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Fallout From Nuclear Weapons Tests in The 50's and Cancer Risks
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Fallout From Nuclear Weapons Tests in The 50's and Cancer Risks
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Zim VicomCopyright:
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'BMMPVUGSPN/VDMFBS8FBQPOT5FTUT
BOE$BODFS3JTLT
%XPOSURES YEARS AGO STILL HAVE HEALTH IMPLICATIONS
TODAY THAT WILL CONTINUE INTO THE FUTURE
3TEVEN , 3IMON !NDRÏ "OUVILLE AND #HARLES % ,AND
0 RIOR TO ONLY LIMITED CONSIDER
ATION WAS GIVEN TO THE HEALTH IM
PACTS OF WORLDWIDE DISPERSION OF RA
WEAPONS IN THE ATMOSPHERE "Y THE EAR
LY S THERE WAS NO PLACE ON %ARTH
WHERE THE SIGNATURE OF ATMOSPHERIC
EXPLOSIVE POWER OF MEGATONS OF
4.4 SEE &IGURE
4HE EARLIEST CONCERN ABOUT HEALTH EF
DIOACTIVITY FROM NUCLEAR TESTING "UT IN NUCLEAR TESTING COULD NOT BE FOUND IN FECTS FROM EXPOSURE TO FALLOUT FOCUSED ON
THE FOLLOWING DECADE HUMANITY BEGAN SOIL WATER AND EVEN POLAR ICE POSSIBLE GENETIC ALTERATIONS AMONG OFF
TO SIGNIFICANTLY CHANGE THE GLOBAL RA
#ANCER INVESTIGATORS WHO SPECIALIZE IN SPRING OF THE EXPOSED (OWEVER HERITA
DIATION ENVIRONMENT BY TESTING NUCLEAR RADIATION EFFECTS HAVE OVER THE INTERVEN
BLE EFFECTS OF RADIATION EXPOSURE HAVE NOT
ING DECADES LOOKED FOR ANOTHER SIGNATURE BEEN OBSERVED FROM DECADES OF FOLLOW
UP
OF NUCLEAR TESTINGAN INCREASE IN CANCER STUDIES OF POPULATIONS EXPOSED EITHER TO
3TEVEN , 3IMON RECEIVED A 0H$ IN RADIOLOGICAL HEALTH
RATES !ND ALTHOUGH IT IS DIFFICULT TO DE
MEDICAL X RAYS OR TO THE DIRECT GAMMA RA
SCIENCES FROM #OLORADO 3TATE 5NIVERSITY IN (E
HAS SERVED ON THE FACULTIES OF THE 5NIVERSITY OF 5TAH
TECT SUCH A SIGNAL AMID THE LARGE NUM
DIATION RECEIVED BY SURVIVORS OF THE (IRO
AND THE 5NIVERSITY OF .ORTH #AROLINA AT #HAPEL (ILL BER OF CANCERS ARISING FROM hNATURALv OR SHIMA AND .AGASAKI BOMBS 2ATHER SUCH
(E SPENT FIVE YEARS DIRECTING THE -ARSHALL )SLANDS hUNKNOWNv CAUSES WE AND OTHERS HAVE STUDIES HAVE DEMONSTRATED RADIATION
RE
.ATIONWIDE 2ADIOLOGICAL 3TUDY AND ALSO PARTICIPATED FOUND BOTH DIRECT AND INDIRECT EVIDENCE LATED RISKS OF LEUKEMIA AND THYROID CANCER
IN THE RADIOLOGICAL MONITORING OF THE FORMER NUCLEAR THAT RADIOACTIVE DEBRIS DISPERSED IN THE WITHIN A DECADE AFTER EXPOSURE FOLLOWED
TEST SITES AT *OHNSTON )SLAND IN !LGERIA AND IN &RENCH ATMOSPHERE FROM TESTING HAS ADVERSELY BY INCREASED RISKS OF OTHER SOLID TUMORS
0OLYNESIA 3IMON JOINED THE .ATIONAL #ANCER )NSTITUTE AFFECTED PUBLIC HEALTH &REQUENTLY HOW
IN LATER YEARS 3TUDIES OF POPULATIONS EX
.#) IN AND NOW FOCUSES ON RETROSPECTIVE DOSE EVER THERE IS MISUNDERSTANDING ABOUT POSED TO RADIOACTIVE FALLOUT ALSO POINT TO
ESTIMATION IN SUPPORT OF EPIDEMIOLOGIC STUDIES OF RADIO
THE TYPE AND MAGNITUDE OF THOSE EFFECTS INCREASED CANCER RISK AS THE PRIMARY LATE
ACTIVE FALLOUT AND OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE IN MEDICINE
4HUS TODAY WITH HEIGHTENED FEARS ABOUT HEALTH EFFECT OF EXPOSURE !S STUDIES OF
!NDRÏ "OUVILLE WAS BORN IN &RANCE AND OBTAINED HIS
0H$ IN PHYSICS AT THE 5NIVERSITÏ 0AUL
3ABATIER IN
THE POSSIBILITIES OF NUCLEAR TERRORISM IT BIOLOGICAL SAMPLES INCLUDING BONE THY
4OULOUSE IN (E SERVED AS A CONSULTANT TO THE IS WORTHWHILE TO REVIEW WHAT WE KNOW ROID GLANDS AND OTHER TISSUES HAVE BEEN
5NITED 3CIENTIFIC #OMMITTEE ON THE %FFECTS OF !TOMIC ABOUT EXPOSURE TO FALLOUT AND ITS ASSOCI
UNDERTAKEN IT HAS BECOME INCREASINGLY
2ADIATION FOR YEARS AND THE )NTERNATIONAL #OMMIS
ATED CANCER RISKS CLEAR THAT SPECIFIC RADIONUCLIDES IN FALLOUT
SION ON 2ADIOLOGICAL 0ROTECTION )#20 FOR YEARS ARE IMPLICATED IN FALLOUT
RELATED CANCERS
"OUVILLE JOINED THE .ATIONAL #ANCER )NSTITUTE IN (ISTORICAL "ACKGROUND AND OTHER LATE EFFECTS
AND HAS SINCE BEEN HEAVILY INVOLVED IN THE ESTIMATION 4HE FIRST TEST EXPLOSION OF A NUCLEAR
OF RADIATION DOSES RESULTING FROM RADIOACTIVE FALLOUT WEAPON 4RINITY WAS ON A STEEL TOWER IN .UCLEAR %XPLOSIONS 4HE "ASICS
FROM ATMOSPHERIC NUCLEAR WEAPONS TESTS AND FROM THE SOUTH
CENTRAL .EW -EXICO ON *ULY .UCLEAR EXPLOSIONS INVOLVE THE SUDDEN
#HORNOBYL ACCIDENT #HARLES % ,AND RECEIVED A 0H$
&OLLOWING THAT TEST NUCLEAR BOMBS CONVERSION OF A SMALL PORTION OF ATOMIC
IN STATISTICS FROM THE 5NIVERSITY OF #HICAGO (E STUD
IED THE RISK OF RADIATION
RELATED CANCER AT THE !TOMIC
WERE DROPPED ON (IROSHIMA AND .AGA
NUCLEAR MASS INTO AN ENORMOUS AMOUNT
"OMB #ASUALTY #OMMISSION AND THE 2ADIATION %FFECTS SAKI *APAN IN !UGUST OF )N OF ENERGY BY THE PROCESSES OF NUCLEAR
2ESEARCH &OUNDATION IN (IROSHIMA *APAN BEFORE JOIN
THE 3OVIET 5NION CONDUCTED ITS FIRST TEST FISSION OR FUSION &ISSION RELEASES ENERGY
ING THE .#) IN ,AND SERVED ON THE )#20 FOR AT A SITE NEAR 3EMIPALATINSK +AZAKH
BY SPLITTING URANIUM OR PLUTONIUM AT
YEARS AND WAS INSTRUMENTAL IN PRODUCING THE STAN 4HE 53 THE 3OVIET 5NION AND OMS EACH FISSION CREATING ON AVERAGE
.ATIONAL )NSTITUTES OF (EALTH RADIO
EPIDEMIOLOGICAL TA
THE 5NITED +INGDOM CONTINUED TESTING TWO RADIOACTIVE ELEMENTS PRODUCTS ONE
BLES AND THE .#)
#$# INTERACTIVE COMPUTER PRO
NUCLEAR WEAPONS IN THE ATMOSPHERE UN
RELATIVELY LIGHT AND THE OTHER RELATIVELY
GRAM DEVELOPED TO ASSIST ADJUDICATION OF COMPENSATION TIL WHEN A LIMITED TEST BAN TREATY HEAVY &USION TRIGGERED BY A FISSION EX
CLAIMS FOR CANCERS FOLLOWING OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURES TO WAS SIGNED &RANCE AND #HINA COUN
PLOSION THAT FORCES TRITIUM OR DEUTERIUM
RADIATION (IS RESEARCH INTERESTS INCLUDE QUANTIFYING
TRIES THAT WERE NOT SIGNATORIES TO THE ATOMS TO COMBINE INTO LARGER ATOMS PRO
LIFETIME RADIATION
RELATED CANCER RISK WITH EMPHASIS
ON IMPLICATIONS OF UNCERTAINTY FOR PUBLIC POLICY !D
TREATY UNDERTOOK ATMOSPHERIC TEST
DUCES MORE POWERFUL EXPLOSIVE YIELDS
DRESS FOR 3IMON $IVISION OF #ANCER %PIDEMIOLOGY AND ING FROM THROUGH AND THAN FISSION "OTH PROCESSES CREATE THREE
'ENETICS .ATIONAL #ANCER )NSTITUTE .ATIONAL )NSTI
THROUGH RESPECTIVELY !LTOGETHER TYPES OF RADIOACTIVE DEBRIS FISSION PROD
TUTES OF (EALTH %XECUTIVE "LVD "ETHESDA -$ DEVICES WERE EXPLODED AT PRIMA
UCTS ACTIVATION PRODUCTS ELEMENTS THAT
%MAIL SSIMON MAILNIHGOV RY TESTING SITES YIELDING THE EQUIVALENT BECOME RADIOACTIVE BY ABSORBING AN AD
© 3IGMA 8I 4HE 3CIENTIFIC 2ESEARCH 3OCIETY 2EPRODUCTION
!MERICAN 3CIENTIST 6OLUME
WITH PERMISSION ONLY #ONTACT PERMS AMSCIORG
DITIONAL NEUTRON AND LEFTOVER FISSIONABLE
MATERIAL USED IN BOMB CONSTRUCTION THAT
DOES NOT FISSION DURING THE EXPLOSION
! NUCLEAR EXPLOSION CREATES A LARGE
FIREBALL WITHIN WHICH EVERYTHING IS
VAPORIZED 4HE FIREBALL RISES RAPIDLY
INCORPORATING SOIL OR WATER THEN EX
PANDS AS IT COOLS AND LOSES BUOYANCY
4HE RADIOACTIVE DEBRIS AND SOIL THAT ARE
INITIALLY SWEPT UPWARDS BY THE EXPLO
SION ARE THEN DISPERSED IN THE DIREC
TIONS OF THE PREVAILING WINDS &ALLOUT
CONSISTS OF MICROSCOPIC PARTICLES THAT
ARE DEPOSITED ON THE GROUND
(OW 0EOPLE !RE %XPOSED TO &ALLOUT
4HE RADIOACTIVE CLOUD USUALLY TAKES THE
FORM OF A MUSHROOM THAT FAMILIAR ICON
OF THE NUCLEAR AGE !S THE CLOUD REACHES
ITS STABILIZATION HEIGHT IT MOVES DOWN
WIND AND DISPERSION CAUSES VERTICAL AND
LATERAL CLOUD MOVEMENT "ECAUSE WIND
SPEEDS AND DIRECTIONS VARY WITH ALTITUDE
&IGURE RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS SPREAD
OVER LARGE AREAS ,ARGE PARTICLES SETTLE LO
CALLY WHEREAS SMALL PARTICLES AND GASES
MAY TRAVEL AROUND THE WORLD 2AINFALL
CAN CAUSE LOCALIZED CONCENTRATIONS FAR
FROM THE TEST SITE /N THE OTHER HAND
LARGE ATMOSPHERIC EXPLOSIONS INJECTED RA
DIOACTIVE MATERIAL INTO THE STRATOSPHERE
KILOMETERS OR MORE ABOVE THE GROUND
WHERE IT COULD REMAIN FOR YEARS AND SUB
&IGURE "ETWEEN AND THE 53 THE
5332 THE 5+ &RANCE AND #HINA CARRIED
OUT MORE THAN ATMOSPHERIC TESTS OF NUCLEAR
WEAPONS TOTALING THE EXPLOSIVE EQUIVALENT OF
MEGATONS OF 4.4 4HESE TESTS INJECTED RA
DIOACTIVE MATERIAL INTO THE ATMOSPHERE MUCH
OF WHICH BECAME WIDELY DISPERSED BEFORE BE
ING DEPOSITED AS FALLOUT #ANCER INVESTIGATORS
HAVE BEEN STUDYING THE HEALTH EFFECTS OF RADIO
ACTIVE FALLOUT FOR DECADES MAKING RADIATION
ONE OF THE BEST UNDERSTOOD AGENTS OF ENVIRON
MENTAL INJURY 4HE LEGACY OF OPEN AIR NUCLEAR
WEAPONS TESTING INCLUDES A SMALL BUT SIGNIFI
CANT INCREASE IN THYROID CANCER LEUKEMIA AND
CERTAIN SOLID TUMORS -USHROOM CLOUDS SUCH
AS THE ONE FROM THE KILOTON TEST (//$ ON
*ULY DETONATED FROM A BALLOON AT
FEET ALTITUDE ARE A UNIVERSALLY RECOGNIZED ICON
OF NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS 4HE CHARACTERISTIC CAP
FORMS WHEN THE FIREBALL FROM THE EXPLOSION
COOLS SUFFICIENTLY TO LOSE BUOYANCY (//$
WAS THE LARGEST ATMOSPHERIC TEST CONDUCTED AT
THE .EVADA 4EST 3ITE AND IN THE CONTINENTAL
53 &ORTUNATELY THE 53 THE 3OVIET 5NION
AND THE 5+ STOPPED ATMOSPHERIC TESTING IN
WHEN THE NATIONS SIGNED THE ,IMITED 4EST
"AN 4REATY &RANCE CEASED ATMOSPHERIC TESTING
IN AND #HINA IN 0RESIDENT *OHN &
+ENNEDY SIGNED THE TREATY ON /CTOBER
BOTTOM 4OP PHOTOGRAPH FROM THE .EVADA
4EST 3ITE 53 $EPARTMENT OF %NERGY "OTTOM
PHOTOGRAPH FROM THE .ATIONAL !RCHIVES
© 3IGMA 8I 4HE 3CIENTIFIC 2ESEARCH 3OCIETY 2EPRODUCTION
WWWAMERICANSCIENTISTORG *ANUARYn&EBRUARY
WITH PERMISSION ONLY #ONTACT PERMS AMSCIORG
5NITED 3TATES
.OVAYA :EMLYA
5NITED +INGDOM
5332
#HINA
&RANCE +APUSTIN 9AR
.EVADA
,OP .OR 3EMIPALATINSK
*OHNSTON
-ARSHALL )SLANDS !TOLL 2EGANNE
#HRISTMAS
)SLAND
#HRISTMAS )SLAND
-ALDEN )SLAND
-ONTE
"ELLO -ARALINGA -URUROA
&IGURE 0RIMARY ATMOSPHERIC NUCLEAR WEAPONS TEST SITES WERE WIDELY DISTRIBUTED AROUND THE GLOBE WITH 3OUTH !MERICA AND !NTARCTICA THE
ONLY CONTINENTS TO BE SPARED .O SPOT ON %ARTH ESCAPED THE FALLOUT HOWEVER AS LARGER TESTS INJECTED RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL INTO THE STRATOSPHERE
WHERE IT COULD REMAIN FOR SEVERAL YEARS AND DISPERSE GLOBALLY 4HE NUMBERS SHOWN AT EACH TEST SITE INDICATE THE NUMBER OF TESTS AND FOLLOWING
THE COMMA THE TOTAL YIELD IN THE EQUIVALENT OF MEGATONS OF 4.4 $ATA HERE AND IN &IGURES AND n FROM .#)
SEQUENTLY BE DEPOSITED FAIRLY HOMOGE
FALLOUT IS DIRECTLY DEPOSITED ON EXTER
TRANSFERRED TO PEOPLE IN DAIRY FOODS
NEOUSLY vGLOBALv FALLOUT .UCLEAR TESTS NAL SURFACES OF PLANTS AND WHEN IT IS &IGURE )N GENERAL ONLY THOSE CHIL
USUALLY TOOK PLACE AT REMOTE LOCATIONS AT ABSORBED THROUGH THE ROOTS OF PLANTS DREN IN THE 53 WITH LACTOSE INTOL
LEAST KILOMETERS FROM HUMAN POP
!LSO PEOPLE CAN BE EXPOSED WHEN THEY ERANCE OR ALLERGIES TO MILK PRODUCTS
ULATIONS )N TERMS OF DISTANCE FROM THE EAT MEAT AND MILK FROM ANIMALS GRAZ
CONSUMED NO MILK PRODUCTS PARTIC
DETONATION SITE hLOCAL FALLOUTv IS WITHIN ING ON CONTAMINATED VEGETATION )N THE ULARLY IN THE S AND S WHEN
TO KILOMETERS FROM GROUND ZERO -ARSHALL )SLANDS FOODSTUFFS WERE ALSO THERE WERE FEWER CHOICES OF PREPARED
hREGIONAL FALLOUTv n KILOMETERS CONTAMINATED BY FALLOUT DIRECTLY DEPOS
FOODS 2ADIOIODINE INGESTED OR INHALED
AND GLOBAL FALLOUT MORE THAN KI
ITED ON FOOD AND COOKING UTENSILS BY BREAST
FEEDING MOTHERS CAN ALSO BE
LOMETERS "ECAUSE THE FALLOUT CLOUD DIS
4HE ACTIVITY OF FALLOUT DEPOSITED ON THE TRANSFERRED TO NURSING INFANTS VIA THE
PERSES WITH TIME AND DISTANCE FROM THE GROUND OR OTHER SURFACES IS MEASURED IN MOTHERS BREAST MILK
EXPLOSION AND RADIOACTIVITY DECAYS OVER BECQUERELS "Q DEFINED AS THE NUMBER 4HE TWO NUCLEAR WEAPONS DROPPED
TIME THE HIGHEST RADIATION EXPOSURES ARE OF RADIOACTIVE DISINTEGRATIONS PER SEC
ON (IROSHIMA AND .AGASAKI WERE
GENERALLY IN AREAS OF LOCAL FALLOUT OND 4HE ACTIVITY OF EACH RADIONUCLIDE DETONATED AT RELATIVELY HIGH ALTITUDES
&OLLOWING THE DEPOSITION OF FALLOUT PER SQUARE METER OF GROUND IS IMPORTANT ABOVE THE GROUND AND PRODUCED MINI
ON THE GROUND LOCAL HUMAN POPULA
FOR CALCULATING BOTH EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL MAL FALLOUT -OST OF THE INJURIES TO THE
TIONS ARE EXPOSED TO EXTERNAL AND IN
DOSES &OLLOWING A NUCLEAR EXPLOSION POPULATIONS WITHIN KILOMETERS OF THE
TERNAL IRRADIATION %XTERNAL IRRADIATION THE ACTIVITY OF SHORT
LIVED RADIONUCLIDES EXPLOSIONS WERE FROM HEAT AND SHOCK
EXPOSURE IS MAINLY FROM PENETRATING IS MUCH GREATER THAN THAT OF LONG
LIVED WAVES DIRECT RADIATION WAS A MAJOR
GAMMA RAYS EMITTED BY PARTICLES ON RADIONUCLIDES (OWEVER THE SHORT
LIVED FACTOR ONLY WITHIN KILOMETERS -OST
THE GROUND 3HIELDING BY BUILDINGS RADIONUCLIDES DECAY SUBSTANTIALLY DUR
OF WHAT WE KNOW ABOUT LATE HEALTH EF
REDUCES EXPOSURE AND THUS DOSES TO ING THE TIME IT TAKES THE FALLOUT CLOUD TO FECTS OF RADIATION IN GENERAL INCLUDING
PEOPLE ARE INFLUENCED BY HOW MUCH REACH DISTANT LOCATIONS WHERE THE LONG
INCREASED CANCER RISK IS DERIVED FROM
TIME ONE SPENDS OUTDOORS LIVED RADIONUCLIDES ARE MORE IMPORTANT CONTINUING OBSERVATIONS OF SURVIVORS
)NTERNAL IRRADIATION EXPOSURES CAN )ODINE
WHICH FOR METABOLIC REA
EXPOSED WITHIN KILOMETERS
ARISE FROM INHALING FALLOUT AND ABSORB
SONS CONCENTRATES IN THE THYROID GLAND
ING IT THROUGH INTACT OR INJURED SKIN HAS A HALF
LIFE THE TIME TO DECAY BY 5NDERSTANDING 2ADIATION $OSE
BUT THE MAIN EXPOSURE ROUTE IS FROM HALF OF ABOUT EIGHT DAYS 4HIS IS LONG 2ADIATION ABSORBED DOSE IS THE ENERGY
CONSUMPTION OF CONTAMINATED FOOD ENOUGH FOR CONSIDERABLE AMOUNTS TO PER UNIT MASS IMPARTED TO A MEDIUM
6EGETATION CAN BE CONTAMINATED WHEN BE DEPOSITED ONTO PASTURE AND TO BE SUCH AS TISSUE !LMOST ALL RADIONU
© 3IGMA 8I 4HE 3CIENTIFIC 2ESEARCH 3OCIETY 2EPRODUCTION
!MERICAN 3CIENTIST 6OLUME
WITH PERMISSION ONLY #ONTACT PERMS AMSCIORG
CLIDES IN FALLOUT EMIT BETA ELECTRON
AND GAMMA PHOTON RADIATION ! CAS
CADE OF EVENTS FOLLOWS ONCE TISSUE IS
EXPOSED TO RADIATION 4HE INITIAL RADIA
TION SCATTERS AND ATOMS IN THE BODY ARE
IONIZED BY REMOVAL OF WEAKLY BOUND
ELECTRONS 2ADIATION CAN DAMAGE $.!
BY DIRECT INTERACTION OR BY CREATING
HIGHLY REACTIVE CHEMICAL SPECIES THAT
INTERACT WITH $.!
4HE BASIC UNIT OF THE SYSTEM USED
INTERNATIONALLY TO CHARACTERIZE RADIA
TION DOSE IS THE GRAY 'Y DEFINED AS
THE ABSORPTION OF JOULE OF ENERGY PER ALTITUDES OF WIND
KILOGRAM OF TISSUE 4HE INTERNATIONAL TRAJECTORIES FEET
SYSTEM OF UNITS IS GRADUALLY SUPPLANT
ING THE PREVIOUS SYSTEM BASED ON DOSE
UNITS OF RAD BUT CONVERSION IS EASY
'Y RAD &OR PERSPECTIVE IT IS
HELPFUL TO REMEMBER THAT THE EXTERNAL &IGURE 7IND SHEAR VARIATIONS IN WIND SPEED AND DIRECTION WITH ALTITUDE CAUSES FALLOUT TO
DOSE RECEIVED FROM NATURAL SOURCES OF SPREAD OVER LARGE AREAS 4HE
KILOTON TEST 3)-/. WAS DETONATED AT AM LOCAL TIME ON
RADIATIONFROM PRIMORDIAL RADIONU
!PRIL AT THE .EVADA 4EST 3ITE 4RAJECTORIES OF THE FALLOUT DEBRIS CLOUDS ACROSS THE 53 ARE
CLIDES IN THE EARTHS CRUST AND FROM COS
SHOWN FOR FOUR ALTITUDES %ACH DOT INDICATES SIX HOURS 4HE NUMBERED DOTS ARE THE DATE IN !PRIL
MIC RADIATIONIS OF THE ORDER OF MIL
LIGRAY M'Y ONE
THOUSANDTH OF A GRAY OUT DEPOSITION DATA 4HERE HAVE BEEN WAS RESPONSIBLE FOR MOSTAL
PER YEAR THE DOSE FROM A WHOLE
BODY ONLY A FEW STUDIES INVOLVING DETAILED THOUGH NOT ALLOF THE RADIATION EX
COMPUTER
ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHIC #4 ESTIMATION OF THE DOSES RECEIVED BY LO
POSURE OF LOCAL POPULATIONS FROM ALL
EXAMINATION IS ABOUT n M'Y AND CAL POPULATIONS THE EXCEPTIONS INCLUDE OF THE TESTS 4HE FALLOUT
RELATED DOSES
THAT DUE TO COSMIC RAYS RECEIVED DURING SOME TOWNS AND CITIES IN .EVADA AND RECEIVED AS A RESULT OF THAT ONE TEST AT
A TRANSATLANTIC FLIGHT IS ABOUT M'Y ADJACENT STATES A FEW VILLAGES NEAR THE "IKINI !TOLL ARE THE HIGHEST IN THE HIS
3OVIET 3EMIPALATINSK 4EST 3ITE 343 AND TORY OF WORLDWIDE NUCLEAR TESTING
%XAMPLES OF &ALLOUT %XPOSURES SOME ATOLLS IN THE -ARSHALL )SLANDS 7IND SHEAR CHANGES IN DIRECTION
$OSES FROM FALLOUT RECEIVED IN THE S -ARSHALL )SLANDS /NE OF THE TESTS AND SPEED WITH ALTITUDE AND AN UNEX
AND S HAVE BEEN ESTIMATED IN RE
CONDUCTED IN THE -ARSHALL )SLANDS THE PECTEDLY HIGH YIELD RESULTED IN HEAVY
CENT YEARS USING MATHEMATICAL EXPOSURE EXPLOSION OF A 53 THERMONUCLEAR DE
FALLOUT OVER POPULATED ATOLLS TO THE EAST
ASSESSMENT MODELS AND HISTORICAL FALL
VICE CODE
NAMED "2!6/ -ARCH OF "IKINI RATHER THAN OVER OPEN SEAS TO
) TRAVELED FELL WITH RAIN GRAZING ANIMALS ) PEOPLE SOME )
RELEASED AWAY LANDING ON COWS OR GOATS COLLECTED IN OFTEN CHILDREN IN MILK
IN BOMB ON WIND GRASSES AND ATE THE GRASS THE ANIMALS DRANK THE COLLECTED IN
TEST FALLOUT PASTURES MILK MILK THYROID GLAND
&IGURE /NE MAJOR MEANS BY WHICH FALLOUT AND NUCLEAR DEBRIS ARE TRANSFERRED THROUGH THE ATMOSPHERE TO PEOPLE IS VIA THE PRODUCTION AND
CONSUMPTION OF DAIRY PRODUCTS &ALLOUT DESCENDS ONTO VEGETATION WHICH IS EATEN BY DAIRY ANIMALS 4HE FALLOUT PASSES INTO THE ANIMALS MILK
WHICH IS PREPARED FOR HUMAN CONSUMPTION 4HIS PATHWAY IS THE SINGLE LARGEST MEANS BY WHICH PEOPLE IN THE 53 WERE EXPOSED TO IODINE
FROM FALLOUT GENERATED BY NUCLEAR WEAPONS TESTING &IGURE ADAPTED FROM THE .ATIONAL #ANCER )NSTITUTE
© 3IGMA 8I 4HE 3CIENTIFIC 2ESEARCH 3OCIETY 2EPRODUCTION
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THEY WERE ESTIMATED TO BE SEVERAL TENS
FALLOUT ARRIVAL TIME HOURS
OF 'Y FOR AN ADULT AND MORE THAN
'Y FOR A ONE
YEAR OLD %STIMATED THY
ROID DOSES AT !ILINGINAE WERE ABOUT HALF
GROUND ZERO "IKAR !TOLL THOSE AT 2ONGELAP AND DOSES AT 5TRIK
EXTERNAL DOSE GRAY WERE ABOUT PERCENT OF THOSE AT 2ON
GELAP 4HE EXTERNAL WHOLE
BODY DOSES
ESTIMATED WERE ABOUT 'Y AT 2ONGELAP
2ONGELAP 'Y AT !ILINGINAE 'Y AT 2ONGERIK
!TOLL AND 'Y AT 5TRIK -UCH LOWER EXPO
"IKINI 5TRIK !TOLL SURES HAVE BEEN ESTIMATED FOR MOST OF
!TOLL 2ONGERIK !TOLL
THE OTHER -ARSHALL )SLANDS ATOLLS
4AKA !TOLL
!LINGINAE !TOLL 2ONGELAP )SLAND 4WENTY
THREE *APANESE FISHERMEN ON
THE FISHING VESSEL ,UCKY $RAGON WERE
ALSO EXPOSED TO HEAVY FALLOUT 4HEIR
DISTANCE FROM DETONATION SITE KILOMETERS DOSES FROM EXTERNAL IRRADIATION WERE
ESTIMATED TO RANGE FROM TO 'Y
&IGURE "2!6/ DETONATED ON -ARCH WAS A
MEGATON THERMONUCLEAR DEVICE THAT 4HOSE DOSES WERE RECEIVED DURING THE
RESULTED IN THE HIGHEST RADIATION EXPOSURES TO PEOPLE OF ANY NUCLEAR TEST 5NANTICIPATED WIND DAYS IT TOOK TO RETURN TO HARBOR
DIRECTION AND AN EXPLOSIVE YIELD HIGHER THAN EXPECTED SENT A FALLOUT CLOUD FROM THE "IKINI TEST ABOUT HALF WERE RECEIVED DURING THE
SITE TOWARDS THE INHABITED ATOLLS OF 2ONGELAP !ILINGINAE 2ONGERIK AND 5TRIK IN THE -ARSHALL
FIRST DAY AFTER THE ONSET OF FALLOUT
)SLANDS $OSES FROM EXTERNAL EXPOSURE WERE ABOUT n 'Y ON 2ONGELAP AND !ILINGINAE
3EMIPALATINSK +AZAKHSTAN 4HE 3EMI
PALATINSK 4EST 3ITE IN NORTHEASTERN +A
THE NORTH AND WEST !BOUT HOURS DETONATION IT REACHED THE RESIDENTS ZAKHSTAN NEAR THE GEOGRAPHICAL CENTER
AFTER THE DETONATION THE RADIOACTIVE OF 5TRIK !TOLL OF THE %URASIAN CONTINENT WAS THE 3OVIET
CLOUD BEGAN TO DEPOSIT PARTICULATE $OSES RECEIVED BY THE 2ONGELAP EQUIVALENT OF THE 53 .EVADA 4EST 3ITE
ASH
LIKE MATERIAL ON 2ONGELAP RESI
GROUP WERE ASSESSED BY GROUND AND ATMOSPHERIC TESTS AND SURFACE TESTS
DENTS WHO WERE FISHING AND GATHER
AERIAL EXPOSURE RATE MEASUREMENTS WERE CONDUCTED THERE FROM THROUGH
ING COPRA ON !ILINGINAE !TOLL ABOUT AND RADIOACTIVITY ANALYSIS OF A COMMU
4HE MAIN CONTRIBUTIONS TO LOCAL
KILOMETERS EAST OF THE DETONATION NITY
POOLED URINE SAMPLE 4HE DOSES AND REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL RADIOACTIVE
SITE FOLLOWED HOURS LATER BY DEPOSI
RECEIVED BEFORE EVACUATION WERE ESSEN
CONTAMINATION ARE ATTRIBUTED TO PARTICU
TION ON 2ONGELAP )SLAND KILOMETERS TIALLY DUE TO EXTERNAL IRRADIATION FROM LAR ATMOSPHERIC NUCLEAR TESTS CONDUCTED
FARTHER TO THE EAST AFFECTING RESI
SHORT
LIVED RADIONUCLIDES AND INTERNAL IN AND
DENTS 4HE FALLOUT ARRIVED HOURS IRRADIATION FROM INGESTION OF SHORT
LIVED $OSES FROM LOCAL FALLOUT ORIGINATING
LATER AT 2ONGERIK !TOLL ANOTHER KILO
RADIOIODINES DEPOSITED ON FOODSTUFFS AT THE 343 DEPENDED ON THE LOCATION
METERS TO THE EAST EXPOSING !MERI
AND COOKING UTENSILS 4HYROID DOSES IN OF VILLAGES RELATIVE TO THE PATH OF THE
CAN WEATHERMEN ABOUT HOURS AFTER PARTICULAR WERE VERY HIGH !T 2ONGELAP FALLOUT CLOUD THE WEATHER CONDITIONS
AT THE TIME OF THE TESTS THE LIFESTYLES OF
RESIDENTS WHICH DIFFERED BY ETHNICITY
+AZAKH OR %UROPEAN AND WHETHER
THEY WERE EVACUATED BEFORE THE FALL
OUT ARRIVED AT THE VILLAGE 3OME UNIQUE
CIRCUMSTANCES INCLUDED STRONG WINDS
THAT RESULTED IN SHORT FALLOUT TRANSIT
TIMES AND LITTLE RADIOACTIVE DECAY BE
FORE DEPOSITION FOR AT LEAST ONE TEST
!LSO THE RESIDENTS OF THE AREA WERE
HEAVILY DEPENDENT ON MEAT AND MILK
FROM GRAZING ANIMALS INCLUDING CATTLE
HORSES GOATS SHEEP AND CAMELS
$OSE
ASSESSMENT MODELS PREDICT A DE
CREASING GRADIENT IN THE RATIO OF EXTERNAL
RADIATION DOSES TO INTERNAL DOSES FROM
INHALATION AND INGESTION WITH INCREAS
ING TIME FROM DETONATION TO FALLOUT AR
RIVAL 4HE RELATIVELY LARGE PARTICLES THAT
TEND TO FALL OUT FIRST ARE NOT EFFICIENTLY
TRANSFERRED TO THE HUMAN BODY !T MORE
&IGURE 3UBSEQUENT TO THE EXPLOSION OF "2!6/ AT THE "IKINI TEST SITE TEAMS OF MEDICAL DOC
DISTANT LOCATIONS IN THE REGION OF LOCAL
TORS AND HEALTH PHYSICISTS MADE ANNUAL TRIPS TO THE -ARSHALL )SLANDS TO CHECK ON THE HEALTH OF FALLOUT INTERNAL DOSE IS RELATIVELY MORE
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"ROOKHAVEN .ATIONAL ,ABORATORY AVAILABLE &OR EXAMPLE IN RURAL VILLAGES
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ALONG THE TRAJECTORY OF THE FIRST TEST !U
GUST AT THE 3EMIPALATINSK 4EST 3ITE MORE THAN
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AT THE .43 USING HISTORICAL MEASURE
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IED ACCORDING TO LOCAL DAIRY PRACTICES DRINK MILK THE MEAN THYROID DOSE WAS COWS MILK 'Y IF SHE HAD CONSUMED
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more than 100 MORE THAN
30-100 n
10-30 n
MILLIGRAY
3-10 n
1-3 n
0-1 n
&IGURE 4OTAL EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL DOSE TO THE RED BONE MARROW OF PERSONS BORN ON *ANUARY FROM ALL .EVADA TESTS IS SHOWN AT LEFT 4O
TAL EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL DOSE TO THE THYROID OF ADULTS IN FROM ALL .EVADA TESTS IS SHOWN AT RIGHT .OTE THAT THE DOSE IS ROUGHLY PROPORTIONAL
TO THE DEPOSITION DENSITY SHOWN IN &IGURE
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RECEIVED FROM GLOBAL FALLOUT ARE SHOWN
IN &IGURES AND &IGURE SHOWS THE
PATTERN OF DEPOSITION OF #S
FROM
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n PARISON OF &IGURES AND SHOWS VERY
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n n ON THE TRAJECTORIES OF THE AIR MASSES
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FROM THE .EVADA TESTS AS THEY ARE STRONGLY INFLUENCED BY RAINFALL AMOUNTS n RADIONUCLIDE BUT IT IS NO GREATER THAN
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n
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,OS !NGELES #ALIFORNIA AT THE SAME A LINK IS AVAILABLE IN THE BIBLIOGRAPHY &ALLOUT AND #ANCER 2ISK
TIME THE CORRESPONDING VALUES WOULD ARE SHOWN IN &IGURES THROUGH AND )NCREASED CANCER RISK IS THE MAIN LONG
HAVE BEEN AND 'Y &IGURE SHOWS THE PATTERN OF DEPOSITION TERM HAZARD ASSOCIATED WITH EXPOSURE
! LINK TO THESE DATA IS AVAILABLE IN THE OF CESIUM
#S
A RADIONUCLIDE TO IONIZING RADIATION 4HE RELATIONSHIP
BIBLIOGRAPHY TRADITIONALLY USED FOR REFERENCE RESULTING BETWEEN RADIATION EXPOSURE AND SUBSE
&OLLOWING THE PUBLICATION OF THE .#) FROM ALL .43 TESTS IN THE ENTIRE 5NITED QUENT CANCER RISK IS PERHAPS THE BEST UN
FINDINGS IN THE 53 #ONGRESS RE
3TATES &ALLOUT DECREASED WITH DISTANCE DERSTOOD AND CERTAINLY THE MOST HIGHLY
QUESTED THAT THE $EPARTMENT OF (EALTH FROM THE .43 ALONG THE PREVAILING WIND QUANTIFIED DOSE
RESPONSE RELATIONSHIP
AND (UMAN 3ERVICES EXTEND THE STUDY DIRECTION WHICH WAS FROM WEST TO EAST FOR ANY COMMON ENVIRONMENTAL HUMAN
TO OTHER RADIONUCLIDES IN FALLOUT AND TO 6ERY LITTLE FALLOUT WAS OBSERVED ALONG THE CARCINOGEN /UR UNDERSTANDING IS BASED
CONSIDER TESTS OUTSIDE THE 53 THAT COULD 0ACIFIC COAST WHICH WAS USUALLY UPWIND ON STUDIES OF POPULATIONS EXPOSED TO RA
HAVE RESULTED IN SUBSTANTIAL RADIATION EX
FROM THE .43 %STIMATED BONE
MARROW DIATION FROM MEDICAL OCCUPATIONAL AND
POSURES TO THE !MERICAN PEOPLE %XAM
AND THYROID DOSES ARE ILLUSTRATED IN &IG
ENVIRONMENTAL SOURCES INCLUDING THE
URE 4HE FACT THAT BOTH EXTERNAL AND ATOMIC BOMBINGS OF (IROSHIMA AND .A
INTERNAL DOSES WERE ROUGHLY PROPORTION
GASAKI *APAN AND FROM EXPERIMENTAL
ALL CANCERS MALE AL TO THE DEPOSITION DENSITY IS REFLECTED STUDIES INVOLVING IRRADIATION OF ANIMALS
ALL CANCERS FEMALE IN SIMILARITIES BETWEEN THE TWO FIGURES AND CELLS .UMEROUS COMPREHENSIVE
LEUKEMIA MALE %STIMATES OF AVERAGE THYROID AND OF REPORTS FROM EXPERT COMMITTEES SUM
LEUKEMIA FEMALE BONE
MARROW DOSES FOR THE ENTIRE 53 MARIZE INFORMATION ON RADIATION
RELATED
THYROID CANCER MALE POPULATION ARE PRESENTED IN &IGURE CANCER RISK USING STATISTICAL MODELS THAT
THE THYROID DOSES FROM )
ARE MUCH EXPRESS RISK AS A MATHEMATICAL FUNCTION
THYROID CANCER FEMALE
LIFETIME RISK PERCENT PER GRAY
HIGHER THAN THE INTERNAL DOSES FROM ANY OF RADIATION DOSE SEX EXPOSURE AGE AGE
OTHER RADIONUCLIDE AND ALSO MUCH HIGHER AT OBSERVATION AND OTHER FACTORS 5SING
THAN THE DOSES FROM EXTERNAL EXPOSURE SUCH MODELS LIFETIME RADIATION RELATED
'LOBAL FALLOUT WITHIN THE 53 'LOBAL RISK CAN BE CALCULATED BY SUMMING ES
FALLOUT ORIGINATED FROM WEAPONS THAT TIMATED AGE SPECIFIC RISKS OVER THE RE
DERIVED MUCH OF THEIR YIELD FROM FUSION MAINING LIFETIME FOLLOWING EXPOSURE
REACTIONS 4HESE TESTS WERE CONDUCTED ADJUSTED FOR THE STATISTICAL LIKELIHOOD
BY THE 3OVIET 5NION AT NORTHERN LATI OF DYING FROM SOME UNRELATED CAUSE
TUDES AND BY THE 53 IN THE MID 0ACIFIC BEFORE ANY RADIATION RELATED CANCER IS
&OR GLOBAL FALLOUT THE MIX OF RADIONU DIAGNOSED
CLIDES THAT MIGHT CONTRIBUTE TO EXPOSURE 2ELATIVELY LITTLE OF THE INFORMATION
DIFFERS FROM THAT OF .43 FALLOUT LARGELY
ON RADIATION RELATED RISK COMES FROM
AGE AT EXPOSURE BECAUSE RADIOACTIVE DEBRIS INJECTED STUDIES OF POPULATIONS EXPOSED MOSTLY
INTO THE STRATOSPHERE TAKES ONE OR MORE OR ONLY TO RADIOACTIVE FALLOUT BECAUSE
&IGURE ,IFETIME RISK PER GRAY OF ABSORBED YEARS TO DEPOSIT DURING WHICH TIME THE USEFUL DOSE RESPONSE DATA ARE DIFFICULT
RADIATION DOSE CAN BE CALCULATED AS A FUNC
SHORTER LIVED RADIONUCLIDES LARGELY DIS TO OBTAIN (OWEVER THE TYPE OF RADIA
TION OF AGE AT EXPOSURE HERE THESE RISKS ARE
APPEAR THROUGH RADIOACTIVE DECAY /F TION RECEIVED FROM EXTERNAL SOURCES IN
GRAPHED ON A LOGARITHMIC SCALE 4HE CURVES
FOR LEUKEMIA REFER TO THE ABSORBED DOSES TO GREATER CONCERN ARE TWO LONGER LIVED FALLOUT IS SIMILAR TO MEDICAL X RAYS OR
RED BONE MARROW WHEREAS THE CURVES FOR THY RADIONUCLIDES STRONTIUM AND CESI TO GAMMA RAYS RECEIVED DIRECTLY BY
ROID CANCER REFER TO THE ABSORBED DOSES TO THE UM WHICH HAVE YEAR HALF LIVES THE (IROSHIMA AND .AGASAKI ! BOMB
THYROID GLAND AND THE CURVES FOR ALL CANCERS AND DID NOT DECAY APPRECIABLY BEFORE SURVIVORS ALLOWING INFORMATION FROM
REFER TO WHOLE BODY ABSORBED DOSES FINAL DEPOSITION %XAMPLES OF THE DOSES INDIVIDUALS SO EXPOSED TO BE USED TO
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.EVADA 4EST 3ITE FALLOUT GLOBAL FALLOUT
THYROID OR RED RED BONE THYROID OR RED RED BONE
BONE MARROW THYROID MARROW BONE MARROW THYROID MARROW
EXTERNAL DOSE INTERNAL DOSE INTERNAL DOSE EXTERNAL DOSE INTERNAL DOSE INTERNAL DOSE
RADIONUCLIDE HALF LIFE M'Y M'Y M'Y M'Y M'Y M'Y
CARBON Y
CESIUM Y
STRONTIUM Y
;= A ;= A
TRITIUM Y
ANTIMONY Y
RUTHENIUM D
MANGANESE D
CERIUM D
ZIRCONIUMNIOBIUM D
STRONTIUM D
RUTHENIUM D
CESIUM D
BARIUMLANTHANUM D
IODINE D
;= A ;= A ;= A
TELLURIUMIODINE D
NEPTUNIUM D
IODINE D
ZIRCONIUMNIOBIUM H
ROUNDED TOTALS
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&IGURE !VERAGE DOSES IN MILLIGRAY M'Y FOR ADULTS UNLESS ACCOMPANIED BY A SUPERSCRIPTED hA v WHICH DENOTES A CHILD BORN *ANUARY
LIVING IN THE CONTIGUOUS 5NITED 3TATES DURING THE ERA OF ATMOSPHERIC TESTING ARE SHOWN FOR THE MOST IMPORTANT RADIONUCLIDES .OTE THAT THE
RADIONUCLIDES ARE ORGANIZED BY HALF
LIFE FROM LONGEST TO SHORTEST IN YEARS Y OR DAYS D DESCENDING RATHER THAN BY ATOMIC WEIGHT
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PERCENT
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ALLWITH 53 LIFETIME RATES ESTIMATED RADIATION AS A CAUSE OF THYROID CANCER WITH SOME LIFETIME THYROID CAN
TO BE PERCENT IN FEMALES AND (OWEVER OBSERVATIONS OF THYROID CANCER CERS EXPECTED IN THE SAME POPULATION
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&ALLOUT AND 2ADIOLOGICAL 4ERRORISM
#ONCERN ABOUT THE POSSIBLE USE OF RADIO
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