Rhizophora apiculata LC

Taxonomic Authority: Blume

Global Assessment Regional Assessment Region: Global Endemic to region

Upper Level Taxonomy

Kingdom: PLANTAE Phylum MAGNOLIOPHYTA
Class: MAGNOLIOPSIDA Order: MALPIGHIALES
Family: RHIZOPHORACEAE
Lower Level Taxonomy
Rank: Infra- rank name: Plant
Subpopulation: Authority

General Information
Distribution
This species is found in south Asia including Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Malaysia,
Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, southern Viet Nam, and China (Hainan Island). It is also found in the
Northern Maldives. In Australasia, its range includes Northwest Australia, Northeast Australia, Federated States of
Micronesia, Guam, New Caledonia, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu.

Range Size Elevation Biogeographic Realm

Area of Upper limit: Afrotropical
Extent of Occurrence: Lower limit: Antarctic
Map Status: done Depth Australasian
Upper limit: Neotropical
Lower limit: Oceanian
Depth Zones Palearctic
Shallow photic Bathyl Hadal Indomalayan
Photic Abyssa Nearctic
Population
This species is very common within its range. It can be found in densities of more than 500 trees/ha in South Sumatra with
a mean diameter of 35cm (Sukardjo 1987). In the Philippines, this species can be found in densities of more than 1000
trees/ha with a mean diameter of 6-10cm. In India, this species was found to be present in 40% of 100 sampling sites
(Kathiresan 2008). There are two different forms of this species that are differentiated by the presence of spots under the
leaves in the northern populations only (Duke and Bunt 1978).

Total Population Size

Minimum Population Size: Maximum Population
Habitat and Ecology
This species is found in the intermediate estuarine zone in the mid-intertidal region. This species tolerates a maximum
salinity of 65ppt and a salinity of optimal growth of 8-15ppt (Robertson and Alongi 1992). It is a hardy species, and fast-
growing. This species can grow to 30m. This species can be coppiced only in the eastern extremities of its range in Kosrae in
The Federated States of Micronesia. In addition, sediment accretion increases the mortaility rate of seedlings. This species
will not be an efficient colonizer of coastal areas exposed to sudden discharges of sediements such as those of highly eroding
watersheds (Terrados et al. 1997).
System Movement pattern Crop Wild Relative
Terrestrial Freshwate Nomadic Congregatory/Dispersiv Is the species a wild relative of a crop?
Marine Migratory Altitudinally migrant

Threats
In South Andaman, 30-80% of Rhizophora spp. Died due to continuous inundation after the tsunami in December 2004 (Roy
and Krishnan 2005). Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a ‘mangrove’
and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-
century report an approximately 20% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO,
2007).

All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are
controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency
of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke et al., 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species
will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in
areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison, 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there
will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast
growing/ fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce.

In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction
and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice
production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports,
airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural
and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats

Past Present Future

1 Habitat Loss/Degradation (human induced)
1.1 Agriculture
1.1.3 Non-timber plantations
1.1.3.2 Large-scale
1.1.6 Marine aquaculture
1.3 Extraction
1.3.3 Wood
1.3.3.3 Clear-cutting
1.4 Infrastructure development
1.4.2 Human settlement
6 Pollution (affecting habitat and/or species)
6.1 Atmospheric pollution
6.1.1 Global warming/oceanic warming
Conservation Measures
There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected
areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal
protected areas. This species is sometimes used for mangrove restoration.

In Place Needed
3 Research actions
3.9 Trends/Monitoring
4 Habitat and site-based actions
4.4 Protected areas
4.4.1 Identification of new protected areas
4.4.2 Establishment
5 Species-based actions
 5.1 Re-introductions

Countries of Occurrence
PRESENCE ORIGIN
Year Breeding Non-breedingPassage PossiblyExtinct Presence Native Introduced Re- Vagrant Origin
Round Season season onlymigrant extinct uncertain Introduced uncertain
only
Australia
Bangladesh
Brunei Darussalam
Cambodia
China
Guam
India
Indonesia
Kiribati
Malaysia
Maldives
Micronesia, Federated States of
Myanmar
Nauru
New Caledonia
Northern Mariana Islands
Palau
Papua New Guinea
Philippines
Singapore
Solomon Islands
Sri Lanka
Thailand
Vanuatu
Viet Nam

General Habitats Score Description Major

Importance
12 Marine Intertidal 1 Suitable Yes
12.7 Marine Intertidal - Mangrove Submerged Roots 1 Suitable Yes

FAO Marine Areas

PRESENCE ORIGIN
Year Breeding Non-breedingPassage PossiblyExtinct Presence Native Introduced Re- Vagrant Origin
Round Season season onlymigrant extinct uncertain Introduced uncertain
only
57 Indian Ocean - eastern
51 Indian Ocean - western
61 Pacific - northwest
71 Pacific - western central

Ecosystem Services
Insufficient Information available Species provides no ecosystem
Score according to relative importance where 1 = very important, 2 = important, 3 = some importance,
4 = not important/relevant and 5 = not known.
Ecosystem service Score (from 1 to 5) Geographic range over which benefits are felt?
Water Quality 3 Local
Water Supplies 5
Flood Control 3 Local
Climate Regulation 2 Local
Landscape 2 Local
Air Quality 5
Nutrient Cycling 5
Habitat Maintenance 2 Local
Provision of Critical Habitat 1 Local
Pollination 5
Erosion Control 2 Local
Biocontrol 5
Shoreline Protection 4 Local
Other (specify)
Define Other:
Other (specify)
Define Other:

Species Utilisation
Species is not utilised at all

Purpose / Type of Use Subsistence National International

7. Fuel
9. Construction/structural materials
This is a valuable fuelwood species. It is commonly planted in for use in commercial logging activities. This is the preferred
species for mangrove silviculture, for example in Matang, Malaysia and Sumatra, Indonesia this species commercially
planted for charcoal production.

Primary Forms Removed from the Wild 100% > 75% 51-75% 26-50% 0-25%
1. Whole animal/plant
Removal of the whole individual from the wild population.

Source of Specimens in Commercial Trade 100% > 75% 51-75% 26-50% 0-25%
Captive breeding/farming
Production of offspring in a controlled environment (ex situ) either from parents
produced in captivity (F1) or from parents taken from the wild but maintained in
captivity, where there is little further input from the wild, eg. essentially a closed cycle
production system
Wild
Specimens taken from natural habitat, with no human intervention in terms of enhancing
individual survival or production

IUCN Red Listing

Red List (using 2001 IUCN system) Least Concern (LC)

Red List Criteria:

Date Last Seen (only for EX, EW or Possibly EX
Is the species Possibly Extinct? Possibly Extinct
Rationale for the Red List Assessment
This species is widespread and common within its range. It is threatened by the loss of mangrove habitat throughout its
range, primarily due to extraction and coastal development, and there has been an estimated 20% decline in mangrove area
within this species range since 1980. Mangrove species are more at risk from coastal development and extraction at the
extremes of their distribution, and are likely to be contracting in these areas more than in other areas. It is also likely that
changes in climate due to global warming will further affect these parts of the range. Although there are overall range
declines in many areas, they are not enough to reach any of the threatened category thresholds. This species is listed as
Reason(s) for Change in Red List Category from the Previous
Genuine Nongenuine Change No Change
Genuine (recent) New Taxonom Same category
Genuine (since first assessment) Knowledge of Criteria Criteria and criteria
Incorrect data used Other Same category but
previously change in criteria
Current Population Trend: Decreasing Date of 3/7/2008
Name(s) of the Assessor(s): N. Duke, K. Kathiresan, S.G. Salmo III, E.S. Fernando, J.R. Peras , S. Sukardjo, T. Miyagi
Evaluator(s): B. Polidoro, S. Livingstone, K. Carpenter
Notes:
% population decline in the past:
Time period over which the past decline has been measured for
applying Criterion A or C1 (in years or generations):
% population decline in the future:
Time period over which the future decline has been measured
for applying Criterion A or C1 (in years or generations):
Number of Locations: Severely
Number of Mature

Bibliography
Duke, N., 2006, Australia’s Mangroves. The authoritative guide to Australia’s mangrove plants., 200, University of
Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
Duke, N.C., Ball, M.C., and Ellison, J.C., 1998, Factors influencing biodiversity and distributional gradients in mangroves,
Global Ecology and Biogeography Letters, 27-47, ,
Ellison, J.C., 1995, Systematics and Distributions of Pacific Island Mangroves, Marine and Coastal Biodiversity in the
Tropical Island Pacific Region, J.E. Maragos, M.N.A. Peterson, L.G. Eldredge, J.E. Bardach and H.F. Takeuchi, 59-74, East-
West Center, Honolulu, USA
Ellison, J.C., 2005, Holocene palynology and sea-level change in two estuaries in Southern Irian Jaya., Palaeogeography,
Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology220, 291-309, ,
FAO, 2007, The World's Mangroves 1980-2005, FAO Forestry Paper 153, 77, Forestry Department, Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome
Kathiresan, K., 2008, Biodiversity of Mangrove Ecosystems, Proceedings of Mangrove Workshop, 230, GEER Foundation,
Gujarat, India
Li, M.S. and Lee, S.Y., 1997, Mangroves of China: a brief review, Forest Ecology and Management, 241-259, ,
Mueller-Dombois, D. and Fosberg, F.R., 1998, Vegetation of the Tropical Pacific Islands, Ecological Studies, 132, 733,
Springer-Verlag, New York
Nair, V.R., 2002, Status of Flora and Fauna of Gulf of Kachchh, , National Institute of Oceanography, Goa
Robertson, A.I. and Alongi, D.M., 1992, Tropical mangrove ecosystems, Coastal and estuarine series, Bowman, M.J.,
Barber, R.T., Mooers, C.N.K., and Raven, J.A., 329, American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC
Roy, S.D. and Krishnan, P., 2005, Mangrove stands of Andamans vis-a-vis tsunami, Current Science11, 1800-1804, ,
Spalding, M.D., Blasco, F., and Field, C.D. (eds), 1997, World Mangrove Atlas, 178, The International Society for
mangrove Ecosystems, Okinawa, Japan
Sukardjo, S., 1987, Natural regeneration status of commercial mangroves species R. apiculata and B. gymnorrihiza in the
mangrove forests of Tanjung Bungin, Banyuasin district S. Sumatra, Forest Ecology and Management, 233-252, ,
Terrados, J., Thampanya, U., Srichai, N., Kheowvongstri, P., Geertz-Hansen, O., Boromthanarath, S., Panapitukkul, N.,
and Duarte, C.M., 1997, The effect of increased sediment accretion on the survival and growth of Rhizophora apiculata
seedlings, Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 697-701, ,
Thupalli, R., 2005, Forestry Assessment and Programme Planning: Maldives, , FAO,