METAL FORMING: PROCESSES AND ANALYSIS

B. Avitzur, Lehigh University

PREFACE vii

NOMENCLATURE xvii

PART l BASlC CONCEPTS

CHAPTER 1 STATE OF STRESS 3

1.1 Introduction 3

1.2 Components of Stress 5

1.3 Stress Vector on an Inclined Plane 7

1.4 Differential Equations of Equilibrium 9

1.5 Symmetry of the Stress Tensor 12

1.6 Principal Stresses and Principal Axes of Stress 13

1.7 Mean Stress and Stress Deviator 15

1.8 Maximum Shear 16

PROBLEMS 17

CHAPTER 2 YIELD CRITERIA 21

2.1 Introduction 21

2.2 Von Mises' Yield Criterion 22

2.3 Tresca's Yield Criterion 24

2.4 Comparison of Yield Criteria 24

2.5 Yield Surface 26

PROBLEMS 28

CHAPTER 3 STRAIN AND STRAIN RATES 29

3.1 Strain Rates and Velocities 29

3.2 Principal Strain Rates and Their Axes 34

3.3 Incompressibility 37
3.4 Infinitesimal Strains and Displacements 37

3.5 Principal Finite Strains 39

PROBLEMS 41

CHAPTER 4 STRESS-STRAIN AND STRESS-STRAIN RATE LAWS 43

4.1 Stress-Strain Relations for Solids 43

4.2 Tensile Test 45

4 3 Von Mises' Stress-Strain Rate Law 49

4.4 Viscous Flow 50

PROBLEMS 51

CHAPTER 5 UPPER BOUND ON POWER 52

5.1 Strain Energy 52

5.1.1 Power 52

5.1.2 Work 54

5.1.3 Ideal Power and Work of Deformation 56

5.1.3.1 Rod Forming 5.1.3.2 Strip Forming

5.2 Kinematically Admissible Velocity Field and Velocity Discontinuities 58

5.3 Friction and Friction Losses 60

5.3.1 Coulomb Coefficient of Friction 60

5.3.2 Constant-friction Factor 61

5.3.3 Hydrodynamic Lubrication 61

5.4 Upper-bound Theorem 63

PROBLEMS 64

CHAPTER 6 LOWER BOUND ON POWER 67

6.1 Statically Admissible Stress Field and Stress Field Discontinuities 67

6.2 Lower-bound Theorem 69

6.3 Exact Solution 69

REFERENCES FOR PART ONE: 71

PART II MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

A) AXISYMMETRIC STATE

CHAPTER 7 FORGING OF DISKS 77

7.1 Introduction 77

7.2 Strain Rates and Equilibrium Equations in Cylindrical Coordinates 77

7.3 Solid Disk-Radial Flow without Bulging 78

7.4 Hollow Disk 81

7.4.1 Assumed Pattern of Deformation 82

7.4.2 Powers 84

7.4.3 Determination of Neutral Radius Rn 87

7.4.4 Results 89

7.4.5 Limit Cases, Ri/Ro ® 1 and m Ro/T ® 8 90

7.4.6 Typical Dimensional Changes during Pressing 93

7.4.7 Kudo's Approach to Coulomb Coefficient of Friction 97

7.4.8 Experimental Determination of Neutral Radius 102

7.5 Solid Disk with Bulging Taken into Consideration 109

7.6 Solid Disk-Free-body Equilibrium Approach 111

7.6.1 Preface 111

7.6.2 Velocity Field, Strain Rate Components, and Stresses 111

7.6.3 Free-body Equilibrium 112

7.6.4 Constant Friction Factor 113

7.6.5 Coulomb Coefficient of Friction 114

7.6.5.1 Sliding 7.6.5.2 Sticking 7.6.5.3 Combined Sliding and

Sticking

7.7 Power and Energy 121

7.8 Continuous Regions Separated by Surfaces of Velocity Discontinuity 121

7.8.1 Conical Surfaces of Velocity Discontinuity 123

7.9 Variable Friction 132

7.10 Lower-bound Solution for a Solid Disk 134

7.11 Appendix 145

7.11.1 Combined Sliding and Sticking 145

7.11.2 Lower-bound Solution 146

REFERENCES 150

PROBLEMS 151

CHAPTER 8 FLOW THROUGH CONICAL CONVERGING DIES 153

8.1 Introduction 153

8.2 Strain Rates and Equilibrium Equations in Spherical Coordinates 154

8.3 Upper-bound Approach 155

8.3.1 Velocity Field and the Theorem 155

8.3.2 Internal Power of Deformation 158

8.3.3 Velocity Discontinuities and Friction Losses 160

8.3.4 Applied Powers 162

8.3.5 Applied Stresses 162

8.3.6 Optimal Cone Angle 164

8.3.7 Dead-zone Formation 166

8.3.8 Shaving 169

8.3.9 Central Burst or Chevroning 172

8.4 Equilibrium Approach 176

8.4.1 Zero-friction Case 176

8.4.2 Friction with Constant Shear Factor 178

8.5 Free-body Equilibrium Approach with Coulomb Friction 178

8.6 Energy Approach with Coulomb Friction 181

8.7 Energy Approach with Hydrodynamic Lubrication 184

8.8 Distorted Grid Pattern 188

 8.8.1 On the Completed Product 188

8.8.2 Intermediate Uncompleted Distortion 193

8.9 Strain Rates and Strains 195

8.10 Strain-hardening Materials 201

8.11 Strain Rate Sensitivity 201

8.12 Discussion 202

8 12.1 Characteristics of Drawing and Extrusion Stresses 202

8 12.2 Defects and Irregularities 205

8.13 Appendix 213

REFERENCES 211

PROBLEMS 216

CHAPTER 9 WIRE AND ROD DRAWING AND OPEN-DIE EXTRUSION 218

9.1 Introduction 218

9.2 Drawing Stress 221

9.2 1 Recapitulation of Results of the Analysis 221

9.2 2 Wistreich's Study 223

9.2.3 Concluding Remarks 226

9.3 Optimal Cone Angle 226

9.4 Maximum Reduction 227

9.5 Open-die Extrusion 229

9.6 Measurement of Friction 234

9.6.1 Review 234

9.6.2 Derivation of Basic Equations 23S

9.6.3 Experimental Procedure 236

9.7 Discussion 238

9.7.1 Shaving 238

9.7.2 Defects 240

 9.7.3 1Iydrodynamic Lubrication 241

REFERENCES 246

PROBLEMS 248

CHAPTER 10 EXTRUSION 250

10.1 Introduction 250

10.2 Spherical Velocity Field 254

10.3 Unit Cylindrical Deforming Regions 257

10.4 Direct Extrusion (Steady State) 258

10.4 1 Upper Bound with Spherical Velocity Field 258

10.4 2 Upper Bound by Unit Cylindrical Deforming Regions 260

10.4.3 Free-body Equilibrium Approach 261

10.4.4 Approximation Combining the Spherical Velocity Field and the Free-
body Equilibrium Approaches 262

10.5 Indirect Extrusion (Steady State) 266

10.5.1 Upper Bound with Spherical Velocity Field 266

10.5.2 Upper Bound by Unit Cylindrical Deforming Regions 268

10.5.3 Spherical Velocity Field with Coulomb Friction 268

10.6 Direct and Indirect Extrusion, End of the Stroke, and Summary 269

10.7 Piercing Extrusion 274

10.7.1 Early Stage, Steady State 274

10.7.2 End of the Stroke 277

10.8 Appendix 286

10.8.1 End of the Stroke 286

10.8.2 Surface of Velocity Discontinuity 287

REFERENCES 291

PROBLEMS 292

CHAPTER 11 HYDROSTATIC EXTRUSION 295

11.1 Introduction 295

11.2 Analyses 298

11.3 Discussion 305

11.3.1 Required Pressure 305

11.3.2 Speed Control and the Peak Phenomenon 311

11.3.3 Central Burst and Shaving 3]3

11.3.4 Chamber Design 313

11.3.5 Die Design 316

11.4 Metal Forming under Pressure 317

11.5 The Effect of Hydrostatic Pressure during Forming on Subsequent Strength and Ductility
320

REFERENCES 324

PROBLEMS 326

CHAPTER 12 TUBE SINKING AND EXPANDING 327

12.1 Introduction 327

12.2 Spherical Velocity Field 330

12.2.1 Tube Sinking 331

12.2.2 Tube Expanding 339

12.3 Thickness Study 341

12.3.1 Internal Power of Deformation 345

12.3.2 Shear Power 345

12.3.3 Power Balance 347

12.4 Floating Plug 352

12.5 Appendix 353

REFERENCES 355

PROB1EMS 356

B) STATE OF P1ANE STRAIN

CHAPTER 13 FORGING OF STRIP 359

13.1 Introduction 359

13.2 Upper Bound 360

13.2.1 Parallel Velocity Field without Bulge 360

13.2.1.1 Constant Friction 13.2.1.2 Coulomb Friction

13.2.2 Forging with Bulge, Constant Friction 363

13.2.3 Triangular Field 369

13.3 Lower-bound Solution 377

13.4 Discussion and Conclusions 386

13.4.1 Average Pressure and the Friction Hill 386

13.4.2 Friction Characteristics 388

13.4.3 No-slip Region 391

13.4.4 Bulge 391

13.5 Appendix 392

REFERENCES 395

PROB1EMS 396

CHAPTER 14 FLOW THROUGH INCLINED PLANES 398

14.1 Introduction 398

14.2 Velocity Field, Velocity Discontinuities, and Strain Rates 399

14.3 Upper-bound Approach 402

14.3.1 Required Drawing and Extrusion Stresses 402

14.3.2 Optimal Angle 406

14.3.3 Dead-zone Formation 407

14.3.4 Chip Formation 409

14.4 Flow Characteristics 412

14.4.1 Distorted Grid 412

14.4.1.1 The Completed Product 14.4.1.2 The Intermediate Stage

 14.4.2 Effective Strain Rate and Its Average 418

14.4.3 Effective Strain and Its Average 421

14.5 Discussion 424

14.5.1 Upper Bound on Power 424

14.5.2 Distorted Grid Shape 426

14.5.3 Strain Rates and Strains 427

14.5.4 Characteristics of the Drawing (or Extrusion) Stress and the Mode of
Flow 429

14.6 Appendix 429

14.6.1 The Elliptic Integral 429

14.6.2 Chip Formation 430

REFERENCES 434

PROB1EMS 435

CHAPTER 15 STRIP ROLLING 436

15.1 Introduction 436

15.2 Pressure Distribution and Roll Separation Force 437

15.3 Limiting Thickness and Limiting Reduction 445

15.4 Power Requirement and Roll Torque 448

15.4.1 Assumed Velocity Field 448

15.4.2 Power Balance 450

15.4.3 Minimum Required Power, Ideal Work, and Efficiency 457

15.4.4 Effect of Roll Flattening on Power Requirements 458

15.4.5 Coulomb Friction 459

15.4.6 Discussion 460

15.4.7 Hydrodynamic Lubrication 463

15.5 Forward Slip and the Position of the Neutral Point 468

15.6 Maximum Possible and Minimum Required Reductions 469

15.7 Minimum Required Friction and the Measurement of Friction Values 475

15.8 Drawing through Idling Rolls 478

15.9 Gauge Control and Mill Prestressing 480

15.10 Appendix 483

REFERENCES 491

PROBLEMS 492

INDEX 493