UHF AND MICROWAVE

PROPAGATION
Overview

This chapter deals the present knowledge and

practice in terrestrial propagation of UHF and
Microwave

So this presentation will mainly focus on
following topics
 Means of Propagation of Radio Waves
 Estimation of Path Loss during propagation

 Evaluation of Station Performance

 Ideas about making best use of a mode of

propagation
History

 Experimentations with UHF and Microwave

frequencies have relatively recent history.
 Before 1941 knowledge as well as work in this field
was pretty much crippled.
 There was not even clear definition of Ultra High
Frequency
 This field took hike after ban on UHF frequencies
was lifted post World War II. This opened a new
frontier for enthusiastic scientists and amateurs.
History(cont...)

With the following years distance records were
broken one after another along with the discovery
of new UHF and Microwave frequency bands for
communication.

Thus the continuous work and dedication in this field
has also yielded new concepts in propagation of
radio frequencies such as Trophospheric ducting,
Aurora, Trasnequatorial spread-F, etc.
Line of Sight

Like other form of electromagnetic radiation, radio
waves also travels in straight line in free space
during propagation.

Visual line(d1) of sight is the distance between
transmitting antenna to the horizon.
d1=√(12.7*h)
h is elevation of the observer
Line of Sight(cont..)

Due to atmospheric refraction, a correction factor is
required for this distance which is given as
dr=√(12.7*hs*k)
dr is distance of radio horizon(in km)
hs is elevation of station above sea level(in meter)
k is effective radius factor
Free Space and Atmospheric Losses

Radio frequency undergo attenuation when it
propagates through vacuum or Earth’s atmosphere.

Uhf and Microwave communication is further limited
by attenuation due to atmospheric gases, hail, snow,
rain, etc.

Path-loss due to free space is given as the ratio of
transmitter power to receiver power
Pr
Pt
= ( )
300 2
4πfd
Free Space and Atmospheric
Losses(cont…)

Path-loss expressed in dB as
Lfs=32.45+20 log(d)+20 log(f)
Lfs is path-loss in dB
d is distance in km
f is frequency of radio wave
Free Space and Atmospheric
Losses(cont…)

Apart from free space losses, attenuation by
different other natural factors should be considered
such as
 Losses from atmospheric gases
 Rain Attenuation
 Snow and Hail
 Fog and cloud
Total System Performance

Total system performance is the combined evaluation of
transmitting and receiving sation.

Total system performance(Ps) is given as
Ps=Perp-Pn
Perp is transmitter station performance(in dBW)
Pn is receiver system noise power(in dBW)

Signal to noise ratio for the system is given as
S=Ps-Pl
PI is total path loss(dB)

Transmitter Effective Radiated Power(Perp) is given by
equation
Total System Performance(cont…)
Perp=Pt + Gta - Ltf
Gta is transmitter antenna gain(in dBi)
Pt is transmitter power(in dBW)
Ltf is transmitter feed-line loss(in dBW)

Likewise, receiver system noise power(Pn) is given as
Pn=10 log(kBTs) + Gra
k is Boltzmann’s constant
B is Bandwidth
Gra is antenna gain(in dB)
Ts is receiver system noise temperature
Modes of Propagation
1. Troposheric Refraction
2. Troposheric Scattering
3. Ionospheric Modes
4. Reflection
5. Knife-edge Diffracation
6. Absorption
Troposheric Refraction

Lower 10km of the atmosphere is known as
troposphere.

Tropospheric refraction is most commonly and
widely used for propagation of radio signal over
long distance.

This propagation mode is based on the fact that
radio waves like other electromagnetic waves are
also refracted as it passes through the troposphere.

Troposphere being a non-homogeneous medium
supports refraction.
Troposheric Refraction(cont…)

INDEX OF REFRACTION
 Index of refraction(N) of air can be calculated as
N = +
77 . 6 p
T
3 . 73 *10 5 e
T2
P is atmospheric pressure, millibars(mb)
e is partial pressure of water vapour(mb)
T is temperature, kelvins
Troposheric Refraction(cont…)

Super-refraction or Ducting
 It is an interesting phenomenon that tends to happen during
periods of stable, anticyclonic weather.
 This duct almost acts like a wave-guide, so once the radio
wave enters the ducting region it is propagated to the other
end with often much less attenuation that a direct signal
would be between the same points.
 Ducting occurs when angle with which radio wave enters the
duct is equivalent to or greater than the curvature of.
 Alternately if rate of change of index of refraction of air
with altitude(dN/dm) is greater than 0.157 ducting occurs.
Troposheric Refraction(cont…)
 During this phenomenon radio waves entering duct are
refracted enough to bring them back to earth surface.
 During super-refraction radio horizon theoretically
extends to infinity.

Figure:-Ducting phenomenon
Troposheric Refraction(cont…)

Temperature Inversion
 Temperature inversion frequently occur in trposphere.
 The are so called because, in contrast to usual lapse of
temperature with increase in altitude, temperature rises
with altitude.
 These inversion aid the uhf and microwave propagation
as this inversion sharpens the vertical boundary of
troposphere. Thus the amount of refraction becomes so
severe that signals extend a great distance as though
caught in a duct.
 Lowest frequency which is super-refracted is
determined by the depth of inversion.
Troposheric Refraction(cont…)
 Tropospheric inversion can be classified on the basis of
how they are created, such as
1. Radiation Inversion
2. Subsidence Inversion
3. Advective Inverison
4. Evaporation Inversion
Tropospheric Scatter

This mode of propagation is particularly used for
the long distance propagation of radio
frequency(practically upto 300km).

This mode of propagation uses the tropospheric
scatter phenomenon, where radio waves at
particular frequencies are randomly scattered as
they pass through the upper layers of the
troposphere.

This mode is very useful when the transmitting
station spread beyond horizon.
Tropospheric Scatter(cont…)
 If antennas are pointed along the great circle, their
beam will intersect a common volume of air which
lie almost at the centre of the path.
 Part of the signal common to both station will
undergo tropospheric scatter aiding the radio
communiction.
 But frequency is the limiting case for this
communication, only the frequency up to 2GHz can
be transmitted through tropospheric scatter.
Tropospheric Scatter(cont…)

Scattering Loss
 Scattering loss in this propagation can be assessed as
Ls = 21 + 10φs + 10 log(f) + Lc
Lc is aperture-to-medium coupling loss(dB)
f is frequency(MHz)
øs is scattering angle
Ls is scattering angle(dB)
Tropospheric Scatter(cont…)

Naturally occurring factors which contribute to the
scattering are
 Rain Scatter
 Snow, Hail, and Particle Scatter
 Lighting Scatter
Ionospheric Modes

The ionosphere is a shell of electrons and
electrically charged atoms and molecules that
surrounds the Earth, stretching from a height of
about 50 km to more than 1000 km.

Ionospheric mode of propagation relies on
refraction of radio waves in the ionosphere.

F2-layer is the most important ionospheric layer for
HF propagation, though F1, E, and D-layers also
play some role.
Ionospheric Modes(cont…)

Highest usable frequency for F-layer is about
70MHz, while for Sporadic-E maximum of 220MHz
of frequency has been use.

Phenomenon like Aurora, meteor scatter, and
transequatorial spread-F have been observed at
432MHz.
Ionospheric Modes(cont…)

Aurora
 Scattering from Aurora borealis, has
been widely used for many years.
 By pointing the directional antenna
towards the centre of aurora, very long
distance transmission on radio
frequency is carried out.
 Contacts over 2000km have been
made of 144MHz and over 1900km on
432MHz.
 Aurora is closely related to solar
activity.
Ionospheric Modes(cont…)
 During massive solar storms, high energy stream of
electron and proton spew out of sun. Earth’s atmosphere
trap these ions in northern and southern magnetic polar
region.
 Thus the trapping of ions increase the density of the E-
layer dramatically, which is sufficient to scatter the
radio frequency.
 This phenomenon is restricted to E-layer only.
Ionospheric Modes(cont…)

Transequatorial Spread-F
 First discovered in 1947, transequatorial spread-f
makes possible contacts up to 8000 km across equator
in UHF and VHF range, at least up to 432MHz.
 Station engaged in this mode of propagation must be
roughly equidistance from the equator.
 Physical mechanism of TE Spread are not well-known
but this phenomena like other ionospheric mode is
linked with the solar activity.
Ionospheric Modes(cont…)
Ionospheric Modes(cont…)

Meteor Scatter
 Meteor scattering relies on reflecting radio waves off
the intensely ionized columns of air generated by
meteors.
 While this mode is very short duration, often only from
a fraction of second to couple of seconds per event.
 This mode allows remote stations to communicate to a
station that may be hundreds of miles up to over 1,000
miles (1,600 km) away, without the expense required
for a satellite link.
 Meteor scatter is generally useful on VHF frequencies
between 30 and 250MHz .
Reflection

Rigid objects like buildings, towers, and airplane
are large enough can act as the reflector for UHF
and microwaves.

Contacts in the path ranging from 300 to 700 km is
reported from this mode.

In this mode, two station point their antenna towards
the common reflector. Reflecting objects must be in
line-of-sight to both the stations.

Appreciable loss is experienced in this mode of
propagation for higher frequency(above 10GHz)
Reflection(cont…)

Radar Eqution
The radar equation may be applied to communications path
completed by reflection
P tG t G rλ 2 S
Pr = +
4πR t 2
( 4π ) 2 R r 2
Pt transmitted power(in Watt)
Pr received power(in Watt)
Gt transmitter antenna gain
Gr receiver antenna gain
Rt range from transmitter to reflector(in m)
Rr range from receiver to reflector(in m)
λ wavelength(in m)
S is radar cross section of reflector(in m)
Reflection(cont…)

In terms of dB
 λ2 S 
Lr = 10 log 2 2  − 153
 Rt Rr 

Lr is total loss of reflection path(in dB)

Knife-Edge Diffraction

Radio signal can also be diffracted over the peaks of
well-defined ridges and mountains

Though high losses accompany diffraction(even from
20dB to 50dB), path is completed otherwise not
possible.

Signal level decrease rapidly as the angle of
diffraction increases.

In order to minimize the loss in transmission, diffracting
ridge should have sharp profile i.e. free form trees and
other absorbents.

Losses also decrease as the elevation of the knife-edge
reduces
Knife-Edge Diffraction
Knife-Edge Diffraction

Attenuation over knife-edge diffraction in terms of
dB is
 f 
Lk = 20log h  − 38.8

 d1 
Lk is knife edge diffraction loss(in dB)
h is elevation of knife edge relative to the two stations(in m)
f is frequency(in MHz)
d1is distance from the near station to knife edge(in km)
Fresnel Zone

A Fresnel zone is one of a theoretically infinite
number of a concentric ellipsoids of revolution which
define volumes in the radiation pattern of a usually
circular aperture.

Fresnel zones result from diffraction by the circular
aperture.
Fresnel Zone(cont…)

Normally radio waves will travel in a straight line
from the transmitter to the receiver.

But if there are obstacles near the path, the radio
waves reflecting off of those objects may arrive out
of phase with the signals that travel directly and
reduce the power of the received signal
(Interferences), this effect is a reason of “Fading”.

On the other hand, the reflection can enhance the
power of the received signal if the reflection and
the direct signals arrive in phase.
Fresnel Zone(cont…)

Calculation of Fresnel Zone
N ( d 1d 2 )
F n = 17 .31
fd
Fn is Nth Fresnel zone outer boundary from direct path(in m)
N is any positive number
f frequency(MHz)
d1 is distance from one station to some point in
path(in m)
d2 is distance from second station to same point in
path(in m)
d is total path distance(in m)
Fresnel Zone(cont…)

It is very useful in determining how close to a line-of-
sight path a potential diffracting object may lie without
causing unacceptable loss.

It is found that greatest Fresnel-zone losses occur when
diffracting object lie within first 0.6 Fresnel Zone.

Even the small objects, close to either of the station can
act as diffractor and adversely affect the signal.

Level of attenuation due to an object within Fresnel
zone is also affected by the shape and size of the
object.
Absorption

Low-frequency radio waves travel easily through
brick and stone and VLF even penetrates sea-water.

At microwave or higher frequencies, absorption by
molecular resonance in the atmosphere (mostly
water, H2O and oxygen, O2) is a major factor in
radio propagation.

Though attenuation due to absorption increase with
frequency, precise attenuation is difficult to
calculate.
Summary
Band Frequency Wavelength Propagation via

VLF Very Low Frequency 3–30 kHz 100–10 km Guided between the earth and the ionosphere.

Guided between the earth and the D layer of the ionosphere.

LF Low Frequency 30–300 kHz 10–1 km
Surface waves.

Surface waves. E, F layer ionospheric refraction at night, when

MF Medium Frequency 300–3000 kHz 1000–100 m
D layer absorption weakens.

High Frequency (Short E layer ionospheric refraction. F1, F2 layer ionospheric

HF 3–30 MHz 100–10 m
Wave) refraction.

Infrequent E ionospheric refraction. Extremely rare F1, F2 layer

ionospheric refraction during high sunspot activity up to
VHF Very High Frequency 30–300 MHz 10–1 m
80 MHz. Generally direct wave. Sometimes tropospheric
ducting.

UHF Ultra High Frequency 300–3000 MHz 100–10 cm Direct wave. Sometimes tropospheric ducting.

SHF Super High Frequency 3–30 GHz 10–1 cm Direct wave.

Extremely High
EHF 30–300 GHz 10–1 mm Direct wave limited by absorption.
Frequency