played, the marginal impact each factor has on ined in an effort to ascertain precisely how much
PCT can also be interpreted as the marginal impact time each player played at each position. In these
an additional statistic has on wins. For example, calculations it was assumed that a team always
from Table 4, a team that increases its per-game utilized a point guard, shooting guard, small for-
offensive rebound total by one will increase PCT by ward, power forward, and center. Therefore the
5.1%. Because both sides of the equations are di- minutes played at each position for the team must
vided by games played, one could also say that an be equal.
additional offensive rebound leads to an additional 26. A similar calculation is necessary to determine a
0.051 wins. The number of wins each factor pro- player’s win production in the post-season.
duces will be important when the player’s produc- 27. The average positional values are calculated after
tion of wins is calculated. each player’s production is adjusted according to
20. Blocked shots were not a statistically significant the listed team factor. The average per-minute pro-
determinant of wins or DPTS. Given that the op- duction at the center position, for example, is de-
ponent’s missed shots are implicitly included in the termined by summing each center’s adjusted pro-
model, it is not surprising that blocked shots of- duction, and dividing by the summation of the
fered no additional explanatory gains. centers’ minutes played. If a player played more
21. Certainly a number of blocked shots are unneces- than one position, then as mentioned, his minutes
sary, since an opponent misses a certain percentage were examined to estimate how much time was
of their shots regardless of the defense a team spent at each position. His production was then
plays. It is difficult, though, to determine how evaluated at each of the positions he played.
many of the blocked shots were likely to miss 28. One could define most valuable as the player who
without the assistance of the shot blocker. Given produces the most wins per-minute, and certainly
that many blocked shots occur closer to the basket, in terms of efficiency such an argument appears
Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Manage. Decis. Econ. 20: 411–427 (1999)
426 D.J. BERRI
valid. However, by defining most valuable in terms Bellotti R. 1993. The Points Created Basketball Book,
of total wins one not only captures prolific per- 1992 – 93. Night Work Publishing Co: New
minute performance but also the durability of the Brunswick.
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29. From Table 6, as well as Tables 7 and 8, one can see Berri DJ, Brook SL. 1999. Trading Players in the NBA:
the impact per-minute team tempo and per-minute For Better or Worse. In Sports Economics: Current
team defense have on a player’s per-minute produc- Research, Fizel JL, Gustafson E, Hadley L (eds).
tivity. For the most part the elements that comprise Praeger Publishing: Westport, CT; 135 – 151.
the per-minute team defense measure cancel each Blass AA. 1992. Does the baseball labor market contra-
other out. In contrast, the team per-minute tempo dict the human capital model of investment? The
measure appears to play a substantial role in deter- Re6iew of Economics and Statistics 74: 261 – 268.
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measure for the 1997–1998 regular season is only Bonavita M, Broussard M, Stewart S (eds). 1996. The
0.0009, one can conclude that this factor does not Sporting News: Official NBA Register (1996 – 97). The
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Sporting News Publishing Company: Saint Louis,
and these players will produce a combined 0.5 wins
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Sporting News: Official NBA Register (1998 – 99). The
31. For the sake of comparison, the player’s IBM
Sporting News Publishing Company: Saint Louis,
evaluation and ranking is also listed.
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analysis to see evidence of Rodman’s value. A Official NBA Guide (1996 – 97). The Sporting News
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Michael Jordan, the Bulls managed only 47 regular Publishing Company: Saint Louis, MO.
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