Basic structure of computer

A computer is an electronic device, which can

automatically perform arithmetic & logic operation and
gives output.
Mainly there are two types of computer. They are digital
and analog computer
Analog Digital
1. It process analog signals 1. It process numbers
2. Accuracy is limited 2. Unlimited accuracy
3. Operation is performed by 3. Operation is performed
very few devices many devices
4. Basic building blocks are 4. Basic building blocks are
amplifiers logic gates

A computer consists of 5 functional units, which are as

follows: -
1. Input
2. Output
3. Memory
4. C.U

5. A.L.U

Input Output
A.L.U C.U

Memory
1. Input: - computer accepts coded information through
input devices the most well known input device is
keyboard, which is electronically, connected to C.P.U.
many other kinds of input devices is joysticks, track
ball and mouse.
2. Memory: - The function of the memory is to store data
and program (details of memory is explained in other
chapter)
3. Output: -The output is the counter part of input device.
Its function is to send processed data to the outside
world. Such output devices are monitor, printer,
plotters etc…
4. Control units: -Its function is to control the functions
of input and output devices. The C.U is effectively the
nerve center that sends control signals to other units
and senses their states. Data transfer between the
processor and memory is controlled by the C.U
through timing signals. A large set of wires carries the
signals to all units.
5. Arithmetic and logic unit (A.L.U): -Most computer
operations are executed in the A.L.U of the processor.
Any other operations are initiated by bringing the
required operands into the A.L.U where the necessary
operations are performed.

Basic operational concepts: - Execution of the program

starts when the program counter (P.C) is set to point to
the first instruction of the program the content of the P.C
is transferred to the MAR and the control signal is sent
to the memory. After the time required to access the
memory and the data is read out of the memory and
loaded into the MDR. The content of the MDR is
transferred to the instruction register (IR). At this point
the instruction is ready to be decoded after one or more
operands are fetched in this way, the ALU can perform
the desired operations if the result of this operation is to
be stored in the memory then the result is sent to MDR
the address of the location where the result is to be
stored is to MAR and the write cycle is initiated. Thus the
execution of the current instruction is completed.

Main memory

MAR MDR
Control

R0
PC R1
R2
ALU

IR Rn-1
 BUS STRUCTURES
To form an operational system, these different individual parts of computer must be
connected together in some organized way. There are many ways of doing it. Now, we
will consider three popular structures. If computer is to achieve a reasonable speed of
operation, it must be organized so that all units can handle one full word of data at a
given time. When a word of data is transferred between units, all its bits are transferred in
parallel. This requires a considerable number of wires to establish the necessary
connections.

A collection of wires that connects several devices is called a BUS. In addition

to the wires that carry the data, the computer must have some lines for addressing and
control purpose.
There are mainly three types of bus, namely
DATA BUS They are used for transmission of data, and the number of them
corresponds to the number of bits in a word.
ADDRESS BUS They are used to specify the location of data in the main memory.
CONTROL BUS They indicate the direction of data transfer and coordinate the timing
of events during the transfer.

SINGLE BUS STRUCTURE

Input Output Processor Memory

A simplest structure, which has a single bus, is as shown in the above diagram. All units
are connected to this bus, so it provides the sole means of interconnection. Because the
bus can be used for only one transfer at a time, only two units can actively use the bus at
any given instant. Bus control lines are used to arbitrate multiple requests for use of this
bus. The main virtue of the single bus structure is its low cost and flexibility for attaching
peripheral devices, but the trade-off is lower operating speed. It is not surprisingly that a
single-bus structure is primarily found in small machines, namely minicomputers and
microcomputers.
 TWO BUS STRUCTURE

I/O bus

Input Memory
bus
Processor Memory

Output

The figure above shows the simplest form of a two bus structure. The processor interacts
with the memory through a memory bus and handles input and output functions over an
I/O bus. Data passes through the processor on its way to the memory. In such
configurations the I/O transfers are usually under direct control of the processor, which
initiates transfers and monitors their progress until completion.

A different version of a two bus structure is given in the figure below. Here the position
of the processor and memory are reversed. Again a memory bus exists for
communication between them; both I/O transfers are made directly to or from the
memory. Since the memory lacks adequate circuitry to control such transfers, it is
necessary to establish a different control mechanism. A standard technique is to provide
the necessary control circuitry as part of the I/O equipment, in circuits called I/O
channels. An I/O channel is actually a special purpose processor, also called as Peripheral
Processor. The main processor initiates a transfer by passing the required information to
the I/O channel. The channel then takes over and controls the actual transfer of data.

I/O bus

Input Memory
bus
Memory Processor

Output
Some machines have several distinct buses, but their operation is adequately represented
by the two bus examples. The main reason for including additional buses is to improve
the operating speed through more parallelism. From the conceptual point of view, they
are not crucial in any functional description. The fundamental principles of computer
operation are essentially independent of bus structure.

In general, transfer of information over a bus cannot be done at a speed comparable to the
operating speed of all devices connected to the bus. Some electromechanical devices are
relatively slow, such as keyboards and printers, but others, like disks and tapes, are
considerably faster. Main memory and processors operate at electronic speeds, making
them fastest parts of the computer. Because all these devices must communicate with
each other over a bus, an efficient transfer mechanism that is not constrained by the slow
devices and that can be used to smooth out the differences in timing among processors,
memories, and external devices is necessary.