THE USE OF PASSIVE COOLING TECHNIQUES TO

CONCENTRATE SOLIDS IN WATER

by
MARY BETH KEFFER BRAY, B.S. in C.E.
A THESIS
IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING

Submitted to the Graduate Faculty

of Texas Tech University in
Partial Fulfillment of
the Requirements for
the Degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE
IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING

Approved

Accepted

December 1989
THE USE OF PASSIVE COOLING TECHNIQUES TO

CONCENTRATE SOLIDS IN WATER

by
MARY BETH KEFFER BRAY, B.S. in C.E.

A THESIS

IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING

Submitted to the Graduate Faculty

of Texas Tech University in
Partial Fulfillment of
the Requirements for
the Degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE
IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING

Approved

Accepted

December 1989
T3

Mo. i^1

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Words are insufficient to express my sincere appreciation to Dr. R. Heywaxd Ramsey

III, Chairperson of my committee, for his helpful guidance, perpetual encouragement,

and understanding. His professional expertise together with his valuable assistance,

were major factors in the successful completion of this project.

Appreciation is extended to Dr. Richard Tock and Dr. Tony MoUhagen for the time

and effort they spent on my behalf while serving as committee members.

Special thanks are extended to Mr. J. Bradley Thornhill, a laboratory technician in

the Envirorunental Science Laboratory in the Civil Engineering Department at Texas

Tech University, for his support in the experimental phases of this project.

Appreciation is extended to Ms. Jean Ann Cantore, of the Engineering Communi-

cations Center in the Engineering College at Texas Tech University, for her help with

proof-reading.

Special thanks are also extended to Dean Bray, Veen Chee Foong, June Wilcott

Sligar, and all the other people who offered assistance and support throughout this

project. Their presence is appreciated more than they realize.

The financial support received from the U. S. Air Force is also greatly appreciated.

11
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii

LIST OF TABLES v

LIST OF FIGURES vi

NOTATIONS vii

CHAPTER

1. INTRODUCTION 1
The Need for Energy Conservation 1
Background 1
Objectives 3
Thesis Outline 4

2. LITERATURE REVIEW 5

The Need for Economical Methods to Treat Water 5

Usable Water 6
Dynamics of Cooling 7
Natural Cooling Processes in a Hot, Arid Region 9
Passive Cooling 10
The Climate Near the Ground 12
Properties of Ice 13
Sampling Ice 15
Ice Formation 16
Freezing versus Evaporation 16
Freeze-Crystahzation Processes for PoUutant Removal 17
VFMPT Process 18
IFC Process 19
Applications 20
Summary 20

m
3. PROCEDURES 22

Approach 22
Research Plan and Procedures 23
Outdoor Tests 23
Controlled Conditions Tests 24
Test Facility 25
Outdoor Test Facility 25
Controlled Test Facility 26
Ion Chromatograph 26
Data Analysis 27
Outdoor Test Phase 27
Controlled Test Phase 29
Revised Controlled Test Phase 29
Stephan's Equation Analysis 30

4. RESULTS 31

Data Presentation 31
Outdoor Test Phase 31
Controlled Test Phase 32
Revised Controlled Test Phase 33
Stephan's Equation Analysis 35
Economic Analysis 36

5. CONCLUSION 39

Recommendations 39

BIBLIOGRAPHY 41

APPENDIX 45

IV
 LIST OF TABLES

1 Sodiimi Chloride in Solution 56

2 1988-89 Winter Nights with Freezing Weather in Lubbock, Texas 58
3 Winter Data Collection Problems 59
4 Winter Results 60
5 Preliminary Results 61
6 Results of 500 mg/L Test Graph 62
7 Results of 1500 mg/L Test Graph 63
8 Results of 4500 mg/L Test Graph 64
9 Economics of Passive Ice-Maker System 71
10 Economics of IFC System 72
11 Economics of VFMPT System 73
 LIST OF FIGURES

1 OSW Projects 46
2 Freeze-evaporation Process 47
3 Direct-refrigerant Freeze Process 48
4 Water Phase Diagram 49
5 Iranian Ice-maker 50
6 Ice Crystal 51
7 Natural Arctic Ice 52
8 VFMPT Process 53
9 VFMPT Phase Diagram 54
10 IFC Process 55
11 Test Unit 57
12 Results from 500 mg/1 Test Run 62
13 Results from 1500 mg/1 Test Run 63
14 Results from 4500 mg/1 Test Run 64
15 Average Results 65
16 Average Results with Seawater 66
17 Proposed Passive Ice-maker Ponds 67

VI
 NOTATIONS

ATFB = Average Temperature Below Freezing

BTU = British Thermal Unit

EPA = Environmental Protection Agency

GPD = Gallons per Day

h = Thickness of Ice

IC = Ion Chromatograph

ICWM = Integral Crystal Washer/Melter

IFC = Indirect Freeze Concentration

k = Mean Thermal Conductivity

L = Latent Heat of Water

mg/L = Milligram per Liter

NaCl = Sodium Chloride

NOAA = National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

OSW = Office of Sahne Water

Qc = Convective Flux

Qe = Heat Transfer by Mass Transport

Qk = Conductive Flux

Q,. = Radiative Flux

Vll
 RO = Reverse Osmosis

S = Summation of Degree Hours of Freezing

STPVPU = Sub-Triple Point Vapor Processing Unit

t = Time

TDS = Total Dissolved Solids

VFMPT = Vacuum Freezing Multiple Phase Transformation

a = Correction Factor for Stephan's Equation

p — Density of Ice

0 — Temperature

Vlll
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The Need for Energy Conservation

The world's sources of gas and oil, the most desirable form of fossil-fuel energy, are

being depleted. The United States is using oil faster than any other nation in the world

but has less than 5 percent of the world's oil reserves. The amount of oil produced in

the United States is already decHning. Pakiz (23) predicts that the United States will

run out of oil between the years 2050 and 2100. Therefore, it is necessary to utilize

other energy sources or to find methods that are less energy intensive for accomplishing

tasks. A comfortable standard of living cannot be maintained in the future without a

change in current energy-use practices.

Background

Utilization of passive cooling is one way that fossil-fuel energy consumption could

be decreased. Passive cooling uses the natural environment to reduce the temperature

of a substance instead of using energy intensive devices. This technique has been used

in Iran for air conditioning, refrigeration, and to make ice (3). The ice-maker process

consists of a system of shallow ponds which are 10 to 20 meters wide and 100 meters

long or longer. An adobe wall runs along the south side of the pond and provides

shade during the day. The wall also acts as a wind block and prevents heat gain from

convection. Water is added on winter nights. This water is cooled by the transfer of heat

from the water to the atmosphere by radiation, evaporation, and conduction. However,

the water body gains heat through conduction from the underlying soil. This heat must
be removed by heat transfer to the atmosphere. The ponds lose a large amount of heat

through radiation to the sky on clear nights. Heat is also lost when water molecules on

the surface evaporate. When the night is cool enough, ice will form (3).

CooHng a material involves the loss of heat through evaporation, radiation, or con-

vection (25). This heat loss is affected by the specific heat of a substance, the heat

required per unit mass of the substance to raise its temperature by 1 degree Celsius

(27). The specific heat of water is 1 calorie per gram per degree Celsius and is the

standard to which other materials are compared.

Radiation is heat transfer without mass transport. At night, the air wiU be cooler

than the water and heat will be transferred by radiation to the sky or black space.

Convection is heat transfer by fluid motion. Cool air passing over the water will

gain heat from the water whereas hot air passing over the water wiU heat the water (3).

Evaporation is the change of state from liquid form to vapor. Heat is lost because

the water must overcome the latent heat of vaporization which is the amount of heat

required to change a molecule of liquid to a gas. The latent heat of crystaHzation is 80

calories per gram (31).

Passive cooling ice-makers could also be applied as a treatment process to remove

dissolved solids in water. When water freezes, it tends to freeze as a crystal and dissolved

solids will be excluded from the crystal matrix as the ice crystals develop. The ice formed

wiU be more pure than the liquid portion, because the latter includes the substances

excluded from the frozen crystal. This technique could be used to desalinate or remove

dissolved solids from waste water.

If this technique could be optimized, it could be used during part of the year in

most areas of the United States. The operational scheme behind passive cooling is to
minimize the heat input into the substance during the day and maximizing the heat

loss at night, allowing the water to freeze. By optimizing the ways to limit heat input,

passive cooling ice-makers may be an alternative and more economical way to freeze

water. The resultant ice would be a natural product from environmental processes and

not from energy intensive-methods. However, there axe costs associated with passive

cooling. The operating costs for the system consist of energy costs to run the ice-removal

equipment and pump the water; and maintenance costs, and labor costs. The capital

costs for the system consist of site acquisition fees, and construction costs for the ponds,

walls, appurtenances, and equipment costs for the ice removal and washing equipment.

Objectives

This study wiU look at the use of freezing to remove total dissolved solids (TDS)

from waste waters. The purpose is to find out if the freezing of water under winter

conditions could be used as a more economical means of removing dissolved solids. The

objectives are as follows:

1. To determine what quality water can be obtained from ice formed from

waters containing different amounts of the same type of dissolved sohds.

2. To determine if the passive freezing of ice can be used for

reducing dissolved solids, and

3. To develop recommendations to assist future ice-making studies.

Thesis Outline

The next chapter includes a review of pertinent literature in the area of passive cool-

ing, the dynamics of cooling, the climate of the ground layer, freezing technology, and
the properties of water. Chapter 3 describes the acquisition of data used in this study

and the procedures that were adopted to perform the laboratory tests. A discussion of

the results is presented in Chapter 4. Finally, the conclusions of this research as weU as

recommendations for future research are presented in Chapter 5.

 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter is divided into four sections. The first section discusses the need for

economical methods to treat waters with high TDS content. The second section dis-

cusses passive cooling. The third section discusses dynamics of coofing, the climate

near the ground, and how the climate effects the cooUng of small bodies of water. The

fourth section discusses the properties of ice that allow freezing to be used as a method

of solids concentration. The fourth section also discusses two industrial processes that

utilize freeze crystallization as a solids concentration technique.

The Need For Economical Methods To Treat Water

Fresh water costs less per gallon or ton in the United States than any other commod-

ity on the market (31), but predictors from the 1950's believed that fresh water supplies

would run out in the 1980's. The demand for water in this country was predicted to

exceed the dependable fresh water supply in 1980 (28). To help alleviate this problem,

the Saline Water Act was passed by Congress in July 1952. The act authorized the cre-

ation of the Office of Saline Water (OSW) and funded OSW with a budget of 2 million

dollars for a 5-year period for investment in research and development of saline water

resources (8). In 1955, the law was amended to extend the program over 10-year period

with a 10 million doUax budget (8). In 1958, another 10 miUion dollars was authorized

to build pilot plants (31). The program funded the building of six different plants which

would demonstrate the following techniques: forced-circulation, multiple-effect evapo-

ration, multi-stage fiash evaporation, electrodialysis, vapor-compression distillation and

two freezing processes (10). The plants were to produce 0.1 to 1 million gallons per day

for less than a dollar per thousand gallons. Figure 1 in the Appendix shows the plant

locations.

Desalination by freezing is the focus of this study. Therefore, freeze-evaporation

and direct refrigerant cooling will be examined in more detail. Two different techniques

were considered for the freeze separation processes. Plants utilizing each technique were

eventually built. The first pilot plant built utilized a freeze-evaporation process and the

second used a direct-refrigerant freezing process. In the freeze-evaporation process, the

saltwater is placed in a high-vacuum chamber and fiash cooled to a temperature low

enough for ice crystals to form (26). The water vapor generated in the process can

also be used as a source of desalinated water. The pilot plant consists of four 60,000

gallons per day modules. No cost analysis was available for the operation (26). In the

direct-refrigerant technique, a refrigerant is placed in the brine to cause ice crystals to

form. Use of the direct refrigeration process reduces the size of the compressor but adds

the problem of handling a second fluid which must be removed from the system (8).

This 15,000 gallon per day pilot plant produces water in the range of 35 to 45 cents per

thousand gallons (8). Schematics of both plants are shown in Figures 2 and 3.

Usable Water

The primary application that wiU be addressed in this study is the desalination

of water containing high levels of inorganic dissolved soHds. For water to be used in

many applications, certain constituents must not exceed specified limits. These limits

are dependent upon the intended use of the water. Water that contains less than

500 milligrams per liter of total dissolved solids is classified as fresh by the United
States Public Health Service (31). Also, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

recommends that drinking water not exceed 500 miUigrams per liter total dissolved

solids (TDS) according to the 1980 standards. At 500 milligrams per liter, the water

wiU begin to have a salty taste. Cities such as Lubbock, Texas, exceed this limit with

no apparent occurrence of major health problems. A sodium limit of 20 milligrams per

liter is recommended but no maximum contaminant level has been set for TDS (22).

Water used for irrigation can have 500 milligrams per liter TDS. Waters can be used at

higher salinity levels except when the local water table is close to the ground surface.

Waters with TDS concentrations of 5,000 milligrams per Hter and greater are generally

not acceptable for any irrigation uses (37). Thresholds for cooling water salinity levels

vary depending on corrosivity.

Dynamics of Coohng

Cooling is achieved through the loss or transfer of heat. When water is cooled, it

loses heat by radiation, evaporation, and conduction (38). These methods transfer the

water's heat to the air. More specifically, radiation is the emission, dissemination, or

diffusion of heat from the water to the surrounding materials. Radiation is a function of

water surface area and water temperature. Evaporation is the change of state from liquid

to vapor. Heat is lost because the water must overcome the latent heat of vaporization,

the amount of heat required to change a molecule of liquid to a gas. A fluid in the

form of a gas must have more energy than its liquid form. Liquid at the point where it

is about to evaporate and gas from the liquid that has just evaporated may be at the

same temperature. The only difference between the two is their energy levels. The extra

energy in the gas is contributed by the surrounding Hquid molecules before it vaporizes.
 8

The heat lost through this process is difficult to determine since it is dependent on

ambient meterological conditions (38). The phase diagram in Figure 4 shows the states

which water can exist at different temperatures and pressures.

Conduction is the transmission or conveyance of heat through a medium or passage

without perceptible motion of the medium. In a shallow pond of water, conduction

would occur by the transfer of heat from the basin soil underlying the water to the water

and then from the water to the atmosphere. Convection is the transfer or conveyance of

heat by moving fluids. Fluid motion transfers heat between regions of unequal density

both in the body of water and between the water body and the overlying atmosphere.

Wind passing over the water can transfer some of its energy to the water as heat or pick

up heat from the water depending on the existing temperature gradient. The wind can

increase the heat content of the water and thus wind effects in passive-cooling ice-maker

systems must be minimized. Convection and conduction-like radiation axe also difficult

to estimate because they, too, are functions of local meterological conditions (38).

The optimal cooling scenario is a fiat pond that is exposed to the entire hemisphere

of the night sky. When the sky is clear and the humidity is low, 20 to 30 BTU per

square foot-hour per square foot of surface can be dissipated (33).

The interaction of the different methods of heat transfer are described by Pounder

in the following energy balance equation (25):

Qk = Qr + Qc + Qc (2.1)

where Qk is the conductive flux, Qr is the radiative flux, Qc is the convective flux, and

Qe is the heat of transfer by mass transport (evaporative or condensation of water).

 In 1881, Stephan made the first mathematical description of ice growth or ice decay.

His law is as follows (25):

e
k - d t = L/9dh (2.2)
h

where k is the mean thermal conductivity, 9 is the temperature, t is time, h is the

thickness of the ice, L is the latent heat, and p is the density of the ice.

Stephan's equation considers heat transferred by conduction through an ice layer

that has already formed on a large body of water. The calculated thickness is the ice

that will grow or decay from the bottom layer of the ice sheet due to heat transferred

by conduction. Since this equation only considers conductive heat transfer, it is limited

in its uses.

Natural Cooling Processes in a Hot, Arid Region

A related study was conducted at Arizona State University in Tempe, Arizona, to

examine the optimization of cooling by solar ponds. Tests were run to determine the

amount of cooling due to each process and the total maximum cooling that could be

achieved through natural processes at night. Four water-proofed, insulated boxes were

used to hold the water. The first box, with the top covered with foil to prevent heat loss

by radiation, measured the heat lost by convection. The second box was covered with

a black plastic film to maximize radiation losses. The third box was uncovered to aUow

evaporative losses while the fourth box utilized spray evaporation to maximize cooling

(16).

The study found that convection losses from the water gradually decreased water

temperatures and this loss lagged behind the dry-bulb temperature. When convection
 10

and radiation were utifized, the water temperature followed the dry-bulb temperature.

The water temperature in the third box fell below the dry-bulb temperature shortly

after sunset and sometimes fell below the wet-bulb temperature. In the fourth box, the

temperature fell below both the wet-bulb and dry-bulb temperatures and sometimes

the water temperature dropped below the dewpoint before sunrise. The temperature in

the spray-evaporation process was the most effective. This process increased the cooling

temperatures 15 to 25 percent over that of the other test units (16).

Passive Coohng

Passive cooling is the use of the natural environment to decrease the temperature

of a substance through the natural fiows of thermal energy under ambient conditions

(24). The second law of thermodynamics says that heat fiows from hot to cold regions

or from high pressure to low pressure zones. Passive cooHng techniques utilize this law

by allowing the excess heat in a system to flow to a sink exhibiting a lower temperature

(33). Passive cooling has the following advantages (1):

1. Requires low manufactured energy input;

2. has few moving parts which are durable, and, therefore, requires

fit tie maintenance;

3. Is simple and inexpensive to install, and;

4. Is safe.

It has two major disadvantages (24):

1. A lower efficiency than an active system, and;

2. A lack of public acceptance.

 11

Passive cooling systems have evolved over the years to improve man's comfort. In

arid, interior, continental areas where the ambient air temperature exhibits a large

variance from day to night, buildings are built with thick walls, domed roofs, and

with common walls or Uttle distance between adjacent structures. The thick walls offer

insulation and also act as heat reservoirs which dampen the daily temperature variations

inside the home. The domed roofs and the clustered buildings help decrease the solar

energy input into the home. The side-by-side construction of buildings also help shade

the streets and adjacent buildings. These adaptations are examples of age-old techniques

(3). The principles used in these adaptations can also be applied today in other regions.

Other iimovations that have been used for years in the Middle East include the wind

tower, the cistern, and the ice maker. The wind tower sensibly and evaporatively cools

air. The air is directed over an underground storage pond and then is circulated through

the area to be cooled. Cisterns holding runoff from building roofs or water brought from

local supplies, can be the source of the coohng water, or can act as a heat-sink from

the air within the buildings. The ice-maker technique consists of a system of ponds

and an ice-storage building. When ice forms in the ponds, it is removed and stored.

To lower interior building temperature, the ice storage facility is constructed partially

underground to help preserve the ice. The ice-maker has been used to produce ice when

the ambient air temperature is sHghtly above freezing conditions (3).

The ice-maker concept could have appHcations in other parts of the world. The

ice-maker system as used in Iran consists of several shallow ponds, 10 to 20 meters wide

and several hundred meters long (Figure 5). An adobe wall runs along the south side

of the pond and provides shade during the day. The wall also acts as a wind block at

night, preventing heat gain from convection. Several ponds and walls can be placed in
 12

parallel. This placement increases the shielding effect from the wind. Water is added to

the ponds on winter nights. The pond water is then cooled by the transfer of heat from

the water to the atmosphere through the combination of radiation, evaporation, and

conduction processes. However, the water body gains heat through conduction from the

underlying soil which must be dissipated to the air. The water will lose a large amount

of heat through these processes on clear nights. When the night is cool enough and

these processes are active, ice wiU form (3). The ambient air temperature determines

how much ice will form. On some nights, water is added in centimeter increments at

periodic intervals during the night to increase the amount of ice formed. In areas similar

in cUmate to Iran, passive cooling systems may be feasible and economical (3). These

systems can only be appHed in cUmates that are similar to Iran.

The Climate Near the Ground

To understand why passive cooling works, the chmate near the ground must be

examined. Water has a high specific heat and thus acts as a heat reservoir. Specific

heat is the heat required per unit mass to raise the temperature of the substance by

1 degree Celsius (27). The specific heat of water is 1 calorie per gram degree Celsius

and is the standard to which other materials are compared. For a dry mineral soil, this

value is about 0.2 calories per gram per degree Celsius even if the specific composition

of the soils varies (32).

The soils that surround the ponds are important in the formation of ice. Different

soil types wiU transfer heat at different rates. The optimal soil would be a poor insulator,

like sand. The average specific heat capacity of soil can be taken as the average of its

constituents. In other words, a body of water will change in temperature much less
 13

than the adjacent land areas or the air bodies for the same weather conditions. The

specific heat of ice is independent of its density and the specific heat of any air bubbles

trapped in the ice may be neglected. The specific high heat of water makes passive

cooling possible.

Small bodies of water wiQ show greater sensitivity to temperature changes than

larger ones. A large body of water stores a more heat. Small bodies of water can be

further divided into puddles and pools. Both wiU exhibit some different characteristics.

A puddle is shallow and has a small surface area while a pool is deeper and wiU exhibit a

smaller daily temperature variations. A puddle wiU be greatly effected by shade. Both

wiU have a cooler upper surface due to heat lost by evaporation. Ice wiU form first on

small sohd objects at the surface of these small bodies and not at the banks. As the

size of the body of water increases, there is less change in the daily water temperatures

when compared to the seasonal variations in temperature (14).

Conditions conducive to freezing are determined by ambient air temperature, cloud

cover, and the wind velocity. Favorable conditions include low temperature, clear skies,

and low wind velocities. Since the ambient air temperature is recorded at a standard 2

meters above the ground level, the temperatures experienced at ground level generally

wiU be lower. Therefore, it is possible to have ice when the measured air temperature

at a standard weather station is above freezing.

Properties of Ice

Seawater is 2,700 more times abundant then fresh water. The ocean could become

an inexhaustible source of fresh water if the dissolved sohds could be removed. In

nature, the conversion of saltwater to fresh water occurs regularly through evaporation
 14

of freezing processes. For many years, people in the Soviet Union have collected sea ice

for use (31).

The properties of water and ice are the basis for the use of freezing as a separation

process. When water freezes, it forms a crystal lattice. The lattice construction process

is selective and wiU not accept substitutes for the hydrogen or oxygen ions with the

exception that fiuoride ions can be incorporated (25). Ice exists in a variety of forms,

but the majority of ice is in the polymorphic form, which is shown in Figure 6 (25).

Ice is a hydrogen-bonded compound. Each oxygen atom associates with two hydrogen

atoms. Bubble-free ice is transparent and double refracting (2):

The oxygen atoms occupy the points of a hexagonal lattice in which each
oxygen atom is tetrahedraUy coordinated with four other oxygen atoms. The
0 - 0 distance is 0.267 nanometers at 0 degrees Celsius, which produces the
open low-density structure shown, (p. 21)

When water freezes slowly, pure ice can be formed. The impurities in the water will

not be included in the crystal matrix, unless the water body freezes solid or experiences

quick-freeze conditions, which can occur at temperatures less than -20 degrees Celsius

(25).

When seawater freezes, the saHnity of the ice formed averages only 4,000 parts per

million. Seawater contains between 30,000 and 35,000 parts per miUion of TDS (31).

For a given temperature, an equilibrium condition exists at which ice and brine of a

given concentration can coexist until the eutectic point of the solution is reached. The

eutectic point is the concentration at which freezing wiU not occur or at which salt

wiU precipitate before ice can be formed (12). Therefore, the salt can be incorporated

into the matrix when temperatures fall below the eutectic point. The eutectic point for

sodium chloride in seawater is -22.9 degrees Celsius (12). The freezing point of water
 15

is depressed -0.062 degrees Celsius when there are 1,000 parts per miUion of sodium

chloride in a solution.

SupercooUng alone does not cause ice to form. The ice must have a site (an object

or particle) on which to form and grow. The solution must contain some centers for

crystalization. Nucleation may occur spontaneously or be induced.

The variation of the density of water with temperature is another property that

makes ice formation by passive cooling possible. Water has its maximum specific gravity

at 4 degrees Celsius. The ice formed when surface water temperature reaches the freezing

point expands and floats. Therefore, ice can be removed from the surface of the cooHng

pond.

Ice has another property exhibited when it is warmer than -15 degrees Celsius. The

contaminants trapped in the crystalline structure of the ice will slowly migrate downward

because of gravity. The combined effects of these properties make ice formation by

passive cooHng a possibiUty.

Sampling Ice

The procedure for ice sampling, collection, and analysis is not exact. Typically, ice

wiU vary (in a chemically) significant maimer in the vertical direction but not in the

horizontal direction (7). Cowgill adds that there is httle data available on the chemical

composition of ice from lakes and ponds. The chemical composition includes entrapped

dust and plankton (7).

 16

Ice Formation

When the air temperature drops, the body of water wiU be cooled. The coldest

water will sink until the whole pond is 4 degrees Celsius. Then, as the top water layer

continues to cool, it becomes less dense. Therefore, the warmest lake water will be in

the underlying layer with a maximum temperature of 4 degrees Celsius (18).

The first ice to form in a calm body of water (water velocities average less than

0.5 meters per second) consists of spicules or plate-Uke crystals. Frazil ice (disk-Uke

particles of ice less 1 millimeter in diameter) form in faster flowing bodies of water. The

small crystals that form first, grow into a network of dentries that freeze together. The

continuous cover that is formed is called skim ice. When the ice sheet becomes stable,

it continues to thicken downward (2). If the air temperature is cold enough, the latent

heat of crystallization will be conducted upward through the ice and transferred to the

air. The process of crystal growth downward in the water is called congelation, and

the ice that is formed is called congealed ice. This ice is usually made up of column-

shaped crystals with a vertical orientation. In a moving body of water, the ice needs an

obstruction to coalesce upon before it can form (2).

Freezing versus Evaporation

The freezing point of water is essentially independent of pressure, whereas the boihng

point of water is dependent on pressure. Also, the heat absorbed by vaporization is 7.5

times the heat which is liberated at crystalization. This fact suggests that the energy

required for each pound of vapor formed will produce 7.5 pounds of ice. This concept was

seemingly illustrated in vacuum-freezing and vapor-compression devices (5). However,

Dodge shows the energy required for freezing is not directly related to the latent heat
 17

(10). In a thermodynamic energy balance, the work used in evaporation processes

requires 7.4 kilowatts per hour per 1,000 gallons while the work required in freezing is

6.3 kilowatts per hour per 1,000 gallons for an ideaUzed situation. The small difference

is energy input is insignificant when compared to the large amounts of work needed to

compensate for the irreversibifities of the freezing process (10). Snyder concurs (31):

It is sometimes stated erroneously that freezing is inherently more efficient

than distillation because only 80 calories must be removed to freeze a gram
of water, whereas 540 calories must be added to evaporate a gram. If none
of the energy needed for freezing or evaporation were recovered, freezing
would indeed be cheaper, but careful thermodynamic design can recover
much of the energy input (into distillation). Consequently in actual practice
the cycle efficiency is about the same whether desaHnation is performed by
evaporation or freezing, (p. 44)

Freezing processes have problems that are not experienced in evaporation processes.

For example, the formation of ice crystals may sometimes entrap brine. Ice crystals

must be large enough to be removed from the water, yet small enough so not to entrap

too much brine. Figure 7 shows that the purest ice formed under natural conditions,

in the Arctic Sea in a top 10-centimeter layer of ice, will occur 1 centimeter below the

surface (31). Also, the separation of ice from water is difficult. Refrigeration systems

are thermodynamically inefficient and the cost of removing heat from a unit volume of

water is high compared to the cost of adding heat (17).

Freeze-Crystahzation Processes for Pollutant Removal

There are many industries utflizing the of freeze-crystahzation processes for removal

of contaminants. Freeze-crystahzation is a physical process that is based on the prin-

ciple that ice crystals formed through freezing wiU essentially contain pure water (6).

The resultant ice can be removed, washed, and melted. Conversely, the concentrated
 18

brine may be recycled for reuse in some industries. Two different industrial freeze tech-

nologies have been developed in the 1980's (11); the Vacuum Freezing Multiple Phase

Transformation (VFMPT) and the Indirect Freeze Concentration (IFC) process. These

processes can operate in situations where TDS concentrations range from low to high

and they are easy to scale-up from the bench-scale test to the prototype unit. The equip-

ment used in these processes is relatively insensitive to fouhng. The equipment costs

less than evaporation equipment. Since the latent heat of fusion is less than the latent

heat of vaporization, freeze-concentration uses less energy than evaporative processes.

Also, the influent streams to the systems do not typically require pretreatment. These

advantages also decrease the operation and maintenance costs. Individual systems have

been tailored to require less energy but freezing processes stiU remain energy intensive

and expensive (6).

VFMPT Process

The VFMPT (by Calyxes) process utihzes vacuum freezing. Both the ice and the

vapor formed at the triple point axe used. The vapor provides a means for melting

the washed ice crystals (6). The VFMPT process is effective, rehable, and efficient.

This process is achieved by a Sub-Triple Point Vapor Processing Unit (STPVPU) and

an Integrated Crystal-Washer/Melter (ICWM). These two devices help the process by

hquifying the vapor in the STPVPU and then melting and washing the crystals in the

ICWM (6). VFMPT claims to have the first commercially available freeze-crystahzation

system. This process has advantages over both reverse osmosis (RO) and evaporation

processes. VFMPT can concentrate solutions to their eutectic point whereas RO can

only concentrate up to 7 or 8 percent of the solutions eutectic point. This system has
 19

a longer Ufe than RO systems and is not as sensitive to fouhng or scale formation. It

can handle either acidic or basic solutions and also solutions containing oxidizing agents

while RO can not. Also, this system is not as sensitive to corrosion problems as RO or

evaporation equipment.

The V F M P T process is unique. The pressure is decreased in the reaction chamber

so that the ice will subhmate or go directly from a sohd to a vapor at a lower-than-

boihng-point-temperature. Figure 8 shows the equipment used in this process while

Figure 9 shows a phase diagram which explauis the operation of the devices (6).

IFC Process

The IFC process is an indirect freeze-concentration (IFC) system (by CBI). In an

indirect freeze process, a refrigerant in the freeze-exchanger absorbs heat through a

metaUic barrier from a fiowing brine solution while coohng and partially freezing the

brine. In the IFC system, ice crystals are formed in the bulk of the hquid without growth

on the heat-removal surface (11). The system provides an energy-efficient crystalhzer

and provides for a continuous working process.

Figure 10 shows the IFC process, which has a freeze-exchanger that produces ice

crystals; a wash column for separating and washing the crystals; a precipitate separa-

tion device for growing and separating precipitate crystals; and a refrigeration system.

The low temperature minimizes metaflic corrosion and allows the use of favorable con-

struction materials. The low temperature also helps enhance precipitation because most

substances are less soluble at lower temperatures. No chemicals are added so the total

volume of waste for ultimate disposal is minimized. The system is adaptable to different

feed concentrations and compositions since it is a physical process. The refrigerant is

 20

not contaminated by the waste because a closed indirect system is used. No air pollution

is produced. Lastly, pretreatment is not required (11).

Apphcations

Freeze-crystahzation has been used in a variety of industries. Some of these in-

dustries include mining, orange juice manufacturuig, pickhng, industrial waste con-

centration, seawater desalination, textile manufacturers, chemical and alhed products

manufacturing, fabricated metal production, machinery manufacturing, electrical man-

ufacturing, production of measuring, analyzing and controUing equipment, and in utihty

and cogeneration facihties (11).

Summary

The combination of shade, the temperature regime near the ground, and winter

conditions make passive ice formation a process of the future. The temperatures in

shaded areas wiU be several degrees cooler than the temperatures recorded in the sunny

locations. Shade prevents a portion of the sun's radiation from reaching the water.

Birge reported that the primary factor in melting is the impact of radiant heat on the

ice (18). A decrease in the radiation will help prevent ice melt and keep water without

an ice sheet cooler.

The temperature at ground level will add to this effect. Temperature measurements

wiU be cooler than the official recorded temperature since the ambient air temperature

is recorded at a standard 2 meters above the ground level. In the winter, ground-level

air temperatures wiU be cooler. The benefits offered by shade and lower temperatures
 21

show that the freezing of water is possible even when the official recorded temperature

is above freezing and thus enhance the use of passive coohng ice-makers.

Locating the ice-maker system away from the city environment will also increase the

amount of ice produced. In the city, the houses, large office buildings, and factories form

an irregular surface that slows air movements. These structures will absorb more heat

during the day than the features found in country. At night, this heat wiU be retained

for a longer period than it would be in a country area. Added to the surface irregularities

is an increase in airborne paxticulates, which also retain heat. This combination results

in the formation of a heat island that concentrates heat in the center of the city. By

optimizing the cooler conditions offered by shaded locations, ground level conditions,

and rural conditions, the ice-maker system operations are enhanced.

 CHAPTER 3

PROCEDURES

This chapter presents a discussion of the methods and procedures used to accomphsh

the objectives of this study. The tests utihzed include experimental runs conducted

outside under ambient conditions and a second set of rims conducted under controlled

conditions.

Approach

The experiments were conducted to simulate conditions similax to those used for

ice formation processes in Iran (3). A series of tests were run in late winter (February

and Maxch 1989) to determine if a significant amount of ice would form in the ambi-

ent environment for various concentrations of sodium chloride (NaCl) in pure water.

The amount of ice formed would be a function of the temperature and time. Other

tests were run in a controlled temperature environment (a freezer unit) to compare the

amounts of ice formed in the unit to the amounts of ice formed under varying ambient

conditions. The tests under the controlled conditions would also show how much time is

required to form a significant amount of ice and the quahty of the ice formed. Infiuent

NaCl concentrations were varied to determine the effect on the effluent quahty. Lastly,

Stephan's equation was used to estimate how much ice should form under both the

ambient and controlled conditions of the experiment. This estimate was used in the

economic analysis.

22
 23

Research Plan and Procedures

Outdoor Tests

The plan was to simulate and test the procedures used in the Iranian passive ice-

maker. Water with different concentrations of NaCl was placed in shallow insulated pans

in a shaded outdoor location. A 7-day hygrothermograph, a device that continuously

records both humidity and temperature, was used to monitor the temperature of the

shaded location. The ice was to be harvested periodically and the inches of ice formed

during the interval were recorded. Next, the ice would be washed to remove residual

brine. Then, the ice would be melted at room temperature and the melted volume

recorded. Samples of the ice collected would be analyzed with an ion chromatograph

(IC) to determine the concentration of sodium contained in the ice.

The concentrations of the NaCl to be used were determined chemically. Since sodium

weighs 22.99 miUigrams per mole and chlorine weighs 35.45 miUigrams per mole, NaCl

weighs 58.44 milhgrams per mole. Therefore, sodium chloride is 39.34 percent sodium.

The milhgrams per hter of sodium in solution were determined by dividing the weight of

sodium chloride in the solution by the percent of sodium in the compound (15). Table

1 in the Appendix shows the concentrations used in the experiment.

The variables in the experiments conducted outdoors included temperature, hu-

midity, wind, time, volume, and solution concentration. Temperature and time were

monitored with a hygrothermograph. The NaCl concentration was to be a control fac-

tor. Due to evaporation, precipitation, and other weather related incidents, the solute

concentration probably varied. The solvent volume was selected as a control, but flocks

of birds drank the less concentrated samples. Therefore, the controls were not able to

be controUed.
 24

Controlled Conditions Tests

Freezing experiments were conducted inside an upright freezer unit. Insulated cups

were placed inside the freezer and fiUed with the test solution. The temperature in the

freezer was maintained between 0 and 25 degrees Fahrenheit. A hygrothermograph was

used to monitor the temperature in the freezer and the freezmg time interval. At the

end of the freezing time period, the ice which had formed was removed and washed. The

volumes of ice and unfrozen solution from each cup were measured. An IC was used to

measure the sodium concentration in the melted ice and in the brine solutions coUected

at the end of the freezing period. The amount of ice lost during the harvest and washing

phase could be found using a mass balance on the initial and final volumes of the test

solutions. The mass balance also required values for the concentrations of sodium in

the ice formed and in the residual brine. The amount of usable ice compared to the

total amount ice formed was also determined by differences in weight. The results

obtained from this phase would be used for comparison against the results obtained

under ambient weather conditions.

After the preliminary freezer experiments, it was determined that additional factors

needed to be controUed to provide statisticaUy vahd results. Each bucket used in the

tests was fiUed with 33 pounds of sifted sand. The time in the freezer was accurately

monitored so that each run was 7 hours long. The experiments were switched from a

frost-free freezer unit which varied over a 30-degree Fahrenheit temperature range to a

non-frost-free freezer unit which exhibited a lower range of temperature variation (12.6

degrees Fahrenheit).
 25

Each test run concurrently used solutions at the three test concentrations in order

that a representative solute concentration would experience the same conditions in each

run. DistiUed water was used to mix the solutions used the experiments. The infiuent

water was first treated by reverse osmosis. Then, the water was sent through the

Barnstead stiU which is used for distiUation in the environmental lab. The water was of

a good quality and checks were run for verification. Only trace amounts of sodium, on

the order of 1 part per imlhon, were found in the effluent water. Each of the three cups

fiUed with 500 miUUiters of one of the test solutions. The first cup had 500 miUigrams

per hter of sodium; the second had 1,500; and the third had 4,500. The cups containmg

solution were placed in cups in the buckets, surroimded by sand, and frozen for 7 hours.

The cups in the bucket were used to keep the amount of sand in each bucket consistent

for each run. Figure 11 depicts the configuration of the test unit. Ice formed by the

end of the test period was removed from each solution cup and weighed before and after

washing.

The variables of interest in each test run were both the final salt concentrations in

the ice formed and in the unfrozen solution left in the test cups. Samples of melted

ice and residual brine were tested by an IC to determine the sodium concentration in

the samples. The influent concentration was controUed by applying the protocol set in

solution preparation (Table 1 in the Appendix).

Test Facihty

Outdoor Test Facihty

The roof of the Texas Tech University CivU Engineering BuUding was the site for

the outdoor phase of the experunents. Shade was provided by a wooden wall set up
 26

on the south side of the experimental area. The pans in which the test solutions were

placed were insulated with packing material and battuig.

The ice removed from the test vessel was taken to the lab where it was washed

using a strainer and then melted. The volume of melted ice was measured in volumetric

beakers.

ControUed Test FaciUty

This phase was conducted using an upright freezer unit located in the Environmental

Science Laboratory in the CivU Engineering Department at Texas Tech University. The

washing and measuring of the ice utihzed the same procedures and facUities as the

outdoor phase. The test solutions were prepared the same maimer.

The test solutions used in the experiments were prepared in the lab by adding sodium

chloride in specified amounts to distUled water. Concentrations were determined by

weighing the salt, used for each of the three test concentrations.

Ion Chromatograph. The IC is an instrument that combines conductivity detection

and ionic separation abiUties. A filtered 100-microhter sample of hquid is injected into

the IC and is pumped through ion exchange resins where the cations are sepaxated.

Vaxious ions have paxticulax affinities for the resin and the ions in the test solution can

be identified by the rate at which they migrate through the IC column. An ion's affinity

is largely a function of its size and valence. After migration, the ions axe neutraUzed

and sample ions are converted to thek corresponding strong base. The alkahnity is then

measured by a conductance ceU. The chromatographs formed by the sample constituents

are output by a printer on graph paper. The peak heights are then measured and

calibrated. Cahbration curves formed from standards run through the IC are used to
 27

interpret sample results. Typically, five different standards with known values of the

cations of interest are used.

Data Analysis

Data was coUected ui different phases. The first phase mvolved an outdoor ex-

periment and was used to help develop a plan for scaling-up the passive cooling-pond

concept. The second phase, which was used to develop the procedure for the final phase,

involved indoor testing in a freezer. The third phase involved a controUed freezer exper-

iment. The results of this phase were used to determine the quahty of effluent predicted

for the three different concentrations of NaCl in solution.

Outdoor Test Phase

This phase involved tests conducted outside during the months of February and

March 1989. Many problems were experienced in this phase. Equipment had to be

developed and an outdoor location for experiment found. The roof of the Texas Tech

CivU Engineering Building was chosen because it was close to the lab and because access

to the site was controUed. People and four-legged animals were denied access to the

experimental units. However, birds were a problem. They drank water from the control

unit and from some of the units that contained the lower NaCl concentrations.

Some problems were anticipated. Passive cooling is whoUy dependent on the local

chmatic conditions and the freezing conditions might be sporadic in occurrence. There

was the logistical problem of transporting the water to the roof and the ice to the

laboratory. People and carts were sohcited to help move both the water and ice. To

duphcate the Iranian-type coohng pond method being investigated, shade had to be
 28

provided, for this phase. The shade was provided by modifying plywood frames found

on the roof which were left from a previous experiment. The temperature in the shade

on the roof was monitored continuaUy with a hygrothermograph.

Operational problems developed during this phase. The test solutions froze to sohd

ice in the experimental units. An extreme cold period was experienced and the test

solution in aU the units and the control froze sohd in a few hours time.

Another problem was that the NaCl test concentrations were approaching seawater

levels. In the smaU volumes, there was limited reservoir space in the experimental unit

for these soUds to migrate to the brine supply when ice crystals formed. In the extreme

temperatures experienced, the smaU volumes of the test solutions froze too quickly for

accurate, repeatable results.

Houses, laxge office buildings, factories, and landscaping vegetation in the city form

an irregulax surface that slows air movement. Structures and paved surfaces wiU absorb

more heat during the day than land mass in the country. At night, this heat wiU be

retained for a longer period than in a rural area. Added to the surface irregularities are

the increases in airborne particulates in the city that also retain heat. The result is the

formation of a heat island which concentrates heat in the center of the city. AdditionaUy,

the air temperature experienced at ground level during the night hours is lower than

the layers of air above it. Less ice could have been formed because the experiment was

located on a roof in the center of Lubbock, Texas. The test units may have gained heat

from the building and the city itself.

 29

ControUed Test Phase

The test unit was a bucket in which three cups were placed. The cups were then

insulated by placing soil in the voids between them. The cups were fiUed with 500

miUihters of solution and placed in a freezer until sufficient ice formed. A sketch of the

test unit is shown in Figure 11.

Variables in this phase included insulation, temperature, time, and concentration.

The soil used as insulation for the cups was not uniform and better insulation may have

been offered to one part of the container when compared to another area. The amount

of soil used also varied shghtly with each run. The freezer initially used was frost-free.

Therefore, the temperature varied more than 20 degrees Fahrenheit during the test

period. The time the solutions were left inside the freezer had to be varied in order

to get enough ice for the test run. Three different concentrations of NaCl were used.

Each run used three samples of the same concentration in the test unit. The freezer

conditions experienced by one run could vary for another run which make comparisons

between different runs difficult.

Revised ControUed Test Phase

Modifications to the previous tests included the provision of a more uniform insula-

tion, a different freezer, and more precise procedures. The sand used for insiUation was

sieved and weighed before placement in the test unit. The freezer unit used was not

frost-free and did not have as high a cychc temperature variation as the unit used in the

second phase. The tests were run for a specified time period (7 hours) which aUowed

sufficient ice to form for the three test NaCl concentrations.

 30

Stephan's Equation Analysis

Stephan's equation was used to estimate how much ice would form under the different

conditions of the experiment and to predict how much ice would form in a typical winter

season in Lubbock, Texas. By inputting the constants into Stephan's equation it can

be simphfied to (2):

h = 0.035S°-^a (3.1)

where h is the thickness of the ice in meters, S is the summation of the number of

degree-hours of freezing, and a is a correction factor less than 1 (2). This equation wiU

be apphed to both the outdoor and controUed test phases. Although, the equation only

describes ice growth after ice formation, its use wiU help describe how much ice can be

formed if a conservative value is used for a. The limitations of the Stephan equation

were presented in Chapter 2.

 CHAPTER 4

RESULTS

This chapter is organized into three different sections-data presentation of the ice

making tests; ice development using Stephan's equation for analysis; and an economic

analysis of several ice-making techniques. The results of the ice-making techniques wiU

be discussed in the foUowing sections.

Data Presentation

Outdoor Test Phase

Tables 2, 3, and 4 present the results obtained in this phase. Table 2 shows the

nights which were below freezing during the 1988-89 winter period. Each date is fol-

lowed by the average temperature below freezing (ATBF) in degrees Fahrenheit and its

duration. This data was obtained from NOAA records for the winter 1988-89 period in

Lubbock, Texas. The ATBF along with the duration of freezing weather for each day

was used to calculate the degree-hours of freezing experienced in the 1988-89 winter

period for Lubbock. This value wiU be used in Stephan's equation. The temperature

experienced in an instrument shelter 2 meters off the ground may be shghtly warmer

than temperatures at ground level, so the value of ice predicted by Stephan's equation

wiU be conservative.

Table 3 shows the days on which data coUection was attempted. Days in the time

interval which are not hsted between these dates are periods in which no data was

collected because ice was not formed on the building roof. Some of the days shown in

Table 2 did not have the cold persist long enough for ice to form in the saline solutions.

31
 32

The results from the outdoor tests shown in Table 4 are highly variable. This fact

may be due in part to the variation in the ice coUection procedure used on some days

during the study interval shown in Table 4. The ice in the comers of the pans was so

thick that the the ice could not be removed with a hammer. Therefore, the ice in the

middle of the test unit was coUected. By the end of the winter, the ice in the comers of

the test unit had buUt up significantly. During mUder temperature periods, the corner

ice was coUected and mixed with the ice coUected from the center. The corner ice could

have been of better quality than the new ice formed at the center of the unit since the

NaCl trapped in the ice interstices wiU migrate slowly downward due to gravity.

Another factor is the possibUity that as the experiment continued, a residual build-

up of salt formed in the containers. In the rush to get off the roof and out of the cold,

the pans were not washed thoroughly after each run which could have added to the salt

buUdup. Variations in temperature could also cause the results to vary. A colder day

wiU freeze the water more quickly and thus entrap more dissolved sohds.

ControUed Test Phase

This phase of the experiment was used as a prehminary test procedure to design

the final experiment. The major problems experienced in this part of the experiment

was the identification of a large number of variables which needed to be controUed both

during the freezing interval and in the analysis phase. Evidence of the high variabihty

is shown in the Table 5. The lower NaCl concentrations were not impacted by these

variables in the test procedures as much as the higher concentrations. The standard

deviation for the 4500 milhgrams per hter solution is over 50 percent of the mean.

Therefore, it was necessary to develop a means to control these variables, as discussed

 33

in Chapter 3. The revised procedures were used in order to make the results vahd and

worthwhile.

Revised ControUed Test Phase

This was the fmal laboratory phase of the experhnent. Tables 6, 7, and 8 show the

results from the 500 miUigram per hter, 1,500 miUigram per hter, and 4,500 mUligram

per hter test concentrations of NaCl, respectively. Each table also shows the mean,

standard deviation, maximum, minimum, and coefficient of variation for the different

concentrations. The graphs of the results axe shown in Figures 12, 13, and 14. The

graphs show NaCl concentration in the ice and in the residual brine solution.

The coefficients of variabihty displayed in Tables 6, 7, and 8 show that the results are

good statisticaUy and that the modifications made in the test protocol were beneficial.

The results varied shghtly because the freezer exhibited a 12.6-degree Fahrenheit range

during its operational cycle. The cycle period lasted approximately 30 minutes. Another

cause of vaxiation may have been the sand used for insulation. The sand was sieved and

weighed in each bucket, but it was not homogeneous. Vaxiations in the sand mixture

from one test unit to the preparation of another also contributed to the variabihty.

The results from the 500 miUigrams per hter run had three outhers. The outUers were

a result of poor laboratory procedures. The samples were stored over a weekend and not

covered sufficiently, aUowing the NaCl concentrations to increase due to evaporation.

The outhers were not used to calculate the results from this run. The outUers test showed

that the discarded runs had NaCl concentrations that were approximately greater than

two standaxd deviations above the mean.

 34

The 1,500 and 4,500 miUigrams per hter runs exhibited lower coefficients of variabU-

ity than the 500 miUigram per hter. These numbers show that the runs are repeatable

and StatisticaUy vahd. When the three mns are graphed together a curve (Figure 15)

can be drawn showing the removal rate for the conditions used. More runs would help

vahdate this curve. However, it does show an interesting possibUity. The equation of

the curve has a correlation coefficient of 1 for a third-order polynomial equation of the

curve (A value of 1 is optimal).

When seawater freezes, the ice has an average of 4,000 miUigrams per hter of sahnity,

while the water itself contains 33,000 miUigrams per hter (31). Seawater frozen naturaUy

in the arctic can be added as shown in Figure 16. The correlation coefficient is 1 for

a third-order polynomial equation. Further studies in this area could help vahdate an

equation for the concentration of dissolved sohds in ice when natural, pond-hke freezing

occurs.

The results show that an effluent of significant better quahty can be obtained in

ice formed under pond-hke freezing conditions. Dissolved sohds can be trapped in the

interstices of the frazil ice as it forms a sheet. Therefore, a passive freezing system

operated to produce ice wUl be productive and feasible if the system can be operated

at a low cost.

Calculations showed that an average of 70.4 miUihters of ice was lost in the washing

step. This value was approximately 50 percent of the ice formed. Since the ice is not

as pure as it is in the energy intensive, industrial methods, washing does not have a

significant value in this process.

 35

Stephan's Equation Analysis

Using the simplification of Stephan's equation presented in Chapter 3 and the degree-

days of freezing for the winter of 1988-89 in Lubbock, Texas, the amoimt of ice expected

to form is 2.22 inches over a night. This value was calculated for an S of 7.55 degree

hours, where degrees are in Celsius units. The value of S is for an average period of 90

nights of freezing in Lubbock, Texas. A value of 0.58 was used for a. This value was

chosen to malce the economic estimate conservative. The value of 2.22 inches is used in

the economic analysis to determine if the facihty is reasonable in cost.

The temperature used to calculate the amount of ice that was expected to form, was

taken from NOAA records. This temperature was recorded in an instrument shelter

at an exposed location (sunny during clear-daytime conditions) and above the ground.

The shade provided for the passive cooling ice-maker system would lower the effective

temperature experienced by the ponds during daytime hours. The difference between

the recorded temperature and the actual temperature near the ground would also cause

lower temperatures to be experienced by the ponds. Therefore, more ice would form

and this estimate using Stephan's equation is conservative.

When Stephan's equation was apphed to the controUed condition tests conducted in

a freezer unit, 3 inches of ice were expected to form. In actuaUty, only an average 0.75

inches formed. The value of S calculated from an average temperature in the freezer

imit of -15.3 degrees Celsius and a time of 7 hours, was found to be 4.46 degree-days.

Therefore, the value of a would be 0.25 for the freezer unit. The value of a is low

because Stephan's equation only considers heat lost by conduction after the ice sheet

is formed. Another factor that could have affected the value was that the soU used for

insulation was at room temperature when it was placed in the freezer, and therefore
 36

exerted a coohng capacity. The smaU diameter of the freezing units (cups) and the

higher temperature of the freezer waUs compared to the heat sink of the sky could have

also reduced the value of a.

Economic Analysis

A schematic of a proposed passive cooling pond plant is shown m Figure 17. A

prehminary estimate was used to evaluate the capital and operational costs in order

to compare this method to the energy-mtensive methods exhibited by the IFC and

V F M P T systems. By comparing the costs of the three different systems, the value of

the passive coohng system as a method of pretreatment can be estimated. Table 9 shows

the economics of operation.

The design provides a 3.5-foot water depth in the pond. The volume of water input

can be modified to optimize the amount of ice formed by applying Stephan's equation

and using the local weather forecast for the next 24-hour period. Using this method for

the 1988-89 winter period, the average amount of ice formed in Lubbock is 2.22 inches

per night. To prevent the water from freezing sohd and to form ice of a good quahty, a

depth of three times the depth of ice formed should be used. The 4-foot deep pond wiU

provide for more severe weather.

The design shows that two sides of the concrete pond are sloped. The sloped sides

provide an access for vehicles which wiU remove the ice. In the morning, the remaining

brine wiU be drained. The ice sheet wiU be broken and the ice wiU be moved by a

tractor equipped with a blade attachment to the melting pond. Grit picked up by the

ice during formation and removal can be settled out later in a clarifier.
 37

The capitol cost estimated for the passive coohng pond system includes cost of ex-

cavation; concrete form-work, pouring, curing, finishing, and materials; a pipe network

system with two low capacity pumps per pond, and a smaU tractor with a plow at-

tachment. As shown in Figure 17, there is no shade provided for the melting pond,

so melting wiU be encouraged by radiation. Therefore, energy wiU not be needed for

melting or freezing processes.

The waste water to be treated can be stored in ponds until processed. The only

energy required wUl be the fuel for the ice-removal vehicle and the electricity for the

water pumps. The power used by the pumps can be minimized by utihzing a smaU

slope in the ponds. This slope wiU faciUtate the drainage of the brine remaining after

ice formation. Other operational costs include the wage of the ice-removal vehicle driver

and vehicle maintenance costs. This economic analysis shows the cost to add the passive

cooling pond system to an existing facihty as a pretreatment method to remove dissolved

sohds. Therefore, human factors for system operation needed are already in place and

were not considered in the cost analysis.

The final cost per gaUon produced is based on 90 days of freezing weather and an

ice production amount of 50,000 gaUons per night. These values are based on data for

Lubbock, Texas. Lubbock experiences an average of approximately 90 days of freezing

weather per year according to NOAA records. The surface area required to produce

50,000 gaUons of ice (based on an average 2.22 inches forming per night) may be provided

by 12 ponds which axe 10 feet wide and 100 feet long.

The two freeze technologies examined axe the IFC system and the V F M P T system.

Tables 10 and 11 show the cost analyses for these processes. The data shown in these

tables is the only data which was avaUable on the costs (6, 11).
 38

The cost of the IFC system is based on 8000 hours of operation per year and a flow

of 300-500 gaUons per minute. The IFC system produces water at a cost of 2 cents per

gaUon based on 1987 doUar values. The VFMPT system produces 50,000 gaUons per

day and the cost per gaUon is 0.31 cents adjusted to 1987 values. The passive coohng

ice-maker is comparable to the V F M P T in cost and production. The cost per gaUon

is 0.37 cents based on 1987 doUars for the same water production quantity. The IFC

system produces ten times the amount of the other systems and costs almost ten times

more per gaUon.

The passive coohng ice-maker system wiU not be as influenced by rising energy costs

as the other two systems, since the only energy input is for the ice-removal vehicle

and the pumps. The costs of the system wiU decrease as the system is moved to higher

latitudes or altitudes. More ice can be produced naturaUy for the same costs. Therefore,

the passive coohng system could be a reasonable pretreatment system for the removal

of dissolved sohds.
 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

The conclusions of this study axe as follows:

1. The data gathexed fox the thiee diffexent test concentxations show that

impxoved watex quahty can be obtained from ice pxoduced in passive-freezing

systems. In no case did the ice that foxmed contain moxe than 50 pexcent

of the initial sohds.

2. Moxe ice would foxm in axeas highex in latitude ox altitude than

Lubbock, Texas.

3. The quahty of the xesultant ice is a function of the initial solution

quahty.

4. Washing the ice pxoduced outdooxs is neithex pxactical nox economical.

5. The passive cooling ice-makex system could be an economical method fox

xemoving dissolved sohds from watex in Lubbock, Texas, if enexgy pxices xise.

Recommendations

The xecommendations developed in this study axe as foUows:

1. Study the xelationship between xecoxded tempexatuxe and tempexatuxe

in shaded locations at gxound level to impxove the design.

2. Moxe xeseaxch is needed in the outdoox phase to combine empirical

data with Stephan's equation to optimize the ice-making process.

3. Study the use of metal frames to potentiaUy increase heat loss and

determine the optimal number of condensation nuclei to increase the amount

39
 40

of ice formed.

4. Study ice forming effects of variations in dissolved sohds concentration,

especially in the range of 1,000 to 30,000 miUigrams per Uter.

k
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Anderson, Bruce and Malcom WeUs. Passive Solar Energy: The Homeown-
er^s Guide to Natural Heating and CooHng. Andover, Massachusetts: Brick-
house PubHshing Co., 1981.

2. Ashton, George D. Ed. River and Lake Ice Engineering. Littleton, Col-
orado: Water Resources Publications, 1986.

3. Bahadori, Mehdi N. "Passive Cooling Systems in Iranian Architecture." In

Scientific American. February 1978, pp 144-154.

4. Brady, James E. and John R. Holum. Fundamentals of Chemistry. New

York: John Wiley and Sons, 1981.

5. Bridge, Richard R. "Vacuum-Freezing and Vapor-Compression for Desalting

Seawater." Chemical Engineering. June 22, 1964, pp 114-116.

6. Calyxes. "Vacuum Freeze Multiple Phase Transformation." Albuquerque,

New Mexico: Calyxes R and D Corporation.

7. Cowgill, U. M. "Sampling Waters: The Impact of Sample Variability on

Planning and Confidence Levels." In Principles of Environmental Sampling.
Lawrence H. Keith, ed. 1988, pp. 171-189.

8. Cywin, Allen and Lewis S. Finch. "Federal Research and Development

Program for Saline-Water Conversion." Journal of American Water Works
Association. August 1960, pp. 983-996.

9. Delyannis, A. and E.-E. Delyannis. Seawater and Desalting. Vol. I. New

York: Springer-Verlag, 1980.

10. Dodge, Barnett F. "Fresh Water From Saline Water: An Engineering Re-
search Problem." In American Scientist. Vol. 48, No. 4, December, 1960,
pp. 476-513.

41
 42

11. Engdahl, G. E. and M. Husain. "Waste Reduction by Freeze Crystaliza-

tion." Presented at Hazmat-Canada. Toronto, Canada: CBI Freeze Tech-
nologies, Inc., 1987.

12. Fletcher, N. H. The Chemical Physics of Ice. Cambridge: University Press,

1970. "

13. Fynn, R. Peter and Ted H. Short. The Salt StabiHzed Solar Pond For Space
Heating -A Practical Manual-. Wooster, Ohio: The Ohio State University
Agricultural Research and Development Center.

14. Geiger, Rudolf. Scripta Technica, Inc. Trans. The Climate Near the Ground.
Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1965.

15. Gillespie, Ronald, David A. Humphreys, N. Cohn Baird, and Edward A.

Robinson. Chemistry. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1986.

16. Hanson, David G. and John I. Yellott. A Study of Natural Cooling Processes
In A Hot, Arid Region. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: University of Pennsyl-
vania, 1978.

17. Houle, James F. "Freeze-Desalting of Seawater Goes into Operation."

Chemical Engineering. January 6, 1964, pp. 64-66.

18. Hutchinson, G. Evelyn. A Trestice on Limnology. Vol. I. New York: John

Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1957.

19. "J D Observer." IlHnois: John Deere Company, Summer 1989, pp. 5-20.

20. Jumikis, Alfred R. Soil Mechanics. Princeton, New Jersey: D. Van Nos-
trand Company, Inc., 1962.

21. Labine, R. A., ed. "Making Fresh Water From Salt Water."
Chemical Engineering. June 13, 1960, pp. 152-155.

22. Montgomery, James M. Consulting Engineers, Inc. Water Treatment

Principles and Design. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1985.
 43

23. Pakiz, George. "Our Petroleum Predicament." In Fishing Facts Magazine.

November, 1975, pp. 31-50.

24- Passive Solar Design Handbook. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Com-
pany, 1984.

25. Pounder, Elton R. The Physics of Ice. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1965.

26. "Progress in SaHne-Water Conversion: Task Group Report." Journal of

American Water Works Association. September 1961, pp. 1091-1104.

27. Reynolds, WiUiam C. and Henry C. Perkins. Engineering

Thermodynamics. New York: McGraw-HiU Book Company, 197T.

28. "Rundown on Saline Water Conversion." Chemical Engineering. July 25,

1960, pp. 105-108.

29. Shoemaker, Morrell M. The Building Estimator's Reference Book. lUinois:

Frank M. Walker Company, 1980.

30. Simpson, Charles. "Freezing the Salt Out of Sea Water." Engineering. April
24, 1970, p. 418.

31. Snyder, Asa E. "Desalting Water by Freezing." In Scientific American. Vol.

206, No.6, December 1962, pp. 41-47.

32. Taylor, Sterling A. Physical Edaphology: The Physics of Irrigated and

Nonirrigated Soils. Gaylen L. Ashcroft, ed. San Francisco: W. H. Free-
man and Company, 1972.

33. Texas Solar Realities, How to Build with Solar Power. Texas: Governor's
Office of Energy Resources, 1979.

34. U . S . Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. Summary Report The

Advanced Waste Treatment Research Program. Cincinnati, Ohio: Publica-
tions Office, Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center, 1964.
 44

35. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. Method 300.7. Champaign, Illi-

nois: Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory, March 1986.

36. "Vacuum-Freezing and Vapor-Compression For Desalting Seawater."

Chemical Engineering. June 22, 1964, pp.114-116.

37. Viessman, Warren, Jr. and Claire Welty. Water Management Technology and
Institutions. New York: Harper and Row Publishers, 1985.

38. Watanabe, Masatalca, Donald R. F. Harleman, and Jerome J. Connor.

Finite Element Model for Transient Two-Layer Cooling Pond Behavior. Re-
port No. 202. Boston, Massachusetts: Ralph M. Parsons Laboratory for
Water Resources and Hydrodynamics, July 1975.
APPENDIX

45
 46

Process Location

Long-tube-vertical evaporation Freeport, TX

Multistage flash distiUation San Diego, CA
Electrodialysis Webster, SD
Forced-circulation-vapor-compression RosweU, NM
Freeze evaporation WrightsviUe Beach, NC
Direct refrigerant coohng St. Petersburg, FL

Figure 1. OSW Projects

Source: 28
 47

FREcZING MELTING
CHAMBER UNIT

HEAT EXCHANGER

r^CCMING St A WATER FRESH WATER

BPfNE RETURN

Figure 2. Freeze-evaporation Process

Source: (31)
 48

WATER VAPOR VACUUM

l^4COMIN6 SEA WATER

FRESH WATER
BRINE RETURN

Figures 3. Direct-refrigerant FVeeze Process

Source: (31)
 49

0 0.01
Temperature

Figure 4. Water Phase Diagram

Source: (4)
 50

Figure 5. franian Ice-maker

Source: (3)
 51

a. View perpendicular b. View along the c-axis.

to the c-axis.

Figure 6. Ice Crystal

Source: (2)
 52

SEA-WATER SALINITY^

oc 3

1 4
^-
"Z
UI
o 5
UJ
U
u. *•
oc

§,
Z
&9
O

1 2 3 4
SAUNITY (PER CENT)

Figure 7. Natural Arctic Ice

Source: (17)
 53

First Vacuum Second Vacuum

Processing Zona Processing Zone
F«ed Concentrattf

4 Slurry
•[^-^Vacuum^
Flrwt
Vapor
'i^r'aezing" (Cryotala and Ue(h«r Liquor)

1
Crystal
Washing
Second
-+-J'Two Stage
First
Vapor

Second
Soeond
Vapor T Purlflod
Oryolafi

Vopor . Second,.. Crystal •

! ^ » Uqutd •,. Vapor -:• Vapor •.- Uqutd Melting
Uquafoctfon Gen oration Generation

Purified Solvent Purlfled Solvent

Figure 8. V F M P T Process
Source: (6)
 54

Figure 9. VFMPT Phase Diagram

Source: (6)
 55

WASH WATER PRIMARY

CONDENSER
HEAT REJECTIOM
CONDENSER

WCTEIt-^ r HEAT REJECTION

COMPRESSION

/WWAA

BfBNE

FREEZE EXCHANGER- - RECOVER

SEPSUtATOR

PMCCtPrrATE SEPARATOR

Figure 10. IPC Proress

Source: (11)
 56

Table 1

Sodium Chloride in Solution

Sodium (mg/L) NaCl (g/L) Significance

500 1.27 used in experiment (lower saline threshold)

1,000 2.54 upper saline threshold
1,500 3.81 used in experiment
4,500 11.44 used in experiment
30,000 76.26 lower sea-water threshold
35,000 88.97 upper sea-water threshold
 57

^* « •

>

°o°
Figure 11. Test Unit
 58

Table 2

1988-89 Winter Nights with Freezing Weather

in Lubbock, Texcis

(with Average Temperature Below FVeezing

in degrees Fahrenheit)

Date ATBF Duration Date ATBF Duration

NOV 16 2.5 4hr JAN 9 0.3 1.5 hr

17 0.5 2.5 11 2.0 8
19 5.0 14.5 12-13 6.5 37.5
20 0.5 6 14 2.0 3
27 1.3 6 15 5.6 12
28 5.6 9.5 16 1.7 5
29 5.0 10 17 0 0
31 4.3 7 18 3.0 7.5
DEC 1 1.0 2 19 0.3 3
4 1.0 4 20 3.3 8
7-9 3.4 35 25 0.3 3
11 2.0 9.8 FEB 2-5 18.2 93
12 1.0 5.8 7 8.3 16
14 1.7 5 8 8.3 15.5
15 7.0 16.5 9 0.3 5.5
16 3.8 10 11 2.0 2
20 1.0 6 13 0.7 7
24 0.3 5 15 0.7 6.5
27 7.8 15 22 3.0 9
28 5.8 15.5 Mar 3-4 12.7 38
29 4.0 8.5 5 9.8 15.5
30 3.0 7.5 6 3.5 9
31 1.0 4.8 7 0.5 3
JAN 7 1.8 10.5 20 4.4 17
8 10.4 10.5 21 1.7 6.5
9 0.3 1.5 APR 10 0 0
 59

Table 3

Winter Data Collection Problems

Date Significance

Feb 2 Frozen soUd

3 Froze too fast/ too cold
4 Froze too fast/ too cold
5 Froze too fast/ too cold
6 Salt Concentration too high for volume
7 Salt Concentration too high for volume
8 Salt Concentration too high for volume
9 Salt Concentration too high for volume
16 Skim ice
22 Skim ice
Mar 1 Collected and tested
4 Collected and tested
5 Collected and tested
6 Collected and tested
7 Human Error
20 Interference from snow
21 Interference from snow
22 Interference from snow
 60

Table 4

Winter Results

Date NaCl in Influent Water Residual in Ice

Mar 1 10000 421

4 10000 8329.5
5 10000 435
6 10000 8110.8
 61

Table 5

Prehminary Results

Concentration (mgL) Mean Removal (percent) Standard Deviation

500 19.5 3.6

1500 34.0 5.2
4500 49.0 25.1
 62

Table 6

Results of 500 mg/1 Test

Sample Ice Concentration (mo/I) Residual Concentration Cma/1)

1 40.53 617.08
2 87.59 500.27
3 50.61 580.57
4 50.61 540.42
5 53.97 503.92

6 87.59 522.17
7 77.50 503.92
8 53.97 609.78
9 74.14 591.52

10 43.89 562.32
11 57.33 511.22
12 60.70 598.82
13 80.87 628.03

14 60.70 562.32
15 80.87 624.38
16 106.03 573.27
17 65.88 595.17

Average 66.63 566.19

Standard Deviation 18.03 440.90
Maximum 106.03 628.03
Minimum 40.53 500.27
Coefficient of Variation 27.06 1 7.93
 63

Table 7

Results of 1500 mg/1 Test

Sample Ice Concentration (mq/l) Residual Concentration (mq/l)

1 464.09 1785.17
I. 309.45 1639.16
3 427.11 1675.66
4 359.88 1449.34
5 487.62 1697.56

6 541.40 1617.26
7 343.07 1540.60
8 423.75 1726.77
9 393.49 1686.61
10 373.32 1898.33

11 470.81 1825.33
12 504.43 1781.52
13 443.92 1792.47
14 544.77 1828.98
15 638.89 2146.55

16 975.05 2237.81
17 477.53 1770.57
18 538.04 2007.84
19 576.92 1777.87
20 606.12 2131.95

Average 494.98 1800.87

Standard Deviation 143.61 201.57
Maximum 975.05 2237.81
Minimum 309.45 1449.34
Coefficient of Yoriotion 24.63 10.01
 64

Table 8

Results of 4500 mg/1 Test

Sample Ice Concentration 4500 (mq/l) Residual Concentration (mq/l)

1 1311.21 5037.59
2 1243.98 4782.07
3 941.44 3778.24
4 891.01 3102.93
5 2084.38 7191.27

6 1580.14 5220.10
7 1546.52 5366.12
8 1731.41 5147.10
9 1966.72 6515.96
10 1580.14 5731.15

11 1657.46 3471.61
12 1563.33 5785.90
13 1630.56 6059.67
14 1731.41 5731.15
15 2689.47 7519.79

16 2151.61 6132.68
17 1512.91 5512.13
18 1865.88 6424.70
19 1630.56 6077.92
20 1983.53 6023.17

Average 1664.68 5530.56

Standard Deviation 409.96 1126.09
Maximum 2689.47 7519.79
Minimum 891.01 3102.93
Coefficient of Variation 11.19 20.36
 65

800 T I Ice Concentration (mg/L)

Q Residual Concentration (mg/L)

600- ^
a» PI ^ * V- '..
' m n
''. ''
E * • ' f / ,

c k, V N V \
o k^
''
N
• '
\
X
• «.
/
\
^ • ' X > ,
k N \ • » \
400- w
<'
N
. ' • /
'' . 'NN ^•• i
/ \
c k,
^
N
. ' ^
k
/ •
N
.
• k N \ • ^, s
o y ^. ' f /
c k, S V • ^ N

o k
•
S
. '
N
/
• s
/•
s
k V V • V \
o k
f
\
. '
.'^
•
<•
/
N
k N \ s. N
200- k
^
\
. '
N
X
• V
/ '
\
^ . ' ^ /
•. V N • •. \
k
/ \
. '\ * V
/ s
k s s k >.
N ^ 1 ' IBv X
' ^m • H i ' ^ 1 ' ' ^H '^ • •
h H"^ • "^ H H^ H^

7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

Sample

Figure 12. Results from 500 mg/1 Test Run

 66

3000-1
H Ice Concentratk>n (mg/L)
Q Residual Concentraion (mg/L)

01
E 2000-
m m^ t^
c
o
> ^- ' • > . - '

r 0 " \ .' '

c
• v .• ' ; .' "
o
c '> .-. */ \• ^'
* • "k
. /•' N S,
• '
o 1000 '• ^ \ \ JJ y
O y \
* '
\ \
y

r • i f
\ \ \ \
• * s. 'I 'k I
o
> Ik I N ^ I
'k ^ • \ >k •

^ ^vk ^H ^B ^ ^B^ ^B
H.' H'' H' H.' H''

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Sample

Figure 13. Results from 1500 mg/1 Test Run

 67

I Ice Concentration (mg/L)

8000 -I
CZ] Residual Concentraion (mg/L)

s
6000- \ k
y X \ .> (^
TT k N
* X kX F'
V k
\ • /
4
\ b
/
\\ k
^^•*
I*,
N k >k b / If
\ / ^
. X 4 ('_
\ k N /4 x_
/ (' s. .// -^^
w • . X 4
\ \ ^/ \ k
\ / /•
k /*•
<k
/ \ V
X
\ k
/
S b
(f.

X
> /_^ \\ / ^
4 X 4 'x
4000- N k \ k
\ b
x_
/ »" \ .X /^
c \ k
4 X
\ k
4
N k /
*•

N • /^
e J X / x_
/ ^ f
./
Ik

o V
\
<.
/ X
S k
4
\ b
4 X
/ X
1
\ X
^^
1

c \ k \ b
»_
' ^ \ k
X f
o N "k
* X
\ k X b > If^
s .• X ^
\ \ ^4 J X X
/ / <s
o 's s <
X
N
S k
4 \
\
b
X
> X.
N
k
X f

\ <
J X
\ k
4
N b
*
>
X
X
/ /" \
\\ k
X f\
y
< X 4 X
/ N i N k
\ b / /•_ /
2000- X
/ 1'

• • \ M B . /'X ^^^^
4 X
V k ^^H ^
X Ik
' • X
N k b
•
4
^ ^^^1
•x >
If^

' •'<' \ H .. \ H
H \\ ^^1 / ^H^
\ ^m \ ^H ' ^H .> ^^1 t
>k
\ ^Ss ^•x /
• •' Hx ^^1 .*
N
^H *
^^B
^^H ^
\
H ' H'' \ ^•\ \ ^^1 f ^•x /
t
H \ ^R'/ ^^^^
\ \ ^Rx
^^1 HN ^Rx ^^R^ ^
X ^Vk ^1 • 4 ^H / ^My 4
^H ,v
I . MX ^ ^Vk ^1 \ ^^1 f ^^M . H\
I . ^Bx Hx_ / ^IN ^H /
H ' H'' S
^H * 4
^H /
p. H x ji \ ^
L' H''
p. H x

Figure 14. Results from 4500 mg/1 Test Rim

 68

2000 n

1000-
c
•
o
c
o
o

1000 2000 3000 4000 5000

Initial Concentraion (mg/L)

Figure 15. Average Results

 69

5000-1

4000-

3000-

o 2000-
c
o
O

1000-

10000 20000 30000

Initial Concentraion (mg/L)

Figure 16. Average Results with Seawater

 70

Plonwlow:

Section A-A:

•VT/'W^jj, <ffT77T'

^^7F> 276"
J 12' .' 12 > 16- 12*

ICO formollon pond molting pond

Figure 17. Proposed Passive Ice-maker Ponds

 71

Table 9

Economics of Passive Ice-maker System

(1987 doUars)

Item Cost

CAPITOL COST (total) 73,050

ANNUAL
Operational 1250
Maintenance and Supphes 456
Other (Taxes, Insurance, etc.) 456
Total based on 50 yrs of operation 17,180
Total per gallon per day
based on 90 days of ice / year and 50,000 gallons per day 0.0037
 72

Table 10

Economics of IFC System

CAPITAL COST (per gallon-day) 40 10

ANNUAL
Capital Recovery 187,780 1,009,300
OperatioDai Staff 200,000 360,000
Mainteaance and Supplies 34,560 185,760
Utilities 53,500 991,100
Taxes and Insurance 34,560 185,760
License Fee, Royalties, Other Costs 96,000 2,069,000
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS 606,400 4,795,920
COST PER GALLON OF WATER REMOVED .063 .023
 73

Table 11

Economics of VFMPT System

(for 100,000 gpd Seawater at 50 percent conversion)

COST kilowatt-hour per Annual Price

1000 gallons (adjusted to 1987 dollars)

Operations 35-40 56,000

Capital Costs not Available
 PERMISSION TO COPY

In presenting this thesis in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for a master's degree at Texas Tech University, I agree

that the Library and my major department shall make it freely avail-

able for research purposes. Permission to copy this thesis for

scholarly purposes may be granted by the Director of the Library or

my major professor. It is understood that any copying or publication

of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my

further written permission and that any user may be liable for copy-

right infringement.

Disagree (Permission not granted) Agree (Permission granted)

'YZ ,') ' o

Student's signature tudent's signa
Student's signature "-''

Date Date
I,, I, •f'sjK^ '•v. 1