CAN/CSA-S16-01 S.F.

Stiemer

Design of Tension Members

ties ties
Summary
 applications as principal structural members in trusses, bridges, transmission
towers, bracing systems
 applications as secondary members such as sag rods, bracing of OWSJs bracing system
 most efficient because limit of usefulness not reduced by stability problems
roof truss
 single shape most economical in applications, when doubling up use tie
advantages of symmetry
 limiting slenderness ratio exists because of potential of vibrations hanger
 design member in two steps: ties
 select tentative cross section using approximate formulae
 check design according to code requirements
 failure modes: buildings
1. excessive elongation (Fy governs)
2. rupture in net area (Fu governs) ties
3. rupture in effective net area (considers shear lag effects)
 use “s2/4g - rule” for staggered bolt patterns
 composite members need to be evaluated for minimum ratio of gyration of
individual elements, stitch fasteners may help bridge truss
 bolt hole size:
 punched bolt hole diameter need to be increase by 2 mm for
analysis purposes, because of material damage at the hole edge by main cables
punching process
deck hangers
 hole should be 2 mm lager than bolt shafts
 therefore take bolt diameter + 4 mm for analysis purposes of net
sections
 Welded connections of tensile member require an investigation of the size,
length and orientation of the individual weldlines cable stay bridge suspension bridge
 pin-ended tension members = eye-bars need to be treated differently
tension rods are not covered by this section, use specifications and fasteners
according to fabricator’s catalog Figure T-1: Use of Tension Members in Structures

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General Load Deflection Behaviour

Tension members can be found in most steel structures where they are used as
principal structural members in trusses, bridges, transmission towers, bracing
systems in single and multistory buildings. Other applications are secondary
members in roof and wall systems e.g. sag rods for purlins or girts.
The tension member is the most efficient structural member as it can be stressed
up to and beyond the yield limit in most cases without being susceptible to
stability problems or other limiting states. It may consist of a single structural
shape or be built up from several shapes. The use of a single member is usually
preferred because of economical reasons. Built-up members are used when a
single member would not be sufficient or when the slenderness ratio is too high
and resulting in excessive vibrations or when a built-up member would reduce the
complexity of
the connection.

Figure T-2: rolled shapes

typical Cross
Sections of
Tension
Members

composite shapes

welded shapes

rods, bars

cables

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General Design Steps (ref. Clause 13.2)

design member in two steps:
 select tentative cross section using approximate formulae and check
slenderness ratio limit
o Tr = Φ Ag Fy

 check design according to code requirements (least of the following):

o Tr = Φ Ag Fy or
o Tr = 0.85Φ An Fu or
o Tr = 0.85Φ Ane Fu
failure modes:
 excessive elongation (Fy governs)
 rupture in net area (Fu governs)
 rupture in effective net area (considers shear lag effects)
Effective Net Area, Ane (ref. Clause 12.3.3)
use “s2/4g - rule” for staggered bolt patterns
applicable when critical net area includes the net area of unconnected elements
2
bn = b - ∑D + ∑s /(4g)
For bolted connections:
where Ane = 0.60 to 0.90 An (refer to S16.1)
d = bolt diameter
D = d + 2mm for drilled holes For welded connections:
D = d + 4mm for punched holes Ane = An1 + An2 + An3
Note: if shear block failure is involved, reduce shear path by a factor of 0.6
where
An1 for elements connected by transverse welds
An2 for elements connected by longitudinal welds along two
parallel edges
An3 for elements connected by a single longitudinal weld

Slenderness Ratio Limit

(ref. Clause 10.4.2.2)

The value of slenderness ratio (KL/r) limit of 300 stems from experience and
parallels values from foreign steel standards (i.e. German, Russian, American).

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Design Selection

Now the designer can select an appropriate trial cross section following the
guidance given by the tentative cross section; or one can find the shape
designation by the required mass per length and the required radius of gyration.

Required Mass for Tension Member

Inputs: Outputs:
Fu 480 MPa reqMass 0.037 kg/mm
Fy 350 MPa
Tf 1500 kN density of steel
gSteel 7.85e-6 kg/mm^3 7.85e-6 kg/mm^3 factored tensile load
phi 0.9 1500 kN
required gross area, failure mode: elongation
Tf performance factor
An1 =
phi * Fy phi = 0.9
required mass / length 4762 mm^2
reqMass = gSteel * MAX( An1, An2 ) yield strength
0.037 kg/mm 350 MPa

factored tensile load

Tf = 1500 * kN
required net area, failure mode: fracture in net area
Tf performance factor
An2 =
0.85 * phi * Fu phi = 0.9
4085 mm^2
ultimate strength
480 MPa

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Slenderness Ratio
Once a particular shape has been chosen, one should perform all checks of code
compliance. Before going through the somewhat lengthy process of checking for
connection and cross sectional resistance, it is advisable to examine the
slenderness of the member first. The standard provides the reasoning for this
check.
The value of slenderness limit of 300 stems from experience and parallels values
from foreign steel standards (i.e. German, Russian, American).
If one has to deal Design Check of Slenderness Ratio
with non-(point)-
symmetrical Inputs:
members, the effective length factor
Kx 1
highest slenderness Kx = 1.0
Ky 1 slenderness about x-axis
ratio corresponds to Kz 1 Kx * Lx unbraced member length
slx =
the smallest radius Lx 1500 mm rx Lx = 1.5 * m
of gyration. Thus we Ly 1500 mm 75
Lz 750 mm radius of gyration about x-axis
have to evaluate the
rx 20 mm rx = 20 * mm
three principal radii ry 25 mm
for a double angle rz 50 mm effective length factor
arrangement. Ky = 1.0
slenderness about y-axis
Ky * Ly unbraced member length
sly =
ry Ly = 1.5 * m
checked slenderness ratio 60
radius of gyration about y-axis
checked_sl = IF( MAX( slx, sly, slz )max_slr, "all o.k.", "too slender")
ry = 25 * mm
all o.k.
effective length factor
Kz = 1.0
slenderness about z-axis
Kz * Lz unbraced member length
slz =
rz Lz = .75 * m
15
radius of gyration about z-axis
rz = 50 * mm

maximum slenderness ratio, $10.2.2

max_slr = 300

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Failure Modes Inputs: Outputs:

Although the design of a tension member is Ag 10000 mm^2 Tr 715 kN
considered to be one of the simplest and Ane 2078 mm^2
most straightforward problems in structural Fu 450 MPa
engineering, we still have to deal with a few Fy 300 MPa performance factor
peculiarities. Ln 484 mm phi = 0.9
Before considering the failure modes one Load_Transfer_Type 1 yielding in gross cross section
gross cross section
must understand the basic assumption of the c_Type 1 Tri = phi * Ag * Fy
10000 mm^2
2700 kN
standard for the load carrying mechanism. dh 24 mm
yield strength
When one designs a tension member e 30 mm
300 MPa
without perforations, one can assume a g1 80 mm
uniform stress distribution over the full g2 80 mm performance factor
s1 80 mm
cross section. For members with holes, as tensile resistance
phi = 0.9
t 6 mm
required by bolted connections, one can Tr = MIN( Tri, Trii, Triii ) rupture in net cross section net cross section
twelds True
experience stress concentrations in the 715 kN Trii = 0.85 * phi * Ane * Fu Ane = Ana + Anb + Anc
w 50 mm
vicinity of the hole of up to three times the 715.5 kN 2078 mm^2
wL 100 mm
average stress. The standard assumes a ultimate strength
x 0 mm
deformation of those overstressed fibres 450 MPa
beyond yield until the average stress is
evenly distributed over the complete cross shear lag effects considered
Triii = 0.85 * phi * A'ne * Fu
section at a magnitude of the yield stress Fy. 3443 kN

Stability is only of secondary concern and vibrational problems have been dealt
with above by taking care by the comparative value of slenderness ratio.
Basically one must provide sufficient cross-sectional area to resist the applied
loads with an adequate margin of safety. However, we must accommodate three
different types of failure (limit states) as shown in the following:

 Excessive Elongation
 Rupture in Net Area
 Rupture in Effective Net Area

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Bolted Connections of Tension Members, Effective Net Area
In bolted connections, the net area Ane considered is equal to the anticipated
fracture path. If the path is extending diagonally from a bolt hole of one gauge
line to a hole of another gauge line, you could gain by having a longer path. On
the downside, more holes are intercepted. Furthermore, an inclined path has less
resistance to tensile failure than one which is transverse to the loading direction.
A few researchers have dealt with this problem and the “s2/4g - rule” has evolved.
The “specified hole diameter” is 2 mm greater than the bolt diameter. This is the
diameter to be specified on the shop drawings.
The bolt holes are punched into the steel members. During the punching process
the edge of the hole is slightly deformed or damaged and cannot be expected to
carry the same load as the unaffected metal. From experience the standard allows
for this local damage due to fabrication. Therefore, one must add a total of 4 mm
to the bolt diameter to arrive at the “nominal hole diameter”, which is the value to
be used for the analysis.
nominal hole diameter = spec. dia+4 [mm]

For a detailed treatment of fasteners and

their behaviour please see the appropriate
sections on bolted connections. The
previous considerations are based on
g1 connections, where the individual bolts
P P carry equal loads and are arranged
d symmetrically with respect to the
h g2 centroidal axial of the tension member and
thus, axis of load application.
Furthermore one needs to consider shear
lag effects, which can lead to a further
decrease of effective net area. However, it
is recommended to check if it is better to
replace requirements of this clause by
e s2 s1 another engineering approach: One can
Although it is not applicable for the full range of parameter variations of pitch, s, leave out the unconnected elements and consider the resistance of the connected
and gauge, g, it is quite accurate within the limits as stated by the standard. elements only, which can result in more efficient designs without reduction in the
The effective area is computed by adding all critical areas of all segments. safety margin.
Hereby one has to check all possible fracture paths in order to find the lowest
resistance.

In order to conveniently place the bolts for a connection in a structural member it

is necessary to have holes slightly bigger than the bolt diameter. The greater the
holes are, the easier is the erection of a building. However, in order to achieve a
behaviour of the connection, which can be predicted and modeled by simple
mathematical expressions one has to keep the bolt to hole tolerance in a certain
limit.

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The effective net area must be calculated as follows:

gauge 2
80 mm
net width
wn2 = g2 - dh
nominal hole diameter
Ana = wn2 * t 24 mm
336 mm^2
plate thickness
end distance
6 mm
30 mm
net length
dh nominal hole diameter
Ln = 2 * e- + 8 * s1 - 8 * dh 24 mm
Anb = 0.6 * Ln * t 2
1742 mm^2 pitch 1
plate thickness
net cross section 6 mm
80 mm
gauge 1
Ane = Ana + Anb + Anc g1 = 80mm
2078 mm^2 wn1 = g1 - dh
56 mm
nominal hole diameter
24 mm
2
s1 * t plate thickness
Ans = wn1 * t + 6 mm
4 * g1
456 mm^2
pitch 1
80 mm
2
Anc = Ans, 0 * mm : pattern
0 mm^2 gauge 1
g1 = 80mm

stagger=1, parallel=2
pattern = 2

Bolted Connection at Ends of Tension Member

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performance factor no connection considered

gross cross section
phi = 0.9 A0 = Ag
10000 mm^2
10000 mm^2

bolted WWF, W, M, or S-shapes

A1 = 0.9 * Ane
1871 mm^2

shear lag effects considered bolted angles, one leg, four lines and more
Triii = 0.85 * phi * A'ne * Fu A2 = 0.8 * Ane
3443 kN 1663 mm^2

bolted angles, one leg, less than four lines

A3 = 0.6 * Ane
reduced effective net area 1247 mm^2
A'ne = [ A0, A1, A2, A3, A4, A5, Aw ] : c_Type
10000 mm^2 bolted other shapes, three lines and more
A4 = 0.85 * Ane
ultimate strength 1767 mm^2
450 MPa
bolted other shapes, less than three lines
A5 = 0.75 * Ane
1559 mm^2

welded connection
Aw = Ane1 + Ane2 + Ane3
900 mm^2

selected member and connection case

c_Type = 1
Shear Lag Effect Consideration
due to Bolted Connection

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Welded Connection of Tension Members

Welded connections of tensile member require an investigation of the size, length
and orientation of the individual weldlines. Any set (transverse, parallel and
longitudinal) weldlines will be considered as follows:

transverse welds plate width

twelds = TRUE when wL>= 2*w 50 mm
transverse welds Ane2i = w * t
plate width 300 mm^2 plate thickness
Ane1 = IF( twelds, w * t, 0 )
50 mm 6 mm
300 mm^2
plate thickness plate width
6 mm when 2*w > wL >= 1.5*w 50 mm
Ane2ii = 0.87 * w * t
two parallel longitudinal welds 261 mm^2 plate thickness
welded connection Ane2 = [ Ane2i, Ane2ii, Ane3iii ] : Load_Transfer_Type 6 mm
Aw = Ane1 + Ane2 + Ane3 300 mm^2
900 mm^2 plate width
weld eccentricity when 1.5*w > wL >= w 50 mm
x = 0 * mm Ane3iii = 0.75 * w * t
225 mm^2 plate thickness
one longitudinal weld weld length 6 mm
x 100 mm
Ane3 = 1 - *w*t method of load transfer (i=1, ii=2, iii=3)
wL plate width Load_Transfer_Type = 1
300 mm^2 50 mm

plate thickness
6 mm

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Pin-Connected Tension Members

In pin-connected tension members, the non-uniform distribution of stress makes
it desirable that the net area across the pin hole be at least one third greater than
the area of the body of the member. In order to avoid end splitting, the area
beyond the pin hole within a 45 degree arc each side of longitudinal axis of the
member must be at least 90% of the area of the body of the member. Sag rods Roof truss

Purlins

Purlin

Purlin
Tension Rods

Ridge
Previous considerations are not applicable to tension rods, which are
quite common members in buildings, but usually used as secondary Roof
Sag rod Sag rod
members. The design stress is often rather small i.e. in sag rods for truss
purlins or wall girts. Special care must be taken in case the tension
rods are used as primary hangers for balconies or ties of structural Elevation view Top view
arches. The tie rods are connected by nuts on their threaded ends.
When prestress is applied to the rods, the vibration can be reduced to (a) Roof truss
manageable amounts and requirements of slenderness ratios need not
be complied with.
A Tie Girts
Girt rods
Tie
rods Tie rod

Balcony
Col. Girt
Col.
A
Section A-A
(b) Wall system (c)

Figure T-3: Use of Tension Rods in Buildings

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Examples of tension members in Structures

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Gimme Five

Tension members fail in:

strength mode [_]
stability mode [_]
serviceability mode [_]

A tentative cross section is useful to:

determine the tensile capacity [_]
check a suitable shape [_]
select a suitable shape [_]

Shear lag effects:

improve the member resistance [_]
reduce the member resistance [_]
have no influence on the member resistance [_]

In order to check a connection capacity, one needs to consider:

the fracture image [_]
the fracture path [_]
the edge distance of the load [_]

The eccentricity of resultant force of the tension member is determined by:

the distance of shape edge from bolt [_]
the distance of centroid of bolt group from centre of member [_]
the distance of centroid of bolt group from centroid of cross section [_]

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