Chapter 1: The Human Body:

An orientation
Chapter Outline of Anatomy
1. Anatomy is the study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to one
another. Subdivisions of anatomy: Gross or macroscopic anatomy, regional anatomy,
systemic anatomy, surface anatomy, microscopic anatomy, and developmental
anatomy.
Physiology concerns the functioning of the body’s structural machinery, that is, how
the parts of the body work and carry out their life-sustaining activities. Subdivision
of physiology: renal physiology, neurophysiology and cardiovascular physiology.
2. Anatomy and physiology are inseparable sciences because function always reflects
structure: that is, what a structure can do depends on its specific form. This is called
the principle of complementarity of structure and function.
3. Atoms, tiny building blocks of matter combine to form molecules.
Molecules, associate in specific ways to form organelles (basic components of the
microscopic cells.)
Organelles combine together forms cells.
Cells combine into tissues.
Different types of tissues combined formed organ.
Organs that cooperate and work closely with one another becomes organ system.
The highest level of organization is the organism.
4.
(a) Integumentary System-Forms the external body covering: protects deeper tissues from
injury: synthesizes vitamin D: site of cutaneous (pain, pressure,etc.) receptors, and sweat and oil
glands
(b) Skeletal System- Protects and supports body organs: provides a framework the muscles use
to cause movement: blood cells are formed within bones: stores minerals.
(c) Muscular System- Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial
expression: maintains posture: produces heat.
(d) Nervous System- Fast-acting control system of the body responds to internal and external
changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands.
(e) Endocrine System- glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth,
reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells.
(f) Cardiovascular System- Blood vessels transport blood which carries oxygen, carbon
dioxide, nutrients, wastes, etc.: the heart pumps blood.
(g) Lymphatic System/Immunity- Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and return it to
blood: disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream: houses white blood cells (lymphocytes) involved in
immunity. The immune response mounts the attack against foreign substances within the body.
(h) Respiratory System- Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon
dioxide: the gaseous exchanges occur through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs.
(i) Digestive System- Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for
distribution to body cells: indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces.
(j) Urinary System- Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body: regulates water, electrolyte,
and acid-base balance of the food
(k) Reproductive System- Production of offspring. Testes produce sperm and male sex
hormone: ducts and glands aid in delivery of sperm to the female reproductive tract. Ovaries produce
eggs and female sex hormones: remaining structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of
the fetus. Mammary glands of female breasts produce milk to nourish the newborn.
5. A. Movement includes all the activities promoted by the muscular system.
B. Responsiveness or irritability is the ability to sense changes (stimuli) in the environment and
then react or respond to them.
C. Digestion is the process of breaking down ingested foodstuffs to simple molecules that can be
absorbed in to the blood for distribution to all body cells by the cardiovascular system.
D. Metabolism is a broad term that encompasses all chemical reactions that occur within body
cells.
E. Excretion is the process of removing, excreta, or wastes, from the body
F. Reproduction can occur at the cellular or organismal level.
G. Growth is an increase in size of a body part
6. Survival needs: Nutrients, oxygen, water, body temperature, and atmospheric pressure.
7. Homeostasis helps to maintain relatively stable internal conditions.
8. Negative feedback mechanisms- in such systems, the net effect is that the output of the system
decreases or shuts off the original stimulus or reduces its intensity.
9. A positive feedback mechanism, the result of response of the mechanism enhances or
exaggerates the original stimulus so that the activity (output) is accelerated.
10. To describe body parts and position accurately, we must have an initial reference point and use
indications of directions. The anatomical reference point is a standard body position called the
anatomical position.
11. Axial part, makes up the main axis of our body, consists of the head, neck and trunk. The
appendicular part consists of the appendages, or limbs,. A regional term used to designate
specific areas within the major body divisions. Sagittal plane lies vertically and divides the body
into the right and left parts. Median plane or midsagittal plan. Frontal planes also called a
coronal plane. A transverse or horizontal, plane runs horizontally from right to left.
12. Dorsal Body cavity is subdivided into a cranial cavity, within which the brain is encased by the
skull, and a vertebral or spinal, cavity which runs within the bony vertebral column. Ventral
Body cavity has two major subdivisions, thoracic cavity and the abdominopelvic cavity.
13. Membranes: The walls of the ventral body cavity and the outer surfaces of the organist contains
are covered by an exceedingly thin, double-layered membrane, the serosa, or serous membrane.
The part of the membrane lining the cavity walls is generally called the parietal serosa. It folds
in on itself to form the visceral serosa.
14. Oral and digestive cavities. The oral cavity, commonly called the mouth, contains the teeth and
 tongue. This cavity is part of and continuous with the cavity of the digestive organs, which also
opens to the exterior at the anus.
Nasal cavity. Located within and posterior to the nose, the nasal cavity is part of the passages of
the respiratory system.
Orbital cavities. The orbital cavities (orbits) house the eyes and present them in an anterior
position.
Middle ear cavities. The middle ear cavities carved into the temporal bone of the kull lie just
medial to the eardrums. These cavities contain tiny bones that transmit sound vibrations to the
organ of hearing in the inner ears.
Synovial cavities. Synovial cavities are joint cavities. They are enclosed within fibrous capsules
that surround freely movable joints of the body.
15. Umbilical region, is the centermost region deep to and surrounding the umbilicus(navel).

Anatomy is the study of body structures ad their relationships: physiology is the science of how
body parts function.
Major subdivisions of anatomy include gross anatomy, microscopic anatomy, and developmental
anatomy.
Typically, physiology concerns the functioning of specific organs or organ systems. Examples
include cardiac physiology, renal physiology, ad muscle physiology.
Physiology is explained by chemical and physical principles.
Anatomy and physiology are inseparable. What a body can do depends on the unique architecture
of its parts,. This is called the complementarity of structure and function.

Review questions:

1. C) chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organism

2. A) a cell
3. E) all of these ( movement, growth, metabolism, responsiveness)
4. A and D nervous system and endocrine system.
5. Wrist, hipbone, nose, toes and scalp.
6. neither C nor D would be visible in the median sagittal section
7. dorsal, ventral, dorsal, ventral
8. B)
9. B)
10. Anatomy is the study of body structures and their relationships: physiology is the science of
how body parts function.
11. (a) Integumentary System-Forms the external body covering: protects deeper tissues from
injury: synthesizes vitamin D: site of cutaneous (pain, pressure,etc.) receptors, and sweat and
oil glands
(b) Skeletal System- Protects and supports body organs: provides a framework the muscles use
to cause movement: blood cells are formed within bones: stores minerals.
 (c) Muscular System- Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial
expression: maintains posture: produces heat.
(d) Nervous System- Fast-acting control system of the body responds to internal and external
changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands.
(e) Endocrine System- glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth,
reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells.
(f) Cardiovascular System- Blood vessels transport blood which carries oxygen, carbon
dioxide, nutrients, wastes, etc.: the heart pumps blood.
(g) Lymphatic System/Immunity- Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and return it to
blood: disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream: houses white blood cells (lymphocytes) involved in
immunity. The immune response mounts the attack against foreign substances within the body.
(h) Respiratory System- Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon
dioxide: the gaseous exchanges occur through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs.
(i) Digestive System- Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for
distribution to body cells: indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces.
(j) Urinary System- Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body: regulates water, electrolyte,
and acid-base balance of the food

12. Nutrients, oxygen, water, body temperature, and atmospheric pressure.

13. Homeostasis helps to maintain relatively stable internal conditions.
14. Negative feedback mechanisms- in such systems, the net effect is that the output of the
system decreases or shuts off the original stimulus or reduces its intensity. A positive
feedback mechanism, the result of response of the mechanism enhances or exaggerates the
original stimulus so that the activity (output) is accelerated.
15. Others would understand exactly which position you’re talking about.
16. plane are horizontal middle or up and down. Sections are the quadrants.

Critical thinking:

1. inflammation of the membrane pleura surrounding the lungs, usually involving painful
breathing, coughing, and the buildup of fluid in the pleural cavity
2. antecubital region, the region of the arm in front of the elbow. Gluteal region, The region of
the buttocks, he had to take off his pants.
3. MRI would best localize the tumor.
4. Our Nervous system. Negative feedback.

Chatper 2：Chemistry Comes Alive

1. Acidosis- a condition of acidity or low pH (below 7.35) of the bloods: high
hydrogen ion concentration.
2. Alkalosis- a condition of basicity or high pH of the blood, low hydrogen ion
concentration. .
3. Heavy metals- metals with toxic effects on the body, including arsenic, mercury,
and lead: iron, also included in this group, is toxic with high concentrations.
4. Ionization radiation- radiation that causes atoms to ionize, e.g., radioisotopes and
X rays.
5. Ketosis- a form of acidosis resulting from excessive ketons (breakdown products
of fats) in the blood: common during starvation and acute attacks of diabetes mellitus.
6. Radiation sickness- disease resulting from exposure of the body to radioactivity.
7. Matter is anything that takes up space and has mass.
8. Energy is the capacity to do work or put matter into motion.
9. Energy exists as potential energy (stored energy or energy of position) and kinetic
energy (active or working energy).
10. Forms of energy involved in body functioning are chemical, electrical, radiant,
and mechanical. Of these, chemical (bond) energy is most important.
11. Energy may be converted from one form to another, but some energy is always
unusable (lost as heat) in such transformations.
12. Elements are unique substances that cannot be decomposed into simpler
substances by ordinary chemical methods.
13. Four elements, Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen ad nitrogen make up 60% of body
weight.
14. The building blocks of elements are atoms.
15. Atoms are composed of positively charged protons, negatively charged electrons,
and uncharged neutrons.
16. Protons and neutrons are located in the atomic nucleus: electrons are outside the
nucleus in the electron shells.
17. In any atom, the number of electros equals the number of protons.
18. Atoms may be identified by their atomic number (p+) ad mass number (p+ +n0).
The notation 4/2 He means that helium has an atomic number of 2 and a mass number of
4.
19. Isotopes of an element differ in the number of neutrons they contain. The atomic
weight of any element is approximately equal to the mass number of its most abundant
isotope.
20. Many heavy isotopes are unstable (radioactive) and decompose to more stable
forms by emitting a or B particles or y rays/ Radioisotopes are useful in medical
diagnosis and treatment and in biochemical research.
21. A molecule is the smallest unit resulting from the chemical bonding of two or
more atoms. If the atoms are different, they form a molecule of a compound.
22. Mixtures are physical combinations of solutes in a solvent. The components of
mixture retain their individual properties.
23. The types of mixtures, in order of increasing solute size, are solutions, colloids,
ad suspensions.
24. Solution concentrations are typically designated in terms of percent or molarity.
25. Compounds are homogenous: their elements are chemically bonded. Mixtures
may be homogenous or heterogonous: their components are physically combined ad
separable.
26. Electrons of an atom occupy areas of space called electron shells or energy levels.
Electrons in the shell farthest from the nucleus (valence shell) are most energetic.
27. Chemical bonds are energy relationships between valence shell electrons of the
reacting atoms. Atoms with a full valence shell or eight valence shell electrons are
chemically unreactive: those with an incomplete valence shell interact with other atoms
to achieve a stable electronic configuration.
28. Ionic bonds are formed when valence shell electrons are completely transferred
from one atom to another.
29. Covalent bonds are formed when atoms share electrons pairs. If the electrons
pairs are shared equally, the molecule is nonpolar, if they are shared unequally, it is polar.
30. Hydrogen bonds are weak bonds formed between hydrogen and nitrogen or
hydrogen and oxygen.
31. They bind together different molecules or different parts of the same molecule.
32. Chemical reactions involve the formation, breaking, or rearrangement of chemical
bonds.
33. Chemical reactions include synthesis, decomposition, and exchange reactions.
Oxidation-reduction reactions may be considered a special type of exchange reaction.
34. Bonds are energy relationships ad there is a net loss or gain or energy chemical
reaction.
35. In energonic reactions, energy is liberated: in endergonic reactions, energy is
absorbed,
36. If reactions conditions remain unchanged, all chemical reactions eventually reach
a state of chemical equilibrium in which the reaction proceeds in both directions at the
same rate.
37. All chemical reactions are theoretically reversible, but many biological reactions
go only in one direction because of energy requirements and/or the removal of reaction
products.
38. Chemical reactions occur only when particles collide and valence shell electrons
interact.
39. The smaller the reacting particles, the greater their kinetic energy and hence the
faster the reaction rate. Increasing the temperature or concentration of the reactants, as
well as the presence of catalysts, increases chemical reaction rates.
40. Most inorganic compounds do not contain carbon. Those found in the body
include water, salts, ad inorganic acids and bases.
 Review questions:

1. D radiant
2. D sodium
3. A equal to the number of protons it contains.
4. C Fluorine
5. C uncharges, 1 amu, in the nucleus.
6. B Ions
7. NaOH
8. Includes both heterogeneous and homogenous examples.
9. True solution
10. A double covalent bond

Critical thinking questions:

a) Because water can transport electrify and so the electricity can still be in the
water.
b) Bonds are energy relationships ad there is a net loss or gain or energy chemical
reaction. In energonic reactions, energy is liberated: in endergonic reactions, energy is
absorbed.
c) In energonic reactions, energy is liberated: in endergonic reactions, energy is
absorbed,

Chapter 3．

1. Anaplasia - abnormalities in cell structure：eg。， cancer cells typically lose the

appearance of the parent cells and come to resemble undifferentiated or embryonic cells。
2. Dialysis-The process of separating smaller solute molecules from larger ones in a
solution by means of diffusion through a selectively permeable membrane: used by the artificial
kidney to cleanse the blood of metabolic wastes, such as urea, and excess ions.

3. All living organisms are composed of cells- the basic structural and functional units of life.

4. The principle of complementarily states that the biochemical activity of cells reflects the
operation of organelles.

5. Cells vary widely in both shape and size.

6. The generalized cell is a concept that typifies all cells. The generalized cells have three
major regions- the nucleus, cytoplasm, and plasma membrane.

7. The plasma membrane encloses cell contents, mediates exchanges with the extracellular
environment, and plays a role in cellular communication.

8. The fluid mosaic model depicts the plasma membrane as a fluid bilayer of lipids within
which proteins are inserted.

9. The lipids have both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions that organize their aggregation
and self-repair. The lipids from the structural part of the plasma membrane.

10. Most protein are integral Tran membrane proteins that extended entire through the
membrane. Some, appended to the integral proteins, are peripheral proteins,

11. Proteins are responsible for most specialized membrane functions, come are enzymes,,
some are receptors, and others mediate membrane transport functions.

12. Microvillus is extensions of the plasma membrane that typically increase its surface area
for absorption.

13. Membrane junctions join cells together and may aid for inhibit movement
14. Hydrogen bonds are weak bonds formed between hydrogen and nitrogen or hydrogen
and oxygen.

15. They bind together different molecules or different parts of the same molecule.

16. Chemical reactions involve the formation, breaking, or rearrangement of chemical bonds.

17. Chemical reactions include synthesis, decomposition, and exchange reactions.

Oxidation-reduction reactions may be considered a special type of exchange reaction.

18. Bonds are energy relationships ad there is a net loss or gain or energy chemical reaction.

19. In energonic reactions, energy is liberated: in endergonic reactions, energy is absorbed,

20. If reactions conditions remain unchanged, all chemical reactions eventually reach a state
of chemical equilibrium in which the reaction proceeds in both directions at the same rate
21. a gene is defined as a DNA segment that provides the instructions for the synthesis of
one polypeptide chain. Since the major structural materials of the body are proteins, and since
all enzymes are proteins, this

22. Energy may be converted from one form to another, but some energy is always unusable
(lost as heat) in such transformations.

23. Elements are unique substances that cannot be decomposed into simpler substances by
ordinary chemical methods.

24. Four elements, Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen ad nitrogen make up 60% of body weight.

25. The building blocks of elements are atoms.

26. Atoms are composed of positively charged protons, negatively charged electrons, and
uncharged neutrons.

27. Protons and neutrons are located in the atomic nucleus: electrons are outside the
nucleus in the electron shells.

28. In any atom, the number of electros equals the number of protons.

29. Atoms may be identified by their atomic number (p+) ad mass number (p+ +n0). The
notation 4/2 He means that helium has an atomic number of 2 and a mass number of 4.

30. Isotopes of an element differ in the number of neutrons they contain. The atomic weight
of any element is approximately equal to the mass number of its most abundant isotope.

31. Many heavy isotopes are unstable (radioactive) and decompose to more stable forms by
emitting a or B particles or y rays/ Radioisotopes are useful in medical diagnosis and treatment
and in biochemical research.

32. A molecule is the smallest unit resulting from the chemical bonding of two

33. Ribosomal RNA forms part of the protein synthesis sites: messenger RNA carries.
Transfer.

34. The solute pumping variety of active transport is accomplished by pinocytosis,

phagocytes, and electrical forces in the cell membrane.

35. The endocytotic process n which particulate matter is engulfed and brought into the cell is
called excytosis.

1. A equal to the number of protons it contains.

2. C Fluorine
3. C uncharged, 1 amu, in the nucleus.
4. B Ions
5. NaOH
6. A. pinocytosis
7. osmosis
8. electrical forces
9. exocytose
10. chromatin
11. gene
12. Radiation from ionizing radioisotopes.

Chapter 4
1． Survival needs: Nutrients, oxygen, water, body temperature, and atmospheric pressure.
2． Homeostasis helps to maintain relatively stable internal conditions.
3． Negative feedback mechanisms- in such systems, the net effect is that the output of the
system decreases or shuts off the original stimulus or reduces its intensity.
4． A positive feedback mechanism, the result of response of the mechanism enhances or
exaggerates the original stimulus so that the activity (output) is accelerated.
5． To describe body parts and position accurately, we must have an initial reference point and
use indications of directions. The anatomical reference point is a standard body position
called the anatomical position.
6． Axial part, makes up the main axis of our body, consists of the head, neck and trunk. The
appendicular part consists of the appendages, or limbs,. A regional term used to designate
specific areas within the major body divisions. Sagittal plane lies vertically and divides the
body into the right and left parts. Median plane or midsagittal plan. Frontal planes also
called a coronal plane. A transverse or horizontal, plane runs horizontally from right to left.
7． Dorsal Body cavity is subdivided into a cranial cavity, within which the brain is encased by
the skull, and a vertebral or spinal, cavity which runs within the bony vertebral column.
Ventral Body cavity has two major subdivisions, thoracic cavity and the abdominopelvic
cavity.
8． Membranes: The walls of the ventral body cavity and the outer surfaces of the organist
contains are covered by an exceedingly thin, double-layered membrane, the serosa, or serous
membrane. The part of the membrane lining the cavity walls is generally called the parietal
serosa. It folds in on itself to form the visceral serosa.
9． Oral and digestive cavities. The oral cavity, commonly called the mouth, contains the teeth
and tongue. This cavity is part of and continuous with the cavity of the digestive organs,
which also opens to the exterior at the anus.
10． Nasal cavity. Located within and posterior to the nose, the nasal cavity is part of the passages
of the respiratory system.
11． Orbital cavities. The orbital cavities (orbits) house the eyes and present them in an anterior
position.
12． Middle ear cavities. The middle ear cavities carved into the temporal bone of the kull lie just
medial to the eardrums. These cavities contain tiny bones that transmit sound vibrations to the
organ of hearing in the inner ears.
13． Synovial cavities. Synovial cavities are joint cavities. They are enclosed within fibrous
capsules that surround freely movable joints of the body. Protons and neutrons are located
in the atomic nucleus: electrons are outside the nucleus in the electron shells.
14． In any atom, the number of electros equals the number of protons.
15． Atoms may be identified by their atomic number (p+) ad mass number (p+ +n0). The notation
4/2 He means that helium has an atomic number of 2 and a mass number of 4.
16． Isotopes of an element differ in the number of neutrons they contain. The atomic weight of
any element is approximately equal to the mass number of its most abundant isotope.
17． Many heavy isotopes are unstable (radioactive) and decompose to more stable forms by
emitting a or B particles or y rays/ Radioisotopes are useful in medical diagnosis and
treatment and in biochemical research.
18． A molecule is the smallest unit resulting from the chemical bonding of two
19． Ribosomal RNA forms part of the protein synthesis sites: messenger RNA carries. Transfer.
20． The solute pumping variety of active transport is accomplished by pinocytosis, phagocytes,
and electrical forces in the cell membrane.
21． The endocytotic process n which particulate matter is engulfed and brought into the cell is
called excytosis.

Chapter 11.

1. Nervous system is the master controlling and communicating system of the body.
2.