Diffraction

A
b
B

S’
According to geometrical optics, region AB of the screen SS’ should be illuminated and
remaining portion should be dark S

S’
However illumination in the region of geometrical shadow is observed showing bending
of light round the edges as shown above schematically.
D K Rai, JIITU, Noida
D K Rai, JIITU, Noida
Diffraction is the apparent `bending' of light waves
around obstacles in its path which can be explained by
Huygen's principle.

It is defined as the phenomenon of bending of light

round the corner of an obstacle and their spreading into
the region of geometrical shadow. The resulting
distribution of light intensity resulting in dark and
bright fringes is called diffraction pattern.

D K Rai, JIITU, Noida

The diffraction phenomenon is usually divided into two
categories:
1) Fresnel diffraction
2) Fraunhofer diffraction

1. The source of light and the screen are at finite

distance from the diffracting aperture.

Point source

S’ D K Rai, JIITU, Noida

2. The source and the screen are at infinite distance from the
aparture

Point source f
f f

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D K Rai, JIITU, Noida
 B
A θ
B1 P
Δ θ
A1 A ’ B2
b 1
A2

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 A B1 P
θ
A1 A1’
θ

b
C
O
s

D
B L2
L1
Path difference, Δ, between waves from A and B reaching P = BD
From ΔABD, Δ = bsinθ and thus phase difference will be δ = (2π/λ)bsinθ
D K Rai, JIITU, Noida
Let AB be imagined to be divided into n (very large) number of
equal parts, each part being source of secondary wavelets.

The phase difference between any two successive parts of slit AB

would be
φ = (1/n)(2π/λ)bsinθ (a)

Thus interference at P would be due to superposition of n number

of waves having same amplitude a (say) and constant phase
difference between successive waves given by equation (a)

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Resultant of n simple harmonic waves of equal amplitude
And periods and phases increasing in arithmetic progressions
P

(n-1) φ
E

D
R
C 3φ

B 2φ

δ φ
O a A
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Resolving the amplitude parallel and perpendicular to OA
R cos δ = a + a cos ϕ + a cos 2ϕ + a cos 3ϕ + ... + a cos( n − 1)ϕ
.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...( 1)
R sin ϕ = a sin ϕ + a sin 2ϕ + a sin 3ϕ + ... + a sin( n − 1)ϕ
.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ....( 2 )

Multiply eqution (1) with 2sinφ/2

ϕ ϕ ϕ
2 R cos δ sin = 2 a sin + 2 a cos ϕ sin +
2 2 2
ϕ ϕ
2 a cos 3 ϕ sin + ... + 2 a cos( n − 1 ) ϕ sin
2 2
We know that
[sin ( A + B )− sin (A − B )] = 2 cos A sin B

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 ϕ
2 R cos δ sin =
2
⎡ ϕ ϕ ϕ ϕ ⎤
⎢ 2 sin + sin( ϕ + ) − sin( ϕ − ) + sin( 2 ϕ + )⎥
⎢ 2 2 2 2 ⎥
ϕ ϕ ⎥
a ⎢⎢ − sin( 2 ϕ − ) + ... + sin[( n ϕ − 1 ) + ) ⎥
2 2
⎢ ⎥
⎢ − sin[( n ϕ − 1 ) − ϕ ⎥
)
⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦

ϕ ϕ ⎛ 1 ⎞
2 R cos δ sin = a sin + a sin ⎜ n − ⎟ϕ
2 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠

ϕ ϕ
+ (n − 1 )ϕ − (n − 1 )ϕ
ϕ 2 2
2 R cos δ sin = 2 a sin cos
2 2 2

2 R cos δ sin
ϕ
= 2 a sin
n ϕ
cos
(n − 1 )ϕ
2 2 2
n ϕ
a sin
⇒ R cos δ = 2 cos
(n − 1 )ϕ
........( 3)
ϕ 2
sin
2
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 nϕ
a sin
R cos δ = 2 cos
(n − 1 )ϕ
........( 3)
ϕ 2
sin
2
Similarly
nϕ
a sin
ϕ
R sin δ =
ϕ
2 sin (n − 1) .......... ....( 4 )
sin 2
2

Squaring and adding equation (3) and (4)

2 2 nϕ
a sin
R 2
= 2 .......... ....( 5 )
2 ϕ
sin
2
Dividing (4) by (3) we have (n − 1 )ϕ
tan δ = tan
2
⇒ δ =
(n − 1 )ϕ
2
Thus if we have large number of vibration as

⎡ cos ωt , cos (ωt − ϕ ), ⎤

⎢
⎣ ... , cos (ωt − (n − 1 )ϕ )⎥⎦
Then resultant vibration will be
n ϕ
a sin
= 2 cos[ ω t −
(n − 1 )ϕ
]
ϕ 2
sin
2
n ϕ
a sin
1
=
ϕ
2 cos[ ω t − (n − 1 )ϕ ]
sin 2
2
D K Rai, JIITU, Noida
Where amplitude R of the resultant wave will be

sin ⎛⎜ n ϕ ⎞⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
R = a
sin ϕ
2
nϕ n 1 2π π
= b sin θ → b sin θ
2 2 n λ λ

⎛ π ⎞
sin ⎜ b sin θ ⎟
Therefore, R = a ⎝ λ ⎠
π
sin( b sin θ )
nλ
π
Let β = b sin θ
λ
sin β
R = a
β
sin( )
n
D K Rai, JIITU, Noida
For large value of n sinβ/n ≈ β/n.

na sin β A sin β
⇒R= = [ A = na]
β β

Thus resultant intensity at P which is proportional to the square

of the resultant amplitude R is given by,

sin 2 β sin 2 β
I=R =A 2 2
= I0
β 2
β2

D K Rai, JIITU, Noida

 Position of maxima and minima
PRINCIPLE MAXIMA
The resultant amplitude is given by
A sin β A β 3
β 5
β 7
R = = [β − + − + .....]
β β 3! 5! 7!
⎡ β 2 β 4 β 6 ⎤
= A ⎢1 − + − + ...... ⎥
⎣ 3! 5! 7! ⎦
R will be maximum if the negative terms vanish.
This is possible when
π b sin θ
β = = 0
λ
⇒ θ = 0
So for maximum value of resultant amplitude (R) = A
And thus Imax = I0 = A2
This is called principal maxima.
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MINIMA
A sin β
From equation R=
β again, intensity is minimum
when sinβ=0 and β ≠ 0
i.e. β = ± π , ± 2 π , ± 3 π , ± 4 π ..., ± n π
⇒ β = ± n π , where n = 1,2,3,.... ..
π b sin θ
⇒ β = = ± nπ
λ
⇒ b sin θ = ± n λ
So the condition for minima is
b sin θ = ± n λ
Where n=1,2,3…. gives the condition of 1st, 2nd, 3rd, minima. Here n ≠
0, because n = 0 for θ = 0 corresponds principle maxima.
⎛λ ⎞
so first minima will occur at θ = ± sin ⎜ ⎟ −1

⎝ b ⎠
−1 ⎛ 2λ ⎞
and 2nd minima at θ = ± sin ⎜ ⎟
⎝ b ⎠
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Secondary maxima
sin 2
β
I = R 2
= A 2

β 2

Apply the method of finding maxima and minima

In order to determine the position of secondary maxima differentiate the
above equation with respect to β
dI d ⎛ A2 sin 2 β ⎞ 2 β 2 sin β cos β − sin β 2 β
2 2
∴ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = A
dβ dβ ⎝ β 2
⎠ β4
⎡ 2β sin β cos β − 2 sin 2 β ⎤
=A ⎢
2
⎥
⎣ β 3
⎦
2 sin β ⎡ β cos β − sin β ⎤
= A2 ⎢ ⎥ =0
β ⎣ β 2
⎦

sin β or β cos β − sin β

So either =0 =0
β β 2

⇒ sin β = 0 or β cos β - sin β = 0

β = tan β
D K Rai, JIITU, Noida
But sinβ=0 is the condition for principal maxima (corresponding to β = 0)
and for minima (corresponding to β = ± nπ) therefore, the position of
secondary maxima can be obtained by the equation:
β = tan β

One of the roots of this equation is β = 0 but it corresponds to the

principal maxima. The other roots can be found by determining the
points of intersections of the curves y = β and y = tan β by graphical
method as shown below:

D K Rai, JIITU, Noida

From the graph, other roots which satisfy the equation are
π
β = ±3π/2, ± 5π/2, ± 7π/2,……= ± ( 2 n + 1 )
2
(the more exact values are = 1.430π, 2.46π, 3.47π, 4.471π…)
So the direction of secondary maxima are approximately:

β = ±
(2 n + 1 )π
, where n = 1,2,3....
2
⇒
π b sin θ
= ±
(2 n + 1 )π
λ 2
⇒ b sin θ = ±
(2 n + 1 )λ
2

⇒ b sin θ = ±
(2 n
+ 1 )λ
2
⎛ (2 n + 1 )λ ⎞
⇒ θ = sin − 1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 b ⎠

D K Rai, JIITU, Noida

 Minima

Secondary
maxima
Principal
maxima
Secondary Minima
Principal maxima
maxima

Schematic illustration of diffraction pattern from a single slit. Seen

are the principal maxima, minima and secondary maxima as
discussed in the previous slides.

D K Rai, JIITU, Noida

 INTENSITY CALCULATIONS
Intensity of diffraction pattern is given as
2 sin
2
β
I = R = A
2

β2
Intensity of principle maxima:
for β = 0 Imax = I0 = A2

The intensity of secondary maxima:

Substituting β = ±3π/2 (first secondary maxima),
3π
2 sin 2
sin β 4A2
I1 = A 2 = A2 2 =
β2 ⎛ 3π ⎞
2 9π 2
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
A2 I
= = 0
22 22
I 1
⇒ 1 = ⇒ I 0 = 22 I 1
I0 22
Thus I1 is 4.5% of I0
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Similarly, substituting β = ±5π/2 (2nd secondary maxima)

5π
A2 sin 2
A sin β
2 2
2 = 4 A 2
A 2
I0
I2 = = = =
β 2
5π 2 25π 2
62 62
( )
2
I2 1
⇒ =
I0 62

Thus I2 is 1.61% of I0.

Intensity of other secondary maxima can also be similarly calculated.

From the above values of intensities it is obvious that intensity of

secondary maxima decreases as the order increases.

D K Rai, JIITU, Noida

 Angular positions of minima

3π

2λ
2π ⇒ θ2 =
b For
π λ
⇒ θ1 = small
b

⇒ θ = 0
value

⇒ θ1 = −
λ of θ
-π b
-2π 2λ
⇒ θ2 = −
b

-3π

From above values of angles, angular separation of any two minima can be obtained.

D K Rai, JIITU, Noida