Glossary of photographic & technical terms

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

# (hash symbol): Abbreviation for 'Number' (North American), equivalent to 'No.'.

e.g., 'Product #4101' = 'Product No. 4101'.

φ : (Greek letter 'phi'), abbreviation for 'diameter' (used because it consists of a line
drawn across a circle).

: Female.

: Male.

∞: Infinity.

ABS: 'acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene co-polymer' - a cross between plastic and

rubber with excellent engineering properties, used to make underwater housings,
cabinets for electronic equipment, solvent-weld plumbing fittings, etc.. ABS is
attacked by many industrial cleaning agents, especially chlorinated solvents, ketones
(e.g., MEK), and furans (e.g., THF). Cleaning with agents other than mild detergent
and water is not recommended.

Aberration: Deviation, Wandering away, The non-convergence of rays of light to

one focus.

AC: Alternating current. An electrical current which changes over time, usually in a
sinusoidal fashion. Usually associated with mains electricity. More information. See
also DC.

Achromat: a lens corrected for chromatic aberration (colour fringing) at two

wavelengths in the visible spectrum. Most modern camera lenses are achromats.

Achromatic doublet: a lens in which achromatic correction is achieved by

cementing together two lenses made from different types of glass.

Acrylic: Poly methyl methacrylate. A clear plastic with good optical properties and
very high transparency. Trade names: Perspex, Plexiglass, Lucite. Acrylic is attacked
by chlorinated organic solvents. Stressed (i.e., shaped or moulded) acrylic will
shatter in contact with alcohols, so be very careful about what you put on it if you
want to clean it (mild detergent and water is preferred). Wiping with 60-80 petrol
(cigarette lighter fluid) can be used to remove severe non-water-soluble adhesions.

AE: Automatic Exposure. A method of linking the camera exposure settings to the
ambient or reflected light level. The problem with automatic exposure is that it
usually relies on assumptions about the reflectivity of the subject, and it cannot
anticipate the photographers artistic intentions - see TTL metering.

AF: Automatic-Focusing. There are two basic types of automatic focusing system;
range-finding systems, and contrast or image-sharpness sensing systems. Range-
finding systems send out a signal; usually an infrared beam (but sometimes
ultrasonic), and see how long it takes for the reflected signal from the subject to
come back. Such systems can be fooled by windows, and they don't work
underwater because the water absorbs or modifies the signal. Contrast sensing
systems determine image sharpness in much the same way as the human eye, and are
much more difficult to fool, but they can still be fooled by repeating patterns, and
they don't work if the subject lacks detail. Range-finding systems are sometimes
called 'active autofocus' because they send out a signal, whereas contrast sensitive
systems are called 'passive autofocus' because they don't. This is one case where it is
usually better to be passive.

Ah, Ampere hours: The capacity rating of an electrical cell or battery. One point to
watch when interpreting ampere-hour ratings is that the capacity of a battery or cell
varies depending on the rate of discharge. The figure is normally specified at the 10
hour rate. E.g., A 10Ah battery will deliver a current of 1 amp for 10 hours. It will
however, deliver a current of 10 amps for somewhat less than 1 hour. I.e., the
effective capacity is reduced at high discharge rates (and also, not greatly increased
at very low discharge rates). In combination with the average battery terminal
voltage throughout the discharge cycle, the battery capacity is also a measure of the
available stored energy. E.g., a 6V 10Ah battery can deliver 6 Watts (6 Volts x 1
Amp) for 10 hours, i.e., 6 Watts for 36000 seconds = 216000 Joules (216KJ). That is
a lot of energy. If you short-circuit a battery, nearly all of the stored energy will be
dissipated in the battery itself, which should explain why batteries can pose a severe
fire hazard if misused or mishandled. Some modern batteries have energy densities
close to that of Dynamite.

Al, Aluminium, Aluminum: Humphrey Davy, the discoverer of this chemical

element, originally named it "A l u m i u m". He then changed his mind and called it
"A l u m i n u m", and this naming convention is the one adopted in North America.
The British Chemical Society however, felt that element names should always end
with "-ium", and so changed the name to "A l u m i n i u m". The Americans have
the wishes of the discoverer on their side.

Amp, Ampere, A: The unit of electrical current, ie., quantity of electricity per unit
time. Current flows through wires and conductors, whereas voltage (electrical
pressure-difference) appears across things like generators, batteries and resistors.

Angle of Coverage (of a lens): The angle between rays of light entering a lens from
the extreme corners of a scene. More Information.

Angle of Coverage (of a flash unit): The angle of the light-cone or pyramid
emanating from the light source. The quoted angle of coverage for a flash unit
corresponds to the angle between two rays, on opposite sides of the beam axis,
chosen so that the light intensity is half of that at the beam centre. I.e., it is assumed
that the useful field of illumination ends at the point where the light intensity has
fallen by 1 EV (1 stop) relative to the centre. Circular light sources are given a single
value for angle of coverage, rectangular light sources are given two values
(Horizontal and Vertical).

Anodisation (Anodization): An electrolytic process for forming a stable film of

aluminium (aluminum) oxide on the surface of aluminium alloys. Aluminium will
normally grow an oxide layer on contact with air; but the layer formed in the
anodisation process is harder and less porous, giving improved corrosion and
abrasion resistance, and can be made to incorporate pigments as an alternative to
painting the finished product.

Aperture: The variable diameter hole used to control the amount of light passing
through a lens. See f-stop.

Apochromat: a lens corrected for chromatic aberration (colour fringing) at three

wavelengths in the visible spectrum. Traditional apochromatic lenses using
spherically-ground glass elements are complicated and expensive. Apochromatic
lenses can also be produced by using aspherical moulded lens elements, but
moulding is generally an inferior process to grinding, and so, while a lens with
moulded elements may be strictly described as apochromatic, that doesn't always
mean that it will be superior to a traditional achromat (and if the elements are
pressed out of plastic it may well be awful - caveat emptor). This is not to say that
modern moulding methods cannot produce results equal to grinding, they can, but
high quality optical mouldings are not to be expected in cheap lenses.

B, Bulb sync.: In old-fashioned flash-bulb photography, the bulb must be ignited a

few milliseconds before the shutter is opened, to give it a chance to get going.
Alternatively, the shutter must be opened for a relatively long time, to make sure that
the bulb gives out its light while the shutter is open. Nowadays, the camera 'B'
position is used for time exposures, it being a setting where the shutter will remain
open for as long as the shutter button is held pressed.

BA: Screw-thread system for small instruments proposed in the 19th century by the
British Association for the Advancement of Science. BA screws are based on metric
dimensions with a constant pitch gradient. The pitch angle is 47.5°. Some BA sizes
will fit with modern metric parts, e.g. 0BA fits M6x1, 13BA fits M1x0.25. Now
largely obsolete.

Backscatter: Light reflected from suspended particles in the water, a problem in

underwater flash photography caused by having the flash too close to the camera
lens. It can manifest itself as anything from a slight fog, to a haze of bright specks
obscuring the picture. In extreme cases, particles close to the camera shine so
brightly that they cause lens flare, in which case some of the specks will appear to
have the same shape as the lens iris. The problem is minimised by using an external
flash, either mounted on a long adjustable arm, or un-mounted and positioned by
hand.

bar: Unit of pressure in the SI (systeme internationale) metric system. Standard

atmospheric pressure is "one thousand and ten millibars", ie., 1.01 bar. As you dive
underwater, due to the weight of the water above you; the pressure increases by 1 bar
for every 9.806 metres of depth. To a good approximation, we say that the pressure
increases by 1 bar for every 10m underwater.

Bayer mosaic: The pattern of red green and blue filters used to
separate colour in a conventional CCD or CMOS camera sensor. US
Patent No. 3971065, 1976 (expired). See pixels article.

bits-per-pixel (bpp): A measure of tonal rendering capability in digital pictures. A

good impression of continuous tonal rendering can be created by having 256
possible levels of brightness for each of the colours red, green, and blue. 256 levels
can be represented by an 8-bit (1 byte) binary number, so it takes 3 x 8 = 24 bits to
create the impression of continuous tonal rendering. 24 bits corresponds to about
16.7 million possible unique values of hue and brightness. It is better to start with
considerably more than 8 bits per colour if any image adjustment is to be carried out,
so that there will be enough information left to give 8 bits per colour in the final
result.

BNC connector: Bayonet Neill-Concelman (named after the

designers, Paul Neill and Carl Concelman). Coaxial connector used
for video, ethernet, and radio frequency signals. Refs.

Buccaneer connector: Multi-pole (multi-pin) waterproof connector, manufactured

by Bulgin, with an ingress protection rating of IP68 1 bar (ie., submersible to a depth
of at least 10m, and in practice, a lot more).

Burn-time: The time for which a lamp will operate after starting with a fully
charged battery.

Bulkhead: A wall or partition in maritime parlance.

Bulkhead connector: An electrical connector which mounts on a panel or bulkhead.

Buoyancy: The propensity of an object to float (positive buoyancy) or sink (negative

buoyancy) or to do neither (neutral buoyancy).

Camcorder: Sony always called its tape recorders 'Tapecorders', thereby avoiding a
pronunciation difficulty for native Japanese speakers. A combined camera and video
recorder therefore naturally became a 'Camcorder'.
Camera: Latin and Italian: a small room or bedroom. English equivalent: Chamber.
The word Camera came into the English language as a shortened form of the phrase
'camera obscura', a darkened room. The invention of the camera arises from the
observation that, if a house is completely shuttered, light coming through a chink or
keyhole will project an upside-down laterally-reversed image of what lies outside on
to the opposite wall. Artists developed the secret practice of setting-up such a room
(or tent, or box) and placing an easel inside, so that they could sketch over the
resulting image and use it as the basis for a painting. A study by the artist David
Hockney (Secret Knowledge: Rediscovering the lost techniques of the Old Masters,
ISBN 0-500-23785-9) argues that the camera obscura, in combination with various
mirrors, lenses, and tracing screens, was used by artists from about 1430 onwards -
and that the works of many of the Old Masters are effectively photomontages (the
extraordinary skill of the artist being that of rendering the optical image in paint). A
subsequent study of the use of perspective in Hockney's principle example (Arnolfini
& his Wife by Van Eyck) has argued that Van Eyck did not use optical methods in
setting out this work (see Scientific American, Dec 2005, p52-59), although an
alternative interpretation is that the artist varied his optical setup depending on which
part of the picture he was rendering. The word 'photography' means 'drawing with
light', ie., dispensing with the artist, and using light-sensitive chemicals instead.
Because 'camera' means 'bedroom', Italians tend to use the terms 'fotocamera' and
'maccina fotografica'.

CCTV: Closed-circuit Television, i.e., TV not involving radio transmission or long

distances. A somewhat old-fashioned term which confuses the difference between
video and TV. Television means vision at long-distance, usually involving
transmission by radio, radio carrier in long-range cables, and fibre-optics. The term
'CCTV' is therefore tautologous (short-range long-range vision), and a CCTV
camera is nowadays called a 'video camera'.

Capacitor: An electrical storage device. In a flash unit, energy is stored in a high-

voltage capacitor for rapid discharge into the flash tube (See also inverter).

Caveat: Beware. of which to beware.

Caveat Emptor: Buyer beware!

CCD: Charge Coupled Device. An integrated circuit (micro-chip) consisting of a

group of charge storage cells (tiny capacitors) with the ability to pass charge from
one to the next, in a line, like a bucket-brigade (ie, like a group of fire-fighters
passing buckets from one to the next). Originally conceived in the mid 1960s as an
analogue delay line for processing RADAR images, someone came up with the idea
of making each of the individual cells sensitive to light, and setting them out in an
array, like the lines of a TV picture. Thus was born the replacement for the fussy and
troublesome TV camera tube. Cheaper video cameras use a single CCD array with a
colour mosaic filter to separate red, green and blue. Expensive cameras split the light
into red, green, and blue optically, and use 3 CCD arrays.
Cell (electrical): An electrochemical energy source. A device with a particular
voltage difference accross its terminals. Electrochemical cells are often connected in
series to form a 'battery of cells', commonly known as a 'battery'. Hence, for
example, a 12V battery may be constructed by connecting ten 1.2V cells in series. A
cell is composed of two half-cells, each comprisong an electrode (often an
electrically conducting rod, plate, film or cannnister) and an electrolyte (a chemical
solution). The two half-cells may use the same electrolyte, in which case the two
electrodes are immersed in the same solution; or they may used different
electrolytes, in which case the two electrolytes are separated by a semi-permeable
membrane. The common Leclanché cell (also known as the zinc-manganese cell),
has a positive electrode consisting of a porous container filled with manganese
dioxide powder with a carbon rod inserted into it for connection, a zinc can for the
negative electrode, and a solution of ammonium chloride for the electrolyte.

Cell, Corrosion: When two dissimilar metals in contact are immersed in water
containing dissolved salts (an electrolyte), a short-circuited electrochemical cell is
created. The action of the cell is to etch or consume one of the metals thereby
producing electrical energy which is immediately wasted as heat. One way to stop
the corrosion is to reverse-bias the corrosion cell, i.e., apply a voltage in opposition
to the voltage generated so that no current flows. This is done by creating an
additional corrosion cell using a metal which is more readily consumed than the
metal to be protected. Aluminium, for example, can be protected by attaching a
block of magnesium to it, this attachment being called a 'sacrificial anode'.

C-Mount: Screw-in lens mount used on some ciné and video cameras. 1" diameter
thread with 1mm pitch.

CMY: Cyan, Magenta, Yellow. The 'subtractive' primary colours. Colour-space

representation used in conventional print photography.

CMYK: Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, Black. The colour-space representation used by

ink-jet and other printers. The letter 'K' is used for black because 'B' already stands
for blue. The extra black ink is used to overcome the density limitations of the other
inks, i.e., C+M+Y usually comes out dark brown rather than pure black. Also, it is a
waste of money to print black and white documents and text using exotic coloured
inks.

Colour, Color: Colour is what passes for spectroscopic analysis in the rather limited
human (i.e., primate) visual system. A pure monochromatic light source will produce
an impression of colour which depends on the wavelength of the light falling on the
retina. The eye and the brain work together to analyse the input according to the
relative levels of stimulation received by three types of cone cell, which have
sensitivity peaks at wavelengths of 560nm (red), 530nm (green), and 424nm (blue)
(nm = nano metres). The crudeness of this analysis makes colour photography (as we
know it) possible, because we can fool the eye into seeing almost any colour simply
by superimposing three light sources (R, G and B) and adjusting their relative
intensities. Photographic (synthesised) colour is an illusion specifically tailored to
(and exploiting the limitations of) the primate visual system; so don't expect non-
primate animal species (even other mammals) to make sense of photographs and TV
pictures. For more information on the evolution of colour vision in vertebrates and
the differences between species, see "What Birds See", by Timothy H Goldsmith,
Scientific American July 2006. p50 - 57.

Colour space: The set of colours which can be represented by a particular imaging
system. There is considerable latitude of choice in selecting the exact wavelengths
used to stimulate the red, green, and blue receptors (cone cells) in the eye. Different
choices, and imperfections in the spectral purity of the light sources or dyes used,
affect the colour representation capability (colour space) of the system. Synthetic
(RGB or CMY) colour systems moreover, cannot properly recreate colours which
correspond to the violet (450 - 390nm) part of the spectrum (magenta = red + blue is
the best we can do), which is why photographs of bluebells always come out wrong.
When editing images, it is best to use a working colour space which corresponds
reasonably closely to that of the intended display device.

Colour Temperature: The temperature of an equivalent hot black body. A black

body is an object which produces a smooth spectrum when heated (i.e., when
glowing). The black body is equivalent to the light source in question in the sense
that it produces the same relative amounts of red, green, and blue light. Colour
temperature is measured in Kelvin, K (degrees above absolute zero). More
information.

Complementary Colour: The colour of light which, when added to a given colour
in the correct proportion, produces white (or grey, i.e., an illumination without a
colour cast).
Red + Cyan gives white. Green + Magenta gives white. Blue + Yellow gives
white. Hence Red and Cyan are a pair of complementary colours, so are green and
magenta, so are blue and yellow.

Compression (of data): The removal of redundant or repetitive information from a

data set (e.g., a file) in such a way that the original data can be reconstructed.
Lossless compression: compression which can be reversed without loss of
information (e.g., LZW).
Lossy compression: compression which does not permit exact reconstruction of the
original data (e.g., JPEG).

Concave lens: A lens in which the principal optical surface curves into the body of
the glass, ie., the glass has a a hollow or dent.

Convex lens: A lens in which the principal optical surface bulges outwards.

CRT: Cathode Ray Tube. Term used for the large glass vacuum tube used in
television or video displays and oscilloscopes (but slowly being superceded). The
term was coined in the 19th century, before anyone knew that the mysterious
'cathode rays' which would cause a zinc sulphide screen to glow, were actually the
sub-atomic particles we now call electrons. It became impossible to change the
archaic name, because the Americans adopted the term 'electron tube' to refer to the
device which the British scientist Sir Ambrose Fleming preferred to call a 'valve'
(because it only conducts electricity in one direction). Fleming's valve was one of Mr
Edison's light bulbs with an extra plate inside it to capture the electrons emitted by
the hot filament. A CRT is a type of electronic valve (or electron tube) where the
electrons are focused into a beam and fired at a phosphorescent screen. In a video
display, magnetic fields produced by coils of wire fitted to the neck of the tube steer
the electron beam rapidly so that it can be used to trace a series of horizontal lines on
the screen (a raster).

CU: Close-up.

CVBS: 'Chrominance, Video, Blanking, and Synchronisation', ie., a composite video

signal.

D8: Digital 8: Digital video recording system using 8mm tape cassette.

DC: Direct current (as opposed to alternating current); an electrical current which
does not alternate or change significantly with time (at least over a moderate
interval), such as might flow when a light bulb is connected to a battery. Never say
"DC current" (direct current current), just say "DC".

DC-DC Converter: An electronic device which converts from one constant voltage
to another (usually higher) constant voltage, e.g., 6V in, 330V out, as used in typical
small flash units. A DC-DC voltage up-converter may also be called an inverter.

Delrin: Acetal Homopolymer. Engineering plastic with sufficient hardness and

dimensional stability for the manufacture of precision components (e.g., screw-
threads).

Depth of field: No lens can produce a perfectly sharp image. This means that there
will be a range of focus settings for the lens which will give no significant
improvement over an exact setting. Conversely, for a given distance setting, there
will be a range of lens to subject distances over which focusing will be adequate or
not-improvable. This range is called the depth of field. The depth of field of a lens
improves as the aperture of the lens is made smaller, although maximum depth of
field is not the same as maximum optical resolution. The trick, in photography, is to
choose the aperture so that the depth of field embraces the whole depth of the subject
from the furthest to the nearest point. Good lenses are provided with depth of field
markings to assist in this matter, and good SLR cameras have a 'depth-of-field
preview' button, which closes the lens down to the aperture which will be used when
the picture is taken.
Diffuser: A device which increases the effective area of a light-source, i.e., makes it
less point-like. A piece of opal or translucent plastic which can be fitted to the front
of a light source. A diffuser helps to even-out the distribution of light intensity in the
field of illumination, and reduces the problem of specular reflection from the subject.

Diopter:: A unit used to express the power of magnifying glasses. The power of a
lens in diopters is the reciprocal of its focal length in metres, eg., a 2 diopter lens has
a focal length of 0.5m. Screw-in magnifying lenses, which can be fitted to the front
of a camera lens, are sometimes referred to loosely as 'diopters'. More information.

Dispersion: See article on refraction.

DNR: Digital Noise Reduction. Clean-up process used when transferring analog
video signals into the digital domain.

Dome port: Lens port constructed as part of a sphere of uniform thickness. The
dome port corrects for the magnifying effect which occurs at an air-water boundary,
and thus preserves the image geometry and angle of coverage. Contrary to popular
myth, the dome port does not correct for all optical aberrations at the boundary, and
actually introduces some. Introduced aberrations are reduced as the radius of the
dome increases, but the problems of excessive buoyancy and delicacy of the outer
optical surface impose practical limits on dome size.

DV: Digital Video

DX-coding: Pattern printed on the side of a 35mm film cassette which is used by the
camera to sense the required ISO/ASA film-speed setting. The film speed is sensed
by means of electrical contacts pressing against the canister, so dirt can cause mis-
sensing. DX-coding is meant to simplify photography; but if no over-ride is
provided, it can be a pain for advanced photographers who want to deviate from the
film manufacturer's recommendations.

Electromagnetic Radiation: Radio waves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays

and gamma rays. More information.

E/O connector: Electro-Oceanic: A type of wet-connector with two contacts, in

appearance like a rubber jack-plug. See flash connectors page for more information.

E&OE: Errors and omissions excepted. Legally, this means that the information
given cannot form part of a contract, i.e., it is not binding on the seller because it may
require amendment.

EV: Exposure value. A change in exposure of 1EV corresponds to a halving or

doubling of the intensity of light falling on a film or sensor, i.e., a 1EV change is
equivalent to a change of 1 f-stop, or a halving or doubling of shutter speed or ISO
film speed.

EXIF: Exchangeable Image File. An extension to the JPEG file format to include
information provided by a digital camera: time, date, firmware version, focal length,
aperture, shutter speed, exposure value, etc.

Exposure: The product: light intensity x time.

Exposure bracketing: the practice of taking a series of photographs, usually at 1EV

or 1/2EV increments on either side of the expected correct exposure, in order to
obtain a range of images with slightly different exposures from which the best may
be chosen. Exposure bracketing is of particular value when using a recording medium
with limited exposure latitude, such as slide film, or digital cameras which only give
24bit output.

Extension tube: A lens focuses at infinity when the distance from the exit pupil of
the lens to the film is equal to the focal length. As the lens is moved away from the
film, closer objects come into focus, but the amount of extension permitted by the
focus barrel (the thing you turn) is limited at some point by a decision made by the
lens manufacturer. To make a lens focus closer than the designer originally intended,
an extension tube can be fitted between the lens and the camera. Extension tubes for
SLR cameras usually have control linkages or electrical connections passing through
them to retain any automatic functionality of the lens. Extension tubes for the
Nikonos are simply tubes, with a male lens mount on one end and a female mount on
the other. Different length tubes give different ultimate magnifications with a
particular lens. See the FAQ on lenses (macro lens setups) for a discussion of the
implications of extension tubes with respect to resolution. See also: macro lens.

Fasteners: Generic term or collective noun for nuts, bolts, screws, washers, and
other parts or devices used in attaching one object to another.

Field of View, FOV - of a lens: same as angle of coverage.

Filter: Any device which modifies a signal is a filter. Therefore, it is legitimate, but
perverse, to describe a close-up lens as a filter, the real reason being that close-up
lenses screw into the camera filter-ring. In photography, the term 'filter' is normally
reserved for a device (usually a sheet of glass or plastic) which attenuates (reduces)
all or part of the light passing through it. A Neutral-Density (ND) filter causes an
equal reduction across the whole visible spectrum and is used when the light is
simply too bright for the camera equipment. Most other filters modify the colour or
the light in some way, or remove troublesome invisible components. A UV filter
removes ultraviolet light, to prevent haze, but leaves the visible spectrum virtually
unchanged. An underwater colour-correction (UWCC) filter has an orange or
magenta colour to compensate for the cyan-blue or green colour cast introduced by
photographing through water; an there are a host of other colour-modifying filters
for different applications.
Filter thread: Except for occasional perverse decisions on the part of manufacturers,
camera filter screw threads are ISO metric (M) threads with a pitch distance of
0.75mm. If you measure the inside diameter of a female filter thread (using
engineer's calipers), adding the pitch distance to the result gives the nominal thread
diameter plus about a 10th of a mm. E.g., a camera filter thread measures 57.35mm.
Adding the pitch distance gives 58.1mm. The filter thread size is fully specified as
M58x0.75, but usually abbreviated to M58.

FireWire: See i.Link

Fish-eye: Wide angle lenses can be designed in two ways: They can be corrected to
make all straight lines appear straight (rectilinear correction); but this type of
correction introduces perspective distortion, ie., objects at the edge of the frame
appear stretched in comparison to objects in the middle. The alternative is to avoid
rectilinear correction, in which case perspective distortion is minimised; but
rectangles appear to bulge in the shape of a barrel, and the only lines which remain
straight are those which pass through the exact centre of the field of view. The latter
type of lens is called a 'fish-eye' lens.

Fish-eye photograph with vanishing point

placed at the centre of the image.
Fish-eye distortion of rectangular test card. Illustrations © Cameras Underwater.

Flare: A major problem in lens design is that of minimising reflections from the
surfaces of the lens elements. Such reflections result in multiple images, and in light
from bright objects outside the field of view arriving at the film or sensor. The
various optical effects which can occur due to internal lens reflections are known
collectively as 'flare'. Reflections occur at boundaries where there is a sharp change
of refractive index (e.g., on going from air into glass) - the sharper the boundary the
stronger the reflection. Modern lenses have anti-reflection coatings, which make the
change of refractive index more gradual and so reduce (but do not eliminate) flare.
All compound lenses will exhibit some flare when shooting into the sun. Strong
reflections from scene highlights will also cause visible flare. Some lenses can be
fitted with an external 'anti-flare hood' which is designed to cut off all light-rays
which do not originate from objects within the field of view.

Focal length, f: The distance at which a lens brings light from infinity to a point.
The focal length of a simple symmetrical lens, is the distance between the image
plane (e.g., the film) and the middle of the lens, when light from infinity is brought
to a focus. I.e., you can estimate the focal length of a simple lens by projecting an
image of the sun onto a rock, or some other hear-resistant object, and measuring the
distance from the middle of the lens to the image (do not look at the sun through a
lens, do not focus an image of the sun onto your skin. If you focus an image of the
sun onto a piece of paper, the paper will burst into flames if the image is bright
enough). Strictly, the place to measure from is the exit-pupil of the lens, which is
where the iris (aperture) appears to be when you look into the back of the lens. Most
camera lenses are not symmetrical however, i.e., the actual focal length is different if
you turn the lens around, in which case, the figure quoted is the focal length of an
equivalent symmetrical lens. Many camera lenses also are of the retrofocus type, i.e.,
they have additional optics at the rear to allow them to sit close to the film plane, and
the simple method for estimating focal length given above will produce misleading
results. Photographers often talk of focal length in the context of a given camera
format, in which case the term serves a shorthand for the associated angle of
coverage. Unfortunately, the commonly understood relationship between focal
length and angle of coverage breaks down when you change the optical medium; i.e.,
lenses of a particular specified focal length are not as wide-angle underwater as they
are in air. E.g., a 15mm underwater lens has about the same coverage as a 20mm
lens designed for air.

Format: The 'format' of a film or camera is the dimensions of the image area (or
frame). The 35mm (full-frame) film format used by stills cameras is 36 x 24mm. The
35mm (half-frame) format, used by motion-picture cameras is 24 x 18mm. The 2¼"
square (medium) format is 57.15 x 57.15mm (not 60 x 60mm as is sometimes
stated). The new Four-Thirds format for digital cameras has a diagonal measurement
of 22.5mm, regardless of the chosen aspect ratio (i.e., any combination of horizontal
and vertical size may be used provided that the diagonal is always 22.5mm). Format
sizes of the various digital imaging sensors are given in the pixels article.

Four-Thirds: An "open-standard" image format and common lens-mount

specification for high-quality digital cameras, intended to make lenses from different
camera manufacturers interchangeable (see http://www.four-thirds.org/en/). So far it
is supported by Olympus, Kodak, Fujifilm, Panasonic, Sanyo, and Sigma. The
specification dictates a minimum image circle diameter of 22.5mm, so that although
the format diagonal must always be 22.5mm, the aspect ratio (width x height) may
differ between cameras. If the 4:3 aspect ratio is used however (as is the intention),
the format will be 18 x 13.5mm. An important feature of the specification is that the
throat diameter of the lens mount is much larger than the format diagonal. This
allows the use of telecentric lenses (lenses from which light emerges almost parallel
to the axis), thus solving a problem of digital image sensors, which is that there is a
fall-off in sensitivity and degradation of the ability to separate colours for light rays
arriving at an oblique angle.

FOV: Field of view. Usually synonymous with Angle of Coverage.

f-stop: The illuminating power of a lens is a function of the focal length of the lens
and the diameter of the hole (aperture, iris) through which the light is allowed to
pass. The amount of light falling on a film or electronic sensor can be adjusted by
changing the diameter of the aperture; but instead of recording the actual diameter,
we can treat all lenses equivalently if we record the aperture diameter as a function
of the focal length. Thus we record apertures as f/n (focal length divided by a
number n). eg., a 50mm lens at f/2 has an aperture of 25mm, an 80mm lens at f/2 has
an aperture of 40mm, but both have the same illuminating power. A standard series
of apertures has evolved such that the illumination doubles or halves with each click-
stop (f-stop). If you double the diameter (or radius) of a circle, you quadruple the
area (area = π r²), and it is the area which determines the level of illumination. Thus,
to get from one f-stop to the next, the number n is not doubled, but multiplied by the
square root of 2 ( √2 = 1.414). The standard f-stop series thus comes out as: f/1,
f/1.4, f/2, f/2.8, f/4, f/5.6, f/8, f/11, f/16, f/22, f/32, etc., ie, the number doubles for
every 2 steps in the series. The smaller the number n, the larger the aperture. The
aperture designation "f/22" incidentally is an ancient mistake. A more exactly
calculated aperture value is f/22.6 which, rounded to the nearest whole number,
should really be called "f/23".

GIF: 'Graphical Interchange Format'. A compressed image file format best suited to
diagrams and images with a restricted colour range. In GIF compression, the colour
range of the image is first reduced to 256 colours or less, then the remaining
information is further reduced in size by a scheme known as LZW (Lempel-Ziv-
Welch) compression. LZW compression is lossless, which means that you can edit
and re-save the image without degrading it, but the initial colour-space compression
makes the format unsuitable for high-quality colour photographs. Note however, that
the 256 levels in a black and white image can be indexed as colours, which means
that the GIF format is suitable for high quality continuous-tone monochrome images.
The LZW algorithm is patented by Unisys, and in countries where the patent still
applies (including UK) it is illegal to generate GIF images using software which has
not been licensed. The Unisys patent expired in the US in 2003, but in other affected
countries, open-source software users should consider the PNG format as an
alternative.

Gland: In underwater engineering parlance: an joint or interface which prevents

water ingress; e.g., control gland, cable gland, etc. A sealing structure which permits
passage through a bulkhead (vessel wall), usually a combination of machined metal
or plastic parts and O-rings.

GTO: Gate Turn-Off Thyristor. A power switching device used to switch-off

(quench) the current in a flash tube in order to achieve automatic or TTL flash
exposure control. Now slowly being replaced by the IGBT.

Guide Number: A number used to represent the illuminating power of a

photographic flash. When electronic flash is used, the camera shutter opens, the flash
fires, and the shutter closes, but because the flash duration is very short, the shutter
has no control over the amount of light falling on the film. Consequently, the level of
film exposure due to the flash can only be controlled by the lens aperture (f-stop)
setting. In metric countries, the flash guide number is the aperture setting required
for ISO 100 film when the flash to subject distance is 1m (in North America, the
guide number is the 100ASA aperture setting for a distance of 1 foot. Divide the
American guide number by 3.28 to get it in metres). Using the Guide number G, the
required aperture setting for any film speed and distance (in air) is obtained thus:

normally, this equation is used to produce a guide table, which is attached to the
flash.

HAD: Hole Accumulation Diode. Diode structure used in some types of CCD image
sensor.

Hand-wheel (nut , bolt ): A threaded nut or bolt which

can be tightened by hand, usually in the form of a knob with a
gripable (knurled) surface, or with protrusions (wings).

Handy: Quasi-English term (malapropism) used in Germany to mean 'Mobile

Telephone', and used in other countries to mean 'hand-held'. In normal English
idiom, handy simply means 'useful'. Other usages appear bizarre to native English
speakers.

Helical Scanning: The problem in recording video signals onto magnetic tape is that
a video signal has enormous bandwidth in comparison to an audio signal. This
means that the tape must move at a very high speed relative to the recording head.
Tape in an audio cassette moves at 47.625mm/sec (1+7/8 ips). To record analog
video, the tape would need to move at about 5 - 10m/sec (11 - 22mph) depending on
the required picture quality, which is impractical.. The solution is to mount recording
heads on a drum, which is set at a slight angle to the path of the tape and spins
rapidly while the tape moves by slowly.. The result is that the recording heads
execute a helical path relative to the movement of the tape, and thereby write the
video information at high speed as a series of diagonal stripes. All modern video-
tape recorders use helical scanning, and the technique is also used to write CD-
quality audio on to tape in DAT (digital audio tape) machines.

Hi-8: High-band Video 8.

HID (Lamp): High Intensity Discharge Lamp.

High-band video recording: Analog video signals are written onto tape as a
frequency-amplitude modulated (FAM) radio-frequency signal. The frequency
modulated (FM) part represents the luminance (brightness) information, and the
amplitude modulated (AM) part represents the chrominance (colour) information.
Early systems used a relatively low-frequency range for the FM, but as the sizes of
the magnetic particles in the tape became smaller with improvements in the
technology, higher frequency recordings became possible, with consequent
improvements in the available video bandwidth. This led VTR manufacturers to
release high-band versions of their recorders (e.g., S-VHS and Hi-8). The high-band
machines can record and play the earlier tapes in the low-band format, but the old
low-band machines cannot play the high-band tapes, and cannot record or erase them
properly because higher magnetic field-strengths are required. A high-band machine
can however, make a low-band recording on a high-band tape for playback in a low-
band machine.

Histogram: In digital photography; a graph of the number of pixels occupying each

possible brightness level. Experienced picture editors learn to look at the image
histogram and assess the 'health' of the image in terms of what it will look like when
printed. It there are serious gaps in the histogram (brightness levels not used or 'not
populated') the picture will not be able to give the impression of continuous tonal
gradation, and the print will appear 'posterised', ie., made out of discrete blobs of
colour with obvious boundaries between them.

Hot Shoe: A camera accessory shoe with

electrical connections for a flash unit. Different
manufacturers use different connector pad
layouts and electrical signals. A standard
accessory shoe without any electrical
connections is sometimes also erroneously
called a hot-shoe, so that, for example, Sea & Nikon Olympus
hot shoe hot shoe
Sea makes a flash arm to fit on the accessory
shoe and calls it a "hot-shoe mini-arm".

Housing (underwater): That part of an underwater camera or other equipment in

which the waterproof seals are located. A casing or box with waterproof seals,
designed to contain a camera or other equipment in such a way that it can be used
underwater.

Hydrophone: Underwater microphone. Because air is an

easily compressible medium, but water is not; sound
waves (pressure waves) travelling in water involve small
displacements of the water molecules, whereas sound
waves travelling in air involve relatively large
displacements of the air molecules. Consequently, if you
put an ordinary microphone in a box, the sound waves in
the water won't move the walls of the box very much,
won't compress the air in the box very much, and so won't
move the diaphragm of the microphone very much. The
Bulkhead mounting
solution is to have a specially designed microphone in hydrophone.
which the diaphragm is actually in contact with the water
and is sensitive to very small displacements.

Hyperfocal distance (of a lens): The distance setting which gives the greatest
possible range of distances at which objects appear to be in focus. Good lenses have
means of indicating the depth of field for a given aperture setting. The hyperfocal
setting for a given aperture is obtained by placing the most distant limit of the depth
of field range on ∞. The corresponding 'hyperfocal distance' is the actual distance
setting when the hyperfocal criterion has been met. Note that wide-angle lenses have
an extremely large depth of field, and therefore, unless being used for extreme close-
up work, are best set to the hyperfocal distance and left alone (refocusing is only
necessary if the aperture is changed).

Hz, Hertz, c/s: Hertz is the unit of frequency, and is synonymous with 'cycles per
second' (c/s). The unit was established in commemoration of the work of Heinrich
Hertz, whose scientific experiments in the 19th century were important to the
development of wireless telegraphy (sometimes also known as 'radio'). Due to minor
diplomatic differences between Britain and Germany during the 1930s and 40s, the
unit was not properly adopted by the Anglophone world until the 1960s, and some
people still persist in using c/s.

ICS: Ikelite connector system. See also: flash connectors page.

ICS-2: A 2-pin wet connector used with early Ikelite manual flash units.
ICS-4: An obsolete 4-pin O-ring sealed connector used with early Ikelite automatic
flash units.
ICS-5: A 5-pin O-ring sealed connector used mainly with Ikelite TTL flash units
and video lights.
ICS-10: A 10-pin O-ring sealed connecter used with scientific and technical
instrumentation.

IDC: Insulation Displacement Connector.

IGBT: Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor. A general purpose power switching

device, which finds application in photography as the series control (tube switch-off)
element in automatic and TTL flash units. The IGBT control circuit is nowadays
preferred over the old Vivitar GTO (Gate Turn Off) Thyristor circuit, because it can
reset ready to fire in about 30ms (as opposed to 100ms for the GTO), and so gives
better performance in systems which use pre-flashes for exposure evaluation (i.e.,
with digital cameras).

Ikelite: The founder of the company is Ike Brigham, and the first product was an
underwater light, hence Ikelite.
i.Link: Digital video interface (connection between camera and editing equipment,
monitor, computer, etc.) specified in document IEEE 1394. Also known as
'FireWire'. Data transfer speed up to 400Mbit/s.

Inch: The Metric and Imperial measurement systems were finally made compatible
in the 1960s by a small adjustments to the inch and the metre to make 1" = 25.4mm
exactly. This made it possible for any machine-tool to manufacture exactly
according to either system by the inclusion of a 127-tooth gear in the screw-cutting
gearbox.

Interpolation: Changing the number of samples in a data set (e.g., pixels in an

image) by estimating the values for points for which no data exists.

Inverter: A device which produces a high voltage output from a low voltage source
(sometimes also called a DC to DC converter). In portable photographic flash units,
an inverter is used to charge a high-voltage capacitor from a battery, which is why
the internal circuitry of a flash gun is dangerous even though the batteries can be
handled with impunity. The inverter in a flash unit is an oscillator, which usually
runs at a frequency in the audible range and so makes a whining noise.

IP rating: Ingress protection rating to BS EN 60529: 1992. See IP ratings article.

IR, Infrared: Beneath red. That part of the electromagnetic spectrum (light) which
lies just below red in frequency (ie., of longer wavelength than red). See also
electromagnetic radiation.

Iris: Synonymous with 'aperture', but now somewhat old-fashioned; the variable
diameter hole used to control the amount of light passing through a lens. See f-stop.

ISM: Industrial, Scientific, and Medical.

ISO: International Standards Organisation.

ISO-9660: The basic standard for recording computer data files onto Compact Disc.
ISO 9660 allows only for upper case 8.3 type filenames, using the characters A to Z,
_ (underscore) and - (minus or hyphen). Because of the limitations of ISO 9660,
various extensions to the standard exist to permit the use of long filenames and more
characters, but these extensions are not compatible across the various computer
platforms (Microsoft, GNU/Linux, UNIX, Macintosh). Consequently, if you want to
create a disc which can be read by all current computer systems, you must stick to
plain old ISO 9660.

ISO film speed: The method of film speed (sensitivity) classification developed for
the American Standards Association (ASA) and finally adopted by the International
Standards Organisation (ISO). The scale is such, that if the ISO speed number of the
film is doubled, the sensitivity of the film is doubled, eg., if for a given lighting
situation, you change from ISO 100 film to ISO 200 film, you must either close
down the lens aperture by one stop, or double the shutter speed.

Joule, J: The unit of energy. 1 Joule = 1 watt second.

JIS: Japanese Industry Standard.

JPEG: Joint Picture-Expert's Group. A full-colour image file format with variable
compression. JPEG compression is always lossy (there is no such thing as a lossless
JPEG), and so an image should only be converted to this format when all of the
editing has been finished. Lightly compressed JPEG images are only distinguishable
from the uncompressed original by careful comparison with a magnifying glass.
Heavy compression (all too prevalent on the web) produces very small files, but the
quality is awful. It is better to keep picture sizes small than to display large images
with obvious compression artifacts. See also EXIF.

K, Kelvin: The unit of absolute temperature, ie., degrees above absolute zero. Named
after Lord Kelvin, who was the first to show that there is a degree of coldness below
which it is not possible to go. 0K = -273.16°C. When a temperature is expressed in
Kelvin, the ° symbol is not used, ie., eg., 0°C = 273.16K. See also Colour
Temperature.

K: Potassium (kalium).

Lanyard: A short piece of rope or line used as a handle or tied-on to some other
object. A wrist-lanyard is a loop of thin rope with a sliding toggle, which may be
tightened around the wrist to secure the object (usually a torch or a camera) attached
to it. When SCUBA diving, it is better to secure a camera by means of a wrist-
lanyard than by using a neck-strap, since the mouthpiece must be removed in order to
take a neck-strap on and off.

LCD: Liquid Crystal Display.

LED: Light Emitting Diode.

Lexan: An extremely tough polycarbonate plastic, usually transparent, used to make

underwater housings. 'Lexan' is a trademark of the General Electric corp. See
polycarbonate.

LZW: Lempel, Ziv, Welch. A fast lossless data compression algorithm patented by
Unisys (see also GIF and TIFF).
Ref: "A Technique for High Performance Data Compression", Terry A. Welch, IEEE
Computer, Vol 17, No 6, 1984, p8-19.

M: Prefix used to indicate a screw-thread conforming to the ISO (International

Standards Organisation) Metric system (60° pitch angle). A metric thread
specification includes a nominal diameter in mm and a pitch distance (i.e., distance
in mm between adjacent turns of the thread), e.g., M6x1 = 6mm diameter, 1mm
pitch; M8x1.25 = 8mm diameter, 1.25mm pitch. The pitch distance is often included
because each diameter is available with a range of pitches from coarse to fine; but if
the pitch distance is omitted, it is usually assumed that the coarsest thread is implied:
e.g., the thread of a Nikonos connector is M14x1, specifying it as M14 will not do,
because the coarsest 14mm thread is M14x2. Camera filter threads are an exception
to the 'always state the pitch unless it's the coarsest one' rule however because, apart
from occasional perversity on the part of some manufacturers, the filter thread pitch
is 0.75mm. To find the tapping hole size for a metric thread, simply subtract the
pitch from the nominal diameter; e.g., for an M6x1 socket, the tapping drill is
5.0mm. Note when measuring threads, that a screw is always slightly smaller than
the nominal diameter, and a socket (threaded hole) is slightly larger. This difference
(usually a few 10ths of a mm) is necessary to ensure that the parts will fit together
and turn smoothly.

Macro: Larger than life. Strictly, a macro photograph is one where the image
recorded on the film is larger than the subject. The term is used loosely however, to
describe an image which can easily be printed or projected `larger than life'. Cameras
are usually adapted for macro photography by adding a lens extension tube or a
supplementary lens, or in the case of an SLR, by fitting a lens which can focus at
very short distances.

Macro lens: An extreme close-up lens. This may be a complete camera lens, or a
lens attachment which screws into the filter ring or bayonet mount of the main
camera lens. A macro lens is usually associated with a ratio such as 1:1 or 1:2 etc.
The first number is the relative size of the image on the film, the second number is
the relative size of the subject, so read a:b as "a on the film, b in real life". SLR
macro lenses are usually focusable from infinity down to 1:1 (life-size on the film),
or 1:2 (half life-size on the film). Nikon refers to its SLR macro lenses as `micro'
lenses, e.g., `60mm AF Micro-Nikkor'. A removable lens can be converted into a
macro lens by the addition of an extension tube.

Macro port: A flat port, ie., a plane glass or plastic optical window. The term arises
because a flat port is most useful with macro lenses.

MEK: Methyl-ethyl-ketone. CH3-CO-C2H5. A volatile, flammable, chemical

solvent. Used in the printing industries.

Memory Effect (of Ni-Cd cells): Early Nickel-Cadmium cells had a reputation for
losing capacity if they were not discharged fully during each cycle of use. This was
dubbed 'the memory effect', i.e., the cell remembered that you didn't use it to the full
and changed accordingly. Modern developments in Ni-Cd technology have largely
eliminated the memory effect, but the myth of its existence persists. In fact, more
damage is done to cells by people trying to avoid the effect than by people who
ignore it altogether; the reason being that batteries are likely to fail permanently if
discharged significantly below 1V per cell, which is exactly what happens if you
leave equipment on until the batteries are completely flat - Don't do it!. It is also
inadvisable to leave Ni-Cds unused for long periods, because they will self-discharge
slowly and eventually drop below the point of no return, so take them out
occasionally and recharge them. If you are superstitious about the memory effect,
use an electronic battery discharger, i.e., a device which takes the battery down to
1V per cell and then stops drawing current.

Meniscus Lens: A lens which is concave on one side and convex on the other. If the
curvature of the convex part is greater than that of the concave part, the lens is a
magnifying glass. If the concave part has greater curvature than the convex part, the
lens is a de-magnifying glass. Inexpensive screw-in close-up lenses are of the
meniscus type, this being a good compromise between optical quality (freedom from
aberrations) and cost. Close-up lenses constructed as achromatic doublets are
considerably superior, but much more expensive.

MM2: Abbreviation for Motormarine Mk II (A Sea & Sea camera).

MM2 Bayonet: The Motormarine II bayonet mounting system for supplementary
lenses.

Molykote: Dow-Corning trade name for O-ring lubricants. Molykote 111 is the
industry standard silicone grease, a highly water-repellent non-toxic lubricant, often
re-packaged into small tubs by underwater housing manufacturers. Molykote
FS1292 is fluorosilicone grease, a special formulation designed to reduce the
problem of swelling due to grease absorption which occurs when silicone grease is
used on silicone rubber O-rings. Despite the name, Molykote lubricants do not
contain molybdenum disulphide.

MTF: Modulation transfer function. A factor between 0 and 1 indicating the extent
to which contrast is reduced when an optical system is projecting a pattern at a
particular resolution. Also known as Spatial Frequency Response (SFR)

Na: Sodium (natrium).

NBR: Nitrile Butadiene Rubber. A rubber with excellent resilience and chemical
resistance. Preferred material for the manufacture of camera O-rings, usually black.
NBR has only limited UV resistance, and so should be stored in the dark. The
optimal lubricant for NBR is silicone grease.

Ni-Cd, "Nicad": Nickel-Cadmium rechargeable battery. See also memory effect.

Nikonos: Underwater camera system, manufactured by Nikon; developed from the

'Calypsophot' camera designed by the Belgian engineer Jean DeWouters for the
Calypso expeditions of Jacques Cousteau. See the Nikonos article for more
background.
Nikonos grease: Petroleum gel (also marketed as 'Vaseline'). Suitable lubricant for
NBR (black nitrile) O-rings, but somewhat inferior to silicone grease.

Nikonos connector: See flash connectors page.

Nikonos V: Pronounced "Nikonos five", or "Nik five", not "Nikonos vee".

NiMH: Nickel metal-hydride (cell or battery). High-capacity rechargeable battery,

free from toxic cadmium.

Nitrile rubber: see NBR.

NOS: New Old Stock

NTSC: 'National Television Systems Committee' - The colour television system

used in the USA, Canada, and Japan. For more information, see the TV standards
article.

Ohm, Ω : The unit of electrical resistance. A resistance of 1 Ohm will pass a current
of 1 Amp when a voltage of 1 Volt is applied across it.

OEM: Own Equipment Manufacturer. Generally a supplier who builds finished

products from sub-assemblies supplied by other manufacturers.

OK: Affirmative (Scottish: "Och aye!"): A light on a flash unit which illuminates
briefly when a TTL-stop (quench) signal has been received. See TTL flash.

OR: Abbreviation for 'O-ring'.

O-ring: The un-prepossessing rubber ring which keeps the water out of underwater
housings is actually part of an extremely clever sealing system which becomes more
efficient as the pressure difference between inside and outside increases. The
cleverness lies not so much in the ring itself, but in the shape of the groove in which
it sits, which is designed so that the pressure forces the rubber into the gap through
which the water is trying to pass. Consequently, and perhaps surprisingly, an
underwater housing is more likely to leak at shallow depths than at great depths. One
thing which will disrupt the operation of an O-ring seal however, is dirt, which
creates gaps and channels through which the water may creep. Good husbandry in
underwater photography therefore, lies in the matter of cleaning the O-ring and the
O-ring groove meticulously before closing the housing. For a less terse discussion of
how O-ring seals work, see the starting out section. For more information on O-ring
care, see the FAQ on maintenance. See also Shore hardness.

OS: Operating System, i.e., Windows, Mac OS, Unix, Gnu/Linux, etc.
Oscillator: A device which undergoes a cyclical behaviour when supplied with
energy. A pendulum is an oscillator. A weight on a spring is an oscillator. The term
however is normally used to describe electronic circuits which produce an
alternating current or voltage when connected to a battery or a DC power source.
Oscillators are used in radios, TVs, watches, cameras, electronic flash units,
computers, etc., etc., etc.

PAL: 'Phase Alternating Line' - The colour television system used in Europe,
Australia, and New Zealand. For more information, see the TV standards article.

Parallax: The apparent difference in position of an object when seen from two
different viewpoints. The problem with cameras having a viewfinder separate from
the main lens (as opposed to reflex cameras) is that the main lens and the viewfinder
see the subject from slightly different positions. This causes framing errors. A partial
solution is to tilt the axis of the viewfinder, but a different amount of tilt is required
depending on the distance to the subject. External viewfinders sometimes have a
parallax compensation knob, which tilts the viewfinder according to a distance scale.
Built-in viewfinders are usually set for correct framing at some specified distance,
but may have parallax compensation marks in the framing window for use at short
lens to subject distances. Single-Lens reflex cameras do not suffer from viewfinder
parallax.

Pb: Lead (plumbum).

PC: PalmCorder, i.e., a Camcorder which can sit on the palm of the hand.

PC: 'Photo Co-ax.' Small circular connector used in conjunction with manual flash
equipment.

PC: Polycarbonate.

PCB: Printed circuit board.

PCM: Pulse-code modulation. Digital audio recording mode used by tape recorders.

Pel: 'Picture element'. Now largely obsolete. The preferred alternative term is 'Pixel'.

Phonetic Alphabet: A set of words which represent letters, used to facilitate the
sending of messages via restricted-bandwidth communication systems (i.e., radio).
The International Phonetic Alphabet is the approved set of such words, being
chosen so that no two words sound similar: Alpha, Bravo, Charlie, Delta, Echo,
Foxtrot, Golf, Hotel, Italy, Juliet, Kilo, Lima, Mike, November, Oscar, Papa,
Quebec, Romeo, Sierra, Tango, Uniform, Victor, Whiskey, X-ray, Yankee, Zulu.

Pixel: 'Picture element'.

of a colour display: a dot or a small area of a picture which carries the three
attributes: hue, colour saturation, and brightness. Any picture can be made up of an
array of 'dots' carrying these attributes and viewed from such a distance that the dots
are no longer visible. In practice, pixels are usually composite entities; the pixels of a
TV screen, for example, being made up of areas of red, green, and blue.
of an RGB image file (after decompression): a set of three binary numbers
representing brightness values for red green and blue at a particular point in the
image.
of a CMYK image file (after decompression): a set of four binary numbers
representing amounts of cyan, magenta, yellow, and black ink to be applied at a
particular point in a printed image.
of a camera: an individual light-sensing element. The number of pixels attributed to
a digital camera is usually the total number of light sensing elements (red + green +
blue). The camera pixel count is usually taken to be a figure of merit for image
resolution (detail recording capability), but this figure is not directly related to the
displayable pixels recorded in the output files (see the pixels article for more
information).

PMR: Professional Mobile Radio - e.g., the hand-held VHF/UHF transceivers used
for emergency and ship-to-shore communications.

PNG: Portable Network Graphics. File format designed to get around the software
patent on the LZW algorithm used in GIF compression (Unisys patent on LZW
expired in the US in 2003, but may still apply in some European countries, including
UK).

POA, £POA: Price on application; i.e., when someone asks for one we'll find out
and let them know.

Polycarbonate: Tough plastic which can be used to make high-quality injection-

moulded engineering components. Trade names: Lexan, Merlon, and Tuffak.
Preferred material for sport-diving-depth underwater housings; also famous as the
material used to make bullet-proof shields. Polycarbonate is attacked by chlorinated
solvents, but can be cleaned using mild detergent and water or alcohol.
Polycarbonate is liable to crack if drilled or machined incorrectly (specially ground
drills are required). See also Lexan.

Port: Optical quality window in an underwater housing (by analogy with a ship's
'port hole').

Portrait Lens: Have you ever wondered why people look extremely ugly in
passport photos (particularly the ones taken in photo booths)? The reason is that the
picture has been taken from short-range using a wide-angle lens, causing the
subject's ears to disappear behind the cheek-bones. To photograph a face in proper
proportion, the camera must be a reasonable distance away from the subject (not
possible in a photo-booth) and a lens of somewhat longer focal length than a normal
(standard) view lens is required in order for the head and shoulders to fill the frame.
For 35mm cameras, the best focal length for portraits is in the range 80 - 135mm,
and lenses with focal lengths in this region are known as 'portrait lenses'.

Pre-flash: A short burst of light emitted from a flash unit just prior to the main flash.
A pre-flash can be used for exposure evaluation: i.e., it can be used to make a trial
exposure from which the correct exposure for the photograph is calculated. One or
more pre-flashes can also be used to cause a portrait subject's pupils to contract, this
being a somewhat dubious attempt to reduce the red-eye effect which plagues
compact cameras (and which results from placing the light source too close to the
camera lens). Some cameras, particularly when set to control proprietary slaves, may
issue multiple pre-flashes during the course of an exposure evaluation.

PSD: Photoshop document. Adobe proprietary format for storing multi-layered

images (ie., photo-montage in progress). PSD is the preferred image file format for
Photoshop users; and given the widespread use of Adobe software in the
photographic and publishing industries, it is also a perfectly good file exchange
format. Note that the PSD specification changes with every whole number version
release of Photoshop, but is backwards compatible; so you must have the latest
version to be sure of being able to open any PSD file.

Pupil: Exit pupil: The point from which all rays of light appear to emerge from a
lens. Entrance pupil: The point from which rays of light appear to emerge from a
lens when it is reversed (turned around). For compound (multi-element) lenses, the
precise location of the pupil is best found by looking at the manufacturers detailed
specification (if available), but for practical purposes, it is where the iris appears to
be when you look into the lens. Note that for an asymmetrical lens, the pupil appears
to be in a different place depending on which side of the lens you examine, for
which reason we talk of `entrance' and `exit' pupils. The entrance pupil is the one
you can see from outside the camera.

PVC: 'Poly Vinyl-chloride'. A normally hard plastic, with good resistance to

weathering and UV light, which can be made flexible by the addition of plasticisers.
The un-plasticised version is called "UPVC". PVC is attacked by many industrial
cleaning agents, especially chlorinated solvents, ketones (e.g., MEK), and furans
(e.g., THF). Cleaning with agents other than mild detergent and water is not
recommended.

Quench: Extinguish, put-out. The business of turning off the current in a flash-tube
for the purpose of automatic exposure control, it being no easy matter to put the
damned thing out once the discharge has begun. In TTL flash photography, the
camera must send a 'quench' signal to the strobe (flash gun).

Quench tube: There are two ways of quenching a photographic flash. The modern
method is to switch off the current in the tube using a series control element such as
a GTO (gate turn-off) thyristor (often the ubiquitous Mitsubishi CR3JM), or better
still an Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT). The old fashioned method is to
dump the residual charge in the capacitor by shorting it with a special trigger tube
(thyratron) with a very low on-resistance, called a "quench tube". The quench tube is
a small Xenon tube with a large electrode area and a small inter-electrode distance.
Quench tubes waste the residual energy and require the system to be recharged from
scratch after a controlled flash. Switching off the current with a GTO or IGBT
conserves the residual energy and so shortens the recycle time after a controlled
flash. Consequently, quench tube systems are obsolete (and very annoying to use).

Raster: The rectangular area of illumination formed on a TV screen by the scanning

process. An array of lines or dots of varying brightness which, when viewed from a
suitable distance, produces the illusion of an image. Originally a German word for a
printer's half-tone screen. Probably first used in connection with 'electrical
photography' by Arthur Korn in his 1907 book "Elektrische Fernphotographie
(electrical distance photography)" (source: Richard F Lyon, Foveon Inc. private
communication 2004).

Rasterisation: The conversion of a vector-based graphical representation into an

array of pixels.

Ready: A flash unit is ready to fire once the main storage capacitor has been charged
to a voltage at which the tube can be expected to trigger reliably. This situation is
usually communicated to the user by lighting a neon lamp or an LED, and to the
camera by sending a signal along the sync. cable which causes the camera to adopt a
shutter speed at which flash (X) synchronisation is possible. Thus a flash unit has a
'ready light', and a flash cable or connector (with certain exceptions) carries a 'ready
signal'. Note that the ready light or signal is asserted when the flash unit is
triggerable, but it does not imply that the flash is ready to give full output. If a flash
unit has voltage regulation, you will hear interruptions in the whining noise from the
inverter when the capacitor is fully charged. If the flash unit has no voltage
regulation, the inverter will run continuously, and in this case, as a rough rule of
thumb, you should wait about twice the time it takes for the ready light to come on
after a full light burst to ensure that the capacitor is fully charged.

Rebikoff port, Rebikoff corrector: A lens which corrects for refraction at the air-
water boundary, characterised by a flat surface in contact with the water and a
concave surface in contact with the air. The Rebikoff corrector is afocal, and
produces less chromatic aberration than a dome port, but is more expensive to make.

Reciprocity, Principle of: Photographic exposure is defined as: light intensity

multiplied by exposure time, ie., I x t. It follows that a given amount of exposure can
be achieved by using a high intensity and a short time, or a low intensity and a long
time, or somewhere in between, provided that the required product I x t is obtained.
This is known as the (photographic) principle of reciprocity (increase one, reduce the
other). The principle of reciprocity only holds true however if the recording medium
has a linear (proportional) response to light intensity, and this is not always the case.
Film is reasonably linear, but needs additional exposure time at very low light levels.
CCD sensors become non-linear at very high brightness levels. When the exposure
setting (as determined using a light meter, for example) has to be adjusted to
compensate for very low or very high brightness levels, the recording medium is said
to suffer from reciprocity failure.

Rectilinear Lens: A lens which reproduces right-angles and straight lines correctly.

Red-eye: If a flash light source is placed very close to a camera lens, a direct
reflection from the blood vessels in the back of the eye will cause a portrait subject
to appear to have illuminated red pupils. The proper solution to this problem is to
move the light source away from the lens (i.e., to use a flash unit separate from the
camera). The compact-camera solution however is either to shine a light into the
subject's eyes, or to fire one or more pre-flashes; the object of the exercise being to
cause the subject's pupils to contract, thereby 'reducing' (but not eliminating) the red-
eye effect. All too often, a pre-flash will cause the subject to blink; and we may then
presumably console ourselves with the observation that there is definitely be no red-
eye problem when photographing people who have their eyes closed.

Refraction: The bending of rays of light as they pass from one medium into another,
e.g., from air to water, or from air to glass. More information.

Refractive Index: See article on refraction.

Resistance, Resistor: All electrical conductors (except superconductors) have some

resistance, which means that they convert electrical energy into heat. A resistor is
simply a device for which the property of resistance is accurately characterised.
Resistors are useful because they obey 'Ohms law', ie., the current which flows in a
resistor is exactly proportional to the voltage applied across it.

Resolution (resolving power): The detail recording capability of an image

acquisition system (camera, lens, etc.). Resolution is usually expressed in lines per
unit length, e.g., colour film can resolve about 110 lines/mm, the UW-Nikkor 15mm
f/2.8 lens can resolve 73 lines/mm at the centre of the image at f/8. The number of
pixels in an image is not a measure of resolution, but it is related of the maximum
amount of detail which can be represented. See pixels and resolution article.

Reversal Film: Positive (i.e., slide) film. Film in which the original negative image
is reversed during the development process to produce a positive transparent image.

RF: Radio Frequency

RGB: Red, Green, Blue. The 'additive' primary colours. The colour-space
representation used by TV and Video monitors.

RMS: The square root of the mean squared. Of an alternating voltage or current: the
equivalent steady (direct) voltage or current which will have the same heating effect.
RX: Receiver, Receive.

SCART: "Societé de Constructeurs d' Appareils Radio recepteurs et Téléviseurs".

21 pin interface connector for direct audio + video connection between TV and
VCR, DVD, etc. Also known as a 'Péritel' or 'Euroconnector'.

SCUBA: Self-contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus (as opposed to diving

equipment supplied with air from the surface). Term normally applied to diving
equipment which supplies air from a tank by means of a demand (suction operated)
valve. Invented in practical form in the 1940s by Jacques Cousteau and Emile
Gagan. Cousteau originally dubbed the device an "Aqualung"; but the British Navy
decided that this sounded like an unpleasant disease, and insisted on renaming it
"SCUBA".

Sealock connector: Also known as a Nelson connector. A 2-pin wet-connector, ie.,

a connector which can be pulled-out and plugged-in underwater. Used for flash
synchronisation on the Sea & Sea Motormarine Mk1. Also used as a telephone
connector on full-face diving masks. See flash connectors page for more
information.

Sea & Sea connector: A 4-pin waterproof connector used with the Sea & Sea TTL
flash system.

SECAM: 'Sequential Couleur avec Memoire' - The colour television system used in
France, French overseas territories (not Canada), and Russia. For more information,
see the TV standards article.

Shore hardness, Sh: A hardness scale from 0 - 100 used to express the
deformability of elastic materials (rubbers). Commonly available O-rings have a
hardness of around 70sh. The O-rings used in Nikonos cameras are 60sh. Using too
soft an O-ring may result in failure of the seal by extrusion (pushing-out). Using too
hard an O-ring will result in extreme stiffness, and potential failure due to excessive
wear.

Shutter lag: The time interval between pressing the shutter-release button and the
opening of the camera shutter (often several tenths of a second). Some delay is
inevitable in SLR cameras (which must flip a mirror out of the way); and in cameras
which use the pre-flash method of flash exposure evaluation (and must therefore
allow time for the flash unit to recover from the pre-flash). Auto-focus systems
exacerbate the problem enormously, expecially when working in low-light
conditions, and there is considerable advantage in having the option to lock the
focus, or to use manual focus.

Slave flash, slave sensor: A slave flash is a flash unit which is triggered to fire by
the light output from another flash unit (the master flash). The light from the master
flash is detected by a sensor, usually a phototransistor, to generate an electrical
signal in the event of a sudden increase in light level. The slave sensor can either be
built-in to a flash unit with a 'slave mode', or it can be a separate unit which triggers
a flash via its sync. cable.

SLR: Single-Lens Reflex Camera. A camera which uses a mirror to redirect the
image which will be projected onto the film into the viewfinder. The mirror flips out
of the way when the button is pressed to take the picture.

Sn: Tin (stannum).

Snell's Law, Snell's Window: see article on refraction.

Sound: Energy transmitted by longitudinal pressure waves in a medium such as air

or water. The human hearing range is generally considered to run from about 15Hz
(cycles per second) to 20KHz, although this view is somewhat misleading. Humans
generally feel rather than hear low frequencies, and the auditory perception of
sounds below about 50Hz is mainly due to the production of distortion products
(harmonics) by the ear itself. Only young children can hear up to 20KHz, and by
middle age, 12 to 15KHz is more realistic (8KHz if you were in the habit of listening
to loud music as a teenager). The intelligence in human speech is contained in a band
from about 300Hz to 4KHz. Radio communication systems (PMR, Ship to Shore)
often limit the bandwidth to 300Hz to 3KHz, but this makes it necessary to spell out
some words using the Phonetic Alphabet, there being, for example, no way to
distinguish between the sounds for 'f' and 's'.

Sound Velocity: The velocity of sound in dry air at 1Bar is given approximately by
the formula:
v = 331.45 + 0.6T metres / second (where T is the temperature in centigrade).
A figure to remember for general reckoning is: "about 340m/s".
For estimating the distance ot thunderstorms: "about 3 seconds per kilometre".
If you need an accurate value see:
"The variation of the specific heat ratio and the speed of sound in air with
temperature, pressure, humidity, and CO2 concentration" Owen Cramer, Journal of
the Acoustical Society of America, May 1993, Volume 93, Issue 5, pp. 2510-2516.
The velocity of sound in sea water is approximately 1500m/s.
The velocity of sound in fresh water is approximately 1435m/s.

S/PDIF: Sony / Philips Digital Interface Format. Digital audio interface standard,
for transferring audio signals between CD players and DAT machines, etc., without
passing into the analog domain.

Specular Reflection: Direct reflection, i.e., the glinting reflections from white and
shiny objects which cause bleaching of the highlights in a photograph. The problem
of specular highlights can be reduced by using a diffuse light source, i.e., a light
source of large area, rather than a point source.
Speedlight: As opposed to bulb flash, a slightly old-fashioned name for electronic
flash. Term still used by Nikon and Canon, and a pleasant alternative to the
American term "strobe" which avoids using the words "gun" or "blitz".

Stainless Steel: An alloy of Iron, Chromium, Manganese, Silicon and Carbon (May
also contain Nickel and Molybdenum). The alloying elements, particularly
Chromium, react with oxygen and water to form a thin film of oxides and
hydroxides, which prevents further chemical attack. All stainless steels contain at
least 10% Chromium. The most commonly available grades of stainless steel are
denoted 'A2' and 'A4'. A2 stainless (also known as type 304) shows superficial
rusting in the presence of sea water. A4 stainless (aka type 316) is completely
resistant to sea water corrosion and is the preferred grade for marine applications.

Stop: Photographers talk loosely of relative illumination level in 'stops'. A change of

exposure level of one stop is a doubling or halving of the shutter speed, a doubling
or halving of the ISO/ASA film speed, or a doubling or halving of the area of the
lens aperture, i.e., in the latter case, a change of one f-stop, from which the term is
derived. A change in illumination of 1 stop is the same as a change in illumination of
1 'Exposure Value (EV)', this being the correct term.

Strobe: The terms `Strobe Light' and `Flash Gun' are interchangeable. The former
usage is North American, the latter originates from the UK. In the author's opinion, it
is best to get used to the American term; since if you are travelling in a foreign
country, and some official, who may not speak English very well, asks what you've
got in your bag, you don't really want to use any phrase with the word 'gun' in it.
If you don't like the term 'strobe', try 'speedlight'.

S-VHS: Super VHS, i.e., High-band VHS.

S-Video: 'Separated Video', ie., two signals in two cables, one being the video,
blanking and synchronisation, the other being the chrominance (colour) signal.

Substrobe (SS-): Ikelite's name for an underwater flash unit.

Sync., synchronisation (flash): see X-sync. The cable between the camera and the
flash unit is called a 'sync. cord'.

Sync., synch., synchronisation (television): A television picture is composed of

lines, of variable brightness and colour. A television monitor writes horizontal lines
on the screen, starting at the top left-hand corner and travelling downwards.
Synchronisation signals are required to tell the monitor when to start a new line
(horizontal sync.), and when to flip back to the top for the start of a new field
(vertical sync.). The sync. signals are in the form of electrical pulses which are added
to the video (picture) signal.
Targeting Light: A light, usually built into a flash unit, used to give an accurate
indication of the direction in which the flash unit is pointing. The targeting light
should be designed to be weak in comparison to the intensity of the flash, so that its
patch of illumination does not show up in the picture. When using a torch as an
auxiliary targeting or focusing light, beware that some modern torches are far too
bright for the job and may ruin your pictures.

TBA: Abbreviation: 'To be announced'.

TBC: Time-base corrector. Helical-scan analogue video recordings (Video8, Hi-8,

VHS, etc.) are affected by minor speed fluctuations (wow and flutter) in the tape-
transport mechanism. This causes timing jitter in the horizontal synchronising
signals, and leads to wobbly verticals in the picture. A time-base corrector digitises
the video signal and stores the lines temporarily so that they can be released at
exactly timed intervals, causing a dramatic improvement in picture quality.

THF: Tetra-hydro-furan. A volatile, flammable, chemical solvent; used as the basis

for PVC and ABS solvent-weld adhesives.

TIFF: Tagged Image File Format. A lossless full-colour image file format with
optional LZW compression. TIFF files can be opened, edited and re-saved without
degrading the image. The TIFF specification allows for up to 48 bits-per-pixel,
CMYK or RGB colour, and covers just about every requirement for electronic
representation of single-layer still images. TIFF is the format of choice for
exchanging and archiving high-quality photographs.

TLC: Technical Lighting Control - Aquatica trade name for a range of lighting
support brackets and adapters.

Thyristor: An electronic switching device which (among manifold other uses) is

used to switch off the current in a flash tube for the purpose of TTL exposure
control.

Transformer: An electrical device for changing from one AC voltage to another,

usually consisting of two or more coils of wire wound on a common core of
magnetic material. Used in electricity substations for transforming from the
distribution-grid voltage to the local mains voltage. Used in power supplies and
battery chargers for transforming from the mains voltage to the low voltages
required by electronic equipment. Used in conjunction with an oscillator, for
generating high voltages from low voltages inside TV receivers and flash units. A
device which comes in all sizes and has a huge number of uses (the smallest
transformers are about the size of a grain of rice, the largest are delivered on huge
low-loaders with police escort).

Tray: The metal plate or bar which screws to the bottom of a camera or housing so
that a supporting arm for a flash unit or lamp may be attached to it. Also, the metal
or plastic plate on which a camera sits inside an underwater housing. Sometimes also
called a 'saddle', a 'stay', a 'rail', or a 'bracket'.

TTL flash: 'Through The Lens' flash metering. Another term, which never caught
on, is 'Off The Film' (OTF) flash metering. It is basically an improved form of
automatic flash control which takes account of the film speed, lens aperture setting,
and any filters which might have been fitted to the camera.
Although the full burst of energy from a flash unit may seem instantaneous, it
usually last for about 1.5 thousandths of a second (~1.5ms). The light output can
therefore be controlled by reducing the time duration of the flash, ie., by switching
off the current in the tube before the storage capacitor is fully discharged. A TTL
flash unit is one which can accept a signal from the camera telling it to 'switch off
now'. The important thing to understand about this system is that the flash unit plays
no part in calculating the exposure; it simply accepts the instruction to switch off at a
point determined by the electronics in the camera, and will usually issue some kind
of error signal if no such instruction is received. In 'OTF' metering, the camera
determines the exposure by measuring light reflected from the film and summing
(integrating) it over time. It compares the amount of light received against a level
determined by the ISO (ASA) setting, and issues a stop (quench) signal at the
appropriate point. If you reduce the amount of light falling on the film by stopping
the lens down or fitting a filter, the camera will take longer to issue the stop signal.
The camera can therefore compensate for all relevant variables until a point is
reached when there is insufficient light to complete the exposure; in which case no
stop signal is sent, and the flash unit issues a warning (Sea & sea strobes have a
green 'TTL OK' light which comes on if a quench signal is received. Nikon and
Ikelite strobes flash the red 'ready' light if no quench signal is received.). It follows,
that a TTL flash system requires a TTL capable flash unit and a TTL capable
camera; and less obviously, that the two units must be compatible (ie, they must
conform to the same electronic interface standard).
With the advent of digital photography, the definition of 'TTL flash' has
expanded to include the 'pre-flash' method of exposure evaluation. It is difficult to
devise a good 'off the film' metering system when using a digital sensor, because the
sensor has a shiny rather than a matte surface. The solution is to issue a pre-flash,
determine the exposure level obtained by averaging information read from the CCD,
and use this to calculate the required duration for the main flash. The same system of
start and stop (trigger and quench) signals can be used to control the flash unit,
provided that the flash unit can recover and be ready to fire again in the short (less
than 100ms) interval between the pre-flash and the main flash. A disadvantage of the
pre-flash system is that it increases shutter lag (i.e., the time between pressing the
button and taking the photograph), and it may cause portrait subjects to blink.
Improvements in flash technology (the use of an IGBT as the switch-off device), can
reduce the pre-flash - main flash interval to about 30ms.

TTL metering: Through The Lens metering. The basic method for determining
photographic exposure is to measure the intensity of the ambient lighting and choose
camera settings accordingly. The problem however, is that filters, lens extension,
and other factors must be taken into account, and the way around this problem is to
examine the light which comes in 'through the lens'. One obvious advantage of this
procedure, is that the light reading so obtained can be used to set-up the camera
automatically; but a major disadvantage is that the reading is dependent on the
reflectivity of the subject. TTL metering systems assume that the subject will reflect
18% of the light falling on it. Many subjects do reflect about this much, and are said
to be of 'average reflectance'; but many do not and the resulting exposure can be
seriously incorrect. The non-average problem can be solved in several ways, ie.,
(1) give-up and use a proper light-meter,
(2) use films with a wide exposure latitude,
(3) develop an eye for what is average and what is not, and perform exposure-
bracketing when not sure,
(4) get a camera with matrix TTL metering.
In addressing the second of these points, film manufacturers developed amateur
films with enormous exposure latitude. A typical amateur negative film will produce
acceptable prints with exposures which vary between +3 and -2 stops from the
correct value. Transparency (slide) films however, and some professional negative
films, must still be exposed correctly; and proper light metering, or exposure
bracketing, is the norm when using these materials. Expensive cameras with matrix
TTL metering assess the brightness of the scene with an array (matrix) of light
sensitive cells, rather than a single cell, and can usually (but not always) expose slide
film correctly without help from the user. In digital cameras, the metering matrix can
be derived by averaging the information from the imaging device (CCD). It is
however, not wise to assume that digital cameras will always make good exposures,
because the camera must still make a decision regarding how to fit the contrast range
of the scene to the contrast range of the sensor and, especially if the former exceeds
the latter, the automatic choice may not always be acceptable.

TX: Transmitter, Transmit.

TX/RX: Transmit-Receive.

ULCS: Ultralight Control Systems. Manufacturer of lighting brackets.

U-Matic: Sony analog video cassette recording system using helical scanning and
3/4" magnetic tape. First appeared mid 1970s. Once favoured by industrial training
departments, drama schools, etc., but now largely obsolete.

UNC: Unified Coarse. An American system of screw-thread sizes based on inch

dimensions but with the same 60° pitch angle as the European metric thread system.
The most common UNC thread used in photography is 1/4UNC (the standard tripod
socket thread) more completely specified as 1/4UNC20, i.e., a 1/4" (6.35mm)
diameter rod threaded at 20 turns per inch (tpi).

UNEF: Unified Extra-Fine.

UNF: Unified Fine. American fine thread system with 60° pitch angle. Smaller UNF
sizes are numbered, whereas larger sizes are known according to the nominal
diameter. E.g., #10UNF32 = 0.19" diameter rod threaded at 32 turns per inch.
1/4UNF28 = 1/4" rod threaded at 28tpi.

UPVC: Un-plasticised poly-vinyl-chloride: a hard engineering plastic. See PVC.

UTC: Universal Time Co-ordinate, i.e., the astronomical time at zero longitude.
Formerly known as GMT (Greenwich mean time).

UV, Ultraviolet: Beyond violet. That part of the electromagnetic spectrum (see
electromagnetic radiation) which lies beyond the violet end of the visible spectrum,
ie, of shorter wavelength than violet, and invisible to humans. The problem with UV
is that it will pass through camera lenses, film and CCDs are sensitive to it, but
lenses are not designed to focus it. The result is a haze or fuzziness in pictures taken
outdoors. The solution is to fit a UV filter (sometimes called a UV-390) ie., a filter
designed to cut off at a wavelength of 390nm (nanometres), the end of the visible
spectrum. Some photographers fit a UV filter also to protect the main camera lens
from scratches. A UV filter is not needed underwater.
UVA: That part of the ultraviolet spectrum nearest to visible light, ie., long
wavelength UV.
UVB: Between UVA and UVC.
UVC: That part of the ultraviolet spectrum nearest to X-rays, ie., short wavelength
UV.

UW: Underwater.

UWCC: Underwater Colour Correction (filter). An optical filter

designed to introduce a colour cast having the complementary
colour of the cast introduced by the water. The colour cast
introduced by so-called 'blue' water is somewhere between blue
and cyan, hence the complementary colour is somwhere between
yellow and red, i.e., orange. The complementary colour for UR/Pro UWCC
green water is magenta. filter disks

VCR: Videocassette recorder. See also VTR.

VHS: Video Home System; i.e., a video recording format intended primarily for
domestic use. Analog recording system using helical scanning and 1/2" magnetic
tape.
VHS-C: VHS Compact. Small-size VHS cassette intended for camcorders. Can be
played back in full-size VHS machines by means of an adapter.

Video: Latin verb; to look. An electrical signal which represents a picture; as

opposed to television: a modulated radio signal which represents a picture. A video
standard describes the details of the basic electrical signal which passes along local
cables. A television standard is an extended video standard containing details of a
method by which video signals and accompanying sound can be transmitted by radio
and other long-distance communication methods.

Video-8: Analog video recording system using helical scanning and 8mm magnetic
tape.

Volt, Voltage, V: The unit of electrical pressure (strictly: pressure difference),

named after Henry Volta who invented the 'Voltaic pile' (nowadays known as the
battery). Since a voltage is a pressure difference, it must always be measured relative
to something, and that something is usually a common connection called 'ground',
'earth', 'common', 'chassis', or 'mass'.

VTR: Videotape recorder. A videocassette recorder (VCR) can also be called a

VTR, but a video recorder which uses open-reel tapes cannot be called a VCR.

W: Double (because it's a "double U"). Used as a prefix of suffix in Japanese

product names, eg: "W-Stay" = dual strobe lighting tray; "Lens-holder W" = dual
lens holder.

Watt, W: The unit of power, ie., the amount of energy dissipated (used) or delivered
in unit time. 1 Watt = 1 Joule per Second. Electrical power, in Watts, is also the
product Current x Voltage (P = IV), eg., a 12V light-bulb which consumes 60W
must draw a current of 5A.

Wavelength: see Electromagnetic radiation.

Wet Connector: A connector which can be un-plugged and re-connected

underwater. Sealock, E/O (Electro-Oceanic), and ICS-2 (Ikelite connector system, 2-
pins) are examples of wet connectors. See flash connectors page for more
information.

Whitworth (Whit., BSW). Obsolete British Standard screw thread system based on
a 55° pitch angle. The standard camera tripod socket thread was originally 1/4" BSW
20, where the 20 refers to the number of threads per inch (tpi). It so happens that
screws and sockets conforming to the the American Unified thread 1/4UNC20
specification (60° pitch angle) will fit with 1/4BSW parts, and so the 1/4UNC thread
is now the de-facto standard for tripod attachments.

Wide-angle lens: A wide-angle lens is one which has an angle of view significantly
wider than a normal human perspective. Humans actually have a horizontal field of
view of about 180°, but can only see clearly in the central field, which corresponds
to about 40°. To complicate matters, lens manufacturers like to quote the angle of
view corresponding to the diagonal of the film format (because this gives a larger
number), and the effective angle changes when a supplementary lens is added. As a
rough guide, a `normal perspective' or `standard' lens for use in air has a focal length
approximately equal to the width of the film format multiplied by √2 (i.e., W x
1.414). E.g., for the 35mm format (36 x 24mm), the standard lens is 36 x 1.4 =
50mm. For square medium format (57 x 57mm), the standard lens is 57 x 1.4 =
80mm. For a video camera, a typical format might be 6.4 x 4.8mm, giving a normal
view when the zoom lens is set to about 9mm. If you use an `air' lens underwater,
note that the optical port counts as a supplementary lens, and that a flat port reduces
the effective angle of coverage. Consequently, the standard focal length for an
underwater 35mm camera (assuming a flat port) is taken to be 35mm (although the
logic behind this convention is not strictly correct, since it corresponds to the
`normal view' of someone who can see underwater without a diving mask). Any lens
with a focal length longer than standard is called a `Portrait' or `Telephoto' lens. A
lens with a focal length shorter than standard is a wide-angle lens.

Xenon, Xe: (pronounced 'kzee-non' or 'kzen-on', the 'k' sound being slight or
inaudible) A member of the family of gases known as noble gases (Helium, Neon,
Argon, Krypton, Xenon). A photographic flash tube is filled with Xenon at
somewhat less than atmospheric pressure (usually between about 0.1 and 0.5 bar).
The Xenon gas electric-discharge photographic flash was invented in 1931 by Prof.
Harold Edgerton of MIT. Edgerton travelled with Jacques Cousteau on the Calypso
expeditions, in which context he was known as 'Papa Flash'.

X-Ray: That part of the electromagnetic spectrum above ultraviolet in frequency

(ie., of shorter wavelength than UV, but not as short as Gamma-rays). See also
electromagnetic radiation.

X-Sync.: Electronic-flash synchronisation, as opposed to bulb-flash synchronisation.

In electronic flash photography, the light discharge is very rapid, so (in the context
of a mechanical film camera system) the camera shutter must be fully open before
the flash unit is triggered. In cameras with a focal-plane shutter (a shutter which lies
right in front of the film) the shutter does not open fully when high shutter speeds are
used. Instead, the second-curtain of the shutter is released before the first-curtain has
finished travelling, and the film is exposed by a slit passing across it. Consequently,
X-synchronisation is not possible above a certain speed. The highest speed at at
which electronic flash synchronisation is possible for a given camera is called the 'X-
sync. speed'. Synchronisation is, of course, possible at slower speeds, but the effect
of ambient light becomes more and more important as the speed is reduced, and at
some point, the exposure due to ambient light may exceed that obtained from the
flash. In modern camera systems, a 'ready' signal from the flash is used to set the
camera to the X-sync. mode if the user tries to select a higher speed. In digital
systems, the 'shutter' is virtual, i.e, the exposure is managed by means of a start and a
stop signal sent to the sensor, and management of flash synchronisation is done by
the system microcontroller and does not usually need to be considered by the user.

Y/C: Luminance and Chrominance, i.e., the 'brightness information' and 'colour
information' parts of a composite video signal. The symbol Y was chosen long
before the computer age, when TV and printing technologies were unrelated (the
potential confusion being that Y also stands for yellow).
YS: Yellow Submarine (we all live in one). Beatles inspired name for Sea & Sea's
first ever product (a flash unit). Sea & Sea strobes are still called "YS", even though
most of them aren't yellow any more.

YS-mount: The attachment between Sea & Sea, Epoque, Sony

and Olympus flash-units and lights and the lighting support
bracket (arm). Fixing-bolt thread is M8. Distance between
clamping cheeks is 12mm.

YUV: Y=Luminance, U=Normalised B-Y, V=Normalised R-Y. The colour space

representation used in PAL video and television transmission.

Z: North Americans pronounce the letter "Zee", and certain abbreviations such as E-
Z P-Z (easy-peasy) only make sense when you use the American pronunciation.