I Electronic Devices & Circuits: Mahaveer Institute of Science and Technology

I
Electronic
Devices
&
Circuits
MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Page 1

Chapter 1
Semiconductor Diode
The semiconductordiode is formed by simply bringing p-type and n type materials
together (constructed from thesame base—Ge or Si), as shown in Fig 1.1. At the instant the
two materials are “joined” the electrons and holes inthe region of the junction will combine,
resulting in a lack of carriers in the regionnear the junction.
This region of uncovered positive and negative ions is called the depletion
regiondue to the depletion of carriers in this region.
Since the diode is a two-terminal device, the application of a voltage across
itsterminals leaves three possibilities: no bias (V= 0 V), forward bias (V> 0 V), andreverse
bias (V<0 V). Each is a condition that will result in a response that theuser must clearly
understand if the device is to be applied effectively.
Fig 1.1 P-N junction diode under no bias condition

No Applied Bias (V= 0 V)
Under no-bias (no applied voltage) conditions, any minority carriers (holes) in the n-type
material that find themselves within the depletion region will pass directly into the p-type
material. The closer the minority carrier is to the junction, the greater the attraction for the
layer of negative ions and the less the opposition of the positive ions in the depletion region
of the n-type material. For the purposes of future discussions we shall assume that all the
minority carriers of the n-type material that find themselves in the depletion region due to
their random motion will pass directly into the p-type material. Similar discussion can be
applied to the minority carriers (electrons) of the p-type material. This carrier flow has been
indicated in Fig 1.1 for the minority carriers of each material. The majority carriers

(electrons) of the n-type material must overcome the attractive forces of the layer of positive
ions in the n-type material and the shield of negative ions in the p-type material to migrate
into the area beyond the depletion region of the p-type material. However, the number of
majority carriers is so large in the n-type material that there will invariably be a small number
of majority carriers with sufficient kinetic energy to pass through the depletion region into the
p-type material. Again, the same type of discussion can be applied to the majority carriers
(holes) of the p-type material. The resulting flow due to the majority carriers is also shown in
Fig 1.1.
A close examination of Fig 1.1 will reveal that the relative magnitudes of the flow vectors are
such that the net flow in either direction is zero. This cancellation of vectors has been
indicated by crossed lines. The length of the vector representing hole flow has been drawn
longer than that for electron flow to demonstrate that the magnitude of each need not be the
same for cancellation and that the doping levels for each material may result in an unequal
carrier flow of holes and electrons. In summary, therefore:
In the absence of an applied bias voltage, the net flow of charge in any one
direction for a semiconductor diode is zero.
Reverse-Bias Condition (V<0 V)
If an external potential of V volts is applied across the p-n junction such that the
positive terminal is connected to the n-type material and the negative terminal is connected to
the p-type material , the number of uncovered positive ions in the depletion region of the
n-type material will increase due to the large number of “free” electrons drawn to the positive
potential of the applied voltage. For similar reasons, the number of uncovered negative ions
will increase in the p-type material. The net effect, therefore, is a widening of the depletion
region. This widening of the depletion region will establish too great a barrier for the majority
carriers to overcome, effectively reducing the majority carrier flow to zero
The current that exists under reverse-bias conditions is called the reverse
saturationcurrent and is represented by Is.
Fig 1.2 P N Junction Diode

1.2 V-I Characteristics in forward bias
Fig 1.3 V-I characteristics of a forward bias diode

The application of a forward-bias potential VDwill “pressure” electrons in the n-type material
and holes in the p-type material to recombine with the ions near the boundary and reduce the
width of the depletion region. The resulting minority-carrier flow of electrons from the p-type
material to the n-type material (and of holes from the n-type material to the p-type material)
has not changed in magnitude (since the conduction level is controlled primarily by the
limited number of impurities in the material), but the reduction in the width of the depletion
region has resulted in a heavy majority flow across the junction. An electron of the n-type
material now “sees” a reduced barrier at the junction due to the reduced depletion region and
a strong attraction for the positive potential applied to the p-type material. As the applied bias
increases in magnitude the depletion region will continue to decrease in width until a flood of
electrons can pass through the junction, resulting in an exponential rise in current as shown in
the forward-bias region of the characteristics of Fig 1.3. Note that the vertical scale of Fig 1.3
is measured in mill amperes (although some semiconductor diodes will have a vertical scale
measured in amperes) and the horizontal scale in the forward-bias region has a maximum of 1
V. Typically, therefore, the voltage across a forward-biased diode will be less than 1 V. Note
also, how quickly the current rises beyond the knee of the curve
Some elements are linear (resistors, capacitors, inductors), which means that doubling the
applied signal (let us say a voltage) produces a doubling of the response (let us say a current).
They are also passive – they do not have built-in source of power. They are two-terminal
devices, (which is self-explanatory).
Diode is also two-terminal, passive but non-linear a device. Figure 1 shows the diode.

Fig.1.4. Diode. Fig.1.5.Diode voltage-current curve,U-I
curve.
In Fig. 1.5 there is U-I (voltage-current) curve (characteristic). The diode arrow, anode
terminal, shows the direction of forward current flow. If the diode is in a circuit in which a
current of 10mA=10*10-3A is flowing from anode to cathode, then the anode is
approximately 0.5 volt more positive than cathode. We call it the forward voltage drop. The
reverse current is measured in nanoampers and 1nA=1*10-9A. It is so small in comparison to
mA, which can be neglected until we reach the reverse breakdown voltage. Typically it is
approximately 75V and normally we never subject a diode to voltage large enough to cause
reverse breakdown.
Similarly, the forward voltage drop, which is about 0.5 or 0.8 V, is of little concern. For
these reasons we treat the diode as a good approximation of an ideal one-way conductor.
1.3 Diode Equations

1. ID=Is(eKVd/Tk- 1)
Where
Is = reverse saturation current
k = 11.600/ŋ with ŋ= 1for Ge and ŋ=2 for Si for relatively low levels of diode current
Tk = Tc + 273o
Chapter 2

ZENER DIODE
2.1 Zener Region
Even though the scale is in tens of volts in the negative region, there is a point where the
application of too negative a voltage will result in a sharp change in the characteristics, as
shown in Fig. 2.1.
Fig 2.1
Zener Region
The current increases at a very rapid ratein a direction opposite to that of the positive
voltage region. The reverse-bias potentialthat results in this dramatic change in characteristics
is called the Zener potentialand is given the symbol VZ.As the voltage across the diode
increases in the reverse-bias region, the velocityof the minority carriers responsible for the
reverse saturation current Iswill also increase.Eventually, their velocity and associated kinetic
energy (WK=1/2(mv)2) will besufficient to release additional carriers through collisions with
otherwise stable atomicstructures. That is, an ionization process will result whereby valence
electrons absorbsufficient energy to leave the parent atom. These additional carriers can then
aid theionization process to the point where a high avalanche current is established and
theavalanche breakdown region determined.
The avalanche region (VZ) can be brought closer to the vertical axis by increasingthe
doping levels in the p- and n-type materials. However, as VZdecreases to very lowlevels, such
as _5 V, another mechanism, called Zener breakdown, will contribute tothe sharp change in
the characteristic. It occurs because there is a strong electric fieldin the region of the junction
that can disrupt the bonding forces within the atom and“generate” carriers. Although the
Zener breakdown mechanism is a significant contributoronly at lower levels of VZ, this sharp

change in the characteristic at any level iscalled the Zener region and diodes employing this
unique portion of the characteristicof a p-n junction are called Zener diodes.The Zener region
of the semiconductor diode described must be avoided if the responseof a system is not to be
completely altered by the sharp change in characteristicsin this reverse-voltage region.
The maximum reverse-bias potential that can be applied before entering theZener region is
called the peak inverse voltage (referred to simply as the PIVrating) or the peak reverse
voltage (denoted by PRV rating)
If an application requires a PIV rating greater than that of a single unit, a numberof
diodes of the same characteristics can be connected in series. Diodes are alsoconnected in
parallel to increase the current-carrying capacity.
Fig 2.2 Zener diode and semiconductor Diode

This region of unique characteristics is employed in the design of Zener diodes,which
have the graphic symbol appearing in Fig. 2.2. Both the semiconductor diodeand Zener diode
are presented side by side in Fig. 2.2 to ensure that the direction ofconduction of each is
clearly understood together with the required polarity of the appliedvoltage. For the
semiconductor diode the “on” state will support a current in thedirection of the arrow in the
symbol. For the Zener diode the direction of conductionis opposite to that of the arrow in the
symbol as pointed out in the introduction to thissection. Note also that the polarity of VDand
VZ are the same as would be obtainedif each were a resistive element.
The location of the Zener region can be controlled by varying the doping levels.An
increase in doping, producing an increase in the number of added impurities, willdecrease the
Zener potential. Zener diodes are available having Zener potentials of1.8 to 200 V with
power ratings from14 W to 50 W. Because of its higher temperatureand current capability,
silicon is usually preferred in the manufacture of Zener diodes. The term nominal associated
with VZindicates that it is a typical average value.
Since this is a 20% diode, the Zener potential can be expected to vary as 10 V+/-
20%or from 8 to 12 V in its range of application. Also available are 10% and 5% diodeswith

the same specifications. The test current IZTis the current defined by the ¼ powerlevel, and
ZZTis the dynamic impedance at this current level. The maximum knee impedanceoccurs at
the knee current of IZK. The reverse saturation current is providedat a particular potential
level, and IZMis the maximum current for the 20% unit.
The temperature coefficient reflects the percent change in VZwith temperature. Itis defined by
the equation
Tc = ΔVz/Vz(T1-T0) x 100 %/0C
Where VZis the resulting change in Zener potential due to temperature variation.A positive
value would reflect an increase in VZwith an increase in temperature, while a negative value
would result in a decrease invalue with increase in temperature. The 24-V, 6.8-V, and 3.6-V
levels refer to threeZener diodes having these nominal values within the same family of
Zeners. The curvefor the 10-V Zener would naturally lie between the curves of the 6.8-V and
24-V devices.Returning to Equation above,T0 is the temperature at which VZis provided
(normallyroom temperature—25°C), and T1 is the new level
Chapter 3
LIGHT-EMITTING DIODES

The increasing use of digital displays in calculators, watches, and all forms of
instrumentationhas contributed to the current extensive interest in structures that willemit
light when properly biased. The two types in common use today to perform thisfunction are
the light-emitting diode (LED) and the liquid-crystal display (LCD).
As the name implies, the light-emitting diode (LED) is a diode that will give offvisible light
when it is energized. In any forward-biased p-n junction there is, withinthe structure and
primarily close to the junction, a recombination of holes and electrons.This recombination
requires that the energy possessed by the unbound free electronbe transferred to another state.
In all semiconductor p-n junctions some of thisenergy will be given off as heat and some in
the form of photons. In silicon and germaniumthe greater percentage is given up in the form
of heat and the emitted lightis insignificant. In other materials, such as gallium arsenide
phosphide (GaAs P) orgallium phosphide (GaP), the number of photons of light energy
emitted is sufficientto create a very visible light source.
The process of giving off light by applying an electrical source of energy iscalled
electroluminescence.
Fig 3.1 Graphic symbol of a diode

As shown in Fig. 3.1 with its graphic symbol, the conducting surface connectedto the
p-material is much smaller, to permit the emergence of the maximum numberof photons of
light energy. Note in the figure that the recombination of the injectedcarriers due to the
forward-biased junction results in emitted light at the site of recombination.There may, of
course, be some absorption of the packages of photon energyin the structure itself, but a very
large percentage are able to leave, as shown inthe figure.
Two quantities yet undefined appear under the heading Electrical/Optical
Characteristicsat TA _ 25°C. They are the axial luminous intensity (IV) and the
luminousefficacy (_v). Light intensity is measured in candela. One candela emits a light

fluxof 4_ lumens and establishes an illumination of 1 foot-candle on a 1-ft2 area 1 ft fromthe
light source. Even though this description may not provide a clear understandingof the
candela as a unit of measure, its level can certainly be compared between similardevices. The
term efficacy is, by definition, a measure of the ability of a deviceto produce a desired effect.
For the LED this is the ratio of the number of lumensgenerated per applied watt of electrical
energy. The relative intensityof each color versus wavelength appears in Fig. 3.2.
Fig 3.2 Color Intensity vs eavelength

Since the LED is a p-n junction device, it will have a forward-biased characteristicsimilar to
the diode response curves. Note the almost linear increase in relativeluminous intensity with
forward current.

Fig 3.3 Maximum peak current vs. pulse duration
Figure 3.3 reveals that thelonger the pulse duration at a particular frequency, the
lower the permitted peak current(after you pass the break value of tp). LED displays are
available today in many different sizes and shapes. The lightemittingregion is available in
lengths from 0.1 to 1 inThere are also two-lead LED lamps that contain two LEDs, so that a
reversal inbiasing will change the color from green to red, or vice versa. LEDs are
presentlyavailable in red, green, yellow, orange, and white, and white with blue soon to
becommercially available. In general, LEDs operate at voltage levels from 1.7 to 3.3 V,which
makes them completely compatible with solid-state circuits. They have a fastresponse time
(nanoseconds) and offer good contrast ratios for visibility. The powerrequirement is typically
from 10 to 150 mW with a lifetime of 100,000_ hours. Theirsemiconductor construction adds
a significant ruggedness factor.
APPLICATIONS
1. Indicators and signs
2. Lighting
3. Light sources for machine vision systems ( LED Televisions)
4. Light Source in Fiber Optic Communications

Chapter 4
DIODE APPLICATION
1. Rectification
2. Power supply filter(regulator)
3. Specific Applications of diodes
° Signal rectifier
° Diode gate
° Diode clamps
° Limiter
Commercially available diodes are described also by other important characteristics, e.g.:
maximum forward current, capacitance (measured in pF), leaking current, reverse recovery
time (measured in nanoseconds, 0-2-4-5000).
4.1 Rectification
A rectifier changes ac (alternating current) to dc (direct current). This is the most
important application of diodes. Diodes are sometimes called rectifiers.
The basic circuit is shown in Fig. 4.1.
Fig.4.1. Half-wave rectifier.
The ac represents a source of ac voltage. It can be a transformer or just ac sine-wave

power line. For sine-wave input, of amplitude much larger than forward voltage drop, the
output will look like it is shown in Fig. 4.2.
Fig.4.2. Voltage across Rload in Fig.3.

The process and the circuit we call a half-wave rectifier, because only half of the input
waveform is used.
In Fig. 4.3 is shown a full-wave rectifier and Fig. 4.4 shows the voltage across the
load. The small gaps across zero voltage occur because of the forward voltage drop.
Fig.4.3. Full-wave bridge rectifier. Fig.4.4. Voltage across Rload in Fig.4.3.
4.2 Power supply filtering

The rectified wave from Fig.4.4 is not good for application: it is dc only in the sense
that it does not change polarity. But it does not have constant value and has plenty of ripples
i.e. small waves or undulations (wave like forms). It has to be smoothed out in order to obtain
authentic direct current. This can be done by means of a low-pass filter, which is shown in
Fig. 4.5.
Fig.4.5. Full-wave bridge with RC filter.
The full-wave bridge diodes prevent flow of current back out of capacitor. The capacitor is an
1
energy storage element. The energy stored in a capacitor is E = CU 2 . For C in F (farads)
2
and U in V (Volts), E comes out in J (joules) and J=Watt/sec. The capacitor value is chosen
so that R load >> 1/ f , where f is the ripple frequency. For power line sine wave it is
2*50Hz=100Hz. It allows ensuring small ripples, by making the time constant for discharge
much longer than the time between recharging (the capacitor is charging very quickly, while
discharging is very slow).

It is quite easy to calculate the approximate ripple voltage (see Fig. 4.6). Let us assume
that the load current stays constant (it will, for small ripples). The load causes the capacitor to
discharge somewhat between cycles. The capacitor will lose some voltage, let us say ∆U . In
this case, we have:
I dU
∆U = ∆t , (from I = C )
C dt
Fig.4.6. Power-supply ripple calculation.
Instead of ∆t we use 1/ f or 1/ 2f respectively for half-wave rectification and for

full-wave rectification. Finally we obtain approximate ripple voltage:
I load
° for halve-wave ∆U = ,
fC
I load
° for full-wave ∆U = .
2fC
If one wanted to do exact calculation (with no approximation), one would use the exact
exponential formula (see lecture Capacitors, RC circuits). Sometimes it may be necessary.
A dc power supply using the bridge circuit looks (in the USA) as shown in Fig.4.7.
Fig.4.7. Bridge rectifier circuit.

The curved electrode indicates a polarized capacitor, which must not be allowed the
opposite polarity.

4.3 Signal rectifier
If the input is not a sine wave, we usually do not think of it as a rectification in the sense as it
was for power supply. For instance, we might want to have a series of pulses corresponding
to the rising edge of a square wave (see Fig. 4.8), left hand side and right hand side of the
capacitor C. While both, the rising and the falling, pulses are in the output after
differentiation performed by CR circuit. The simplest way is to rectify the differentiated
wave.
Fig.4.8. A series of pulses' rectifier.
We should remember about forward drop voltage of the diode: This circuit gives no output
for signal for input smaller then, forward drop voltage, let us say 0.5 V pp (peak to peak). If
this is a problem, there are various tricks that help to combat this limitation. For instance:
1. use Schottky diodes with smaller forward drop voltage (approximately 0.2V),
2. use so called circuit solution, which means modifying the circuit structure and
compensating the drop,
3. use matched-pair compensation, use transistors, FETs.
4.4 Diode clamps

Sometimes it is necessary to limit the range of signal (for instance not to exceed certain
voltage limit and not to destroy a device). The circuit in Fig. 4.9 will accomplish this.
Fig.4.9. Diode voltage clamp.

The diode prevents the output from exceeding ≅ 5.6V, with no effect on voltages smaller
than this, including negative voltages. The only limitation is that the input must not be so
negative that the reverse breakdown voltage is exceeded. Diode clamps are the standard
equipment on all inputs in the CMOS family of digital logic (Complementary Metal Oxide
Semiconductor). Without them, the delicate input circuits are easily destroyed by static
electricity.
4.5 Limiter
The circuit in Fig.4.10 limits the output swing to one diode drop, roughly 0.6V.
Fig.4.10 Diode limiter.
It might seem very small, but if the next device is an amplifier with large voltage
amplification, its input has to be always near zero voltage. Otherwise the output is in state of
saturation. For instance we have an op amp with a gain of 1000. The amplifier operates with
supply voltage ± 15V. Sometimes it can be ± 12V or ± 18V or something in between. It will
never give output voltage bigger than the supply voltage, i.e. ± 15V. It means that the input
signal ± 15mV (± 15V/1000) or bigger will saturate the output. This particular amplifier
gives the output proportional to the input (proportionality factor is 1000) only for input
signals from the interval (-15mV,+15mV).
This diode limiter is often used as input protection for high-gain amplifiers.

Chapter 5
BJT TRANSISTOR
A transistor is a semiconductor active device which has the property of transfer of resistance.
It is used to amplify and switch electronic signals. A BJT is a three terminal, three regions;
two junction bipolar device. It consists of back-to-back two P-N junction diodes. The below
figure 5.1 shows two types of transistors based on the polarity and majority and minority
charge carriers in the semiconductor materials.
Fig 5.1 PNP & NPN Transistor
These two junctions give rise to three regions as follows:
(a)EMITTER
It is on the left-hand side of the transistor .It is heavily doped regions because its
main function is to emit majority charge carriers (either electrons or holes) to the
base.
(b) BASE
It is the middle region of the transistor. It is very thin (10-6) as compared to either the
emitter or collector and is very lightly-doped.
(c)COLLECTOR
It is on the right-hand side of the transistor it is medially doped and its main function
is to collect majority charge carriers through the base.
As to find the given device as transistor the four basic guide posts are:
(1) Conventional current flows along the arrow whereas electrons flow against it.
(2) E/B junction is always forward-biased.

(3) C/B junction is always reverse-biased.
(4) IE=IB+ IC
A junction transistor is simply a sandwich of one type of semiconductor material between

two layers of the other types.
(a) PNP Transistor: N-type material sandwiched between two layers of P-type material. It
is called as PNP transistor.
(b) NPN Transistor: P-type material sandwiched between two layers of N-type material.
It is called as NPN transistor.
The symbols employed for PNP and NPN transistors are shown. The arrowhead is always at
the emitter (not at the collector) and in each case, its direction indicates the conventional
direction of current flow. For a PNP transistor, arrowhead points from emitter to base
meaning that emitter is positive with respect to base (and also with respect to collector). For
NPN transistor, it points positive with respect to emitter.
The emitter, base and collector are provided with terminals which are labelled as E, B and C.
The two junctions are:
(a) Emitter-Base (E/B) junction and
(b) Collector-Base (C/B) junction.
It may be noted, in passing, that transistors are made by growing, alloying or diffusing
processes.
5.1 TRANSISTOR BIASING
For proper working of a transistor, it is essential to apply voltages of correct polarity across
its two junctions. It is worthwhile to remember that for normal operation
(a)Emitter-Base junction is always forward-biased, and
(b) Collector-Base junction is always reverse-biased.

Fig 5.2 Transistor Biasing
Figure 5.2 for properly biased NPN and PNP transistors is shown beside. In the fig,
two batteries respectively provide the dc emitter supply voltage VEE and collector supply
voltage Vcc for properly biasing the two junctions of the transistor. In fig (a), positive terminal
of VEE is connected to P-type emitter in order to repel or Push holes into the base.The
negative terminal of Vcc is connected to the collector so that it may attract or pull holes
through the base. Similar considerations apply to the NPN transistor of fig (b).

Chapter 6
TRANSISTOR CIRCUIT CONFIGURATIONS
Basically, there are three types of circuit connections (called configurations) for operating a
transistor.
(1) Common-base (CB),
(2) Common-emitter (CE),
(3) Common – collector (CC),
The term ‘common’ is used to denote the electrode that is common to the input and output
circuits. Because the common electrode is generally grounded, these modes of operation are
frequently referred to as grounded-base, grounded-emitter and grounded-collector
configurations.
Since transistor is a 3-terminal device, one of its terminals has to be common to the input and
output circuits.
6.1 CB CONFIGURATION
In this configuration, emitter current IE is the input current and collector current I C is the
output current. The input signal is applied between the emitter and base whereas output is
taken out from the collector and base. The Common base configuration is as shown in the
following figure. 6.1.

Fig 6.1 Common Base Configuration
6.2 CC CONFIGURATION
In this case, input signal is applied between base and collector and output signal is taken out
from emitter-collector circuit. Here IB is the input current and IE is the output current. The
common collector Configuration is as shown in the following Figure 6.2.
Fig 6.2 Common Collector Configuration
6.3 CE CONFIGURATION
Fig 5.3 Common Emitter configuration

The common Emitter configuration is shown in the figure 5.3. Here, input is applied
between the base and emitter and output signal is taken out from collector and emitter circuit.
IB is the input current and IC is the output current.
CE configuration provides high voltage gain, high power gain and high current gain. It has
moderate input impedance and high output impedance.it is the only configuration which
satisfies the fourth condition for identifying the transistor in all the cases
IE = IB + IC
6.4 USING A TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH
Fig 6.4 Transistor as a switch
The Transistor working as a switch is shown in the figure 6.4. When a transistor is
used as a switch it must be either OFF or fully ON. In the fully ON state the voltage VCE
across the transistor is almost zero and the transistor is said to be saturated because it cannot
pass any more collector current Ic. The output device switched by the transistor is usually
called the 'load'.
The power developed in a switching transistor is very small:
• In the OFF state: power = Ic × VCE, but Ic = 0, so the power is zero.
In the full ON state: power = Ic × VCE, but VCE = 0 (almost), so the power is very small

Chapter 7
FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS
The field effect transistor is a three terminal unipolar solid-state device in which
current is controlled by an electric field as is done in vacuum tubes.
Broadly speaking, there are two types of FETS:
(a) Junction field effect transistor (JFET)
(b) Metal-oxide semiconductor FET (MOSFET).
It is also called insulated-gate FET (IGFET).
It may be further subdivided into:
(i) Depletion – enhancement MOSFET i.e., DE MOSFET
(ii) Enhancement-only MOSFET i.e., E-only MOSFET.
Both of these can be either P-channel or N-channel devices.
7.1 JUNCTION FET (JFET)

Fig 7.1 FET symbol
The symbols of both n-channel and p-channel FET are shown in the figure 7.1. It can
be fabricated with either an N-channel or P-channel is generally preferred. For fabricating an
N-channel JFET, first a narrow bar of N-type semiconductor material is taken and then two
P-type junctions are diffused on opposite sides of its middle part. These junctions form two
P-N diodes or gates and the area between these gates is called channel. The two P-regions are
internally connected and a single lead is brought out which is called gate terminal.
Ohmic direct electrical contacts (connections) are made at two ends of the bar-one
lead is calledsource terminal S and the other drain Terminal When the potential difference is
established between drain and source, current flows along the length of the ‘bar’ through the
channel located between the two P-regions. The current consists of only majority carriers
which, in the present case, are electrons. P-channel FET is similar in construction except that
it uses P-type bar and two N-type junctions. The majority carriers are holes which flow
through the channel located between the two N-regions or gates.The structures of N-channel
JFET and P-channel JFET are as shown the below figure 7.2.

Fig 7.2 N-channel and P-Channel JFET
Following FET notation is worth remembering:
(1) SOURCE: it is the terminal through which majority carriers enter the bar. Since
carriers come from it, it is called the source.
(2) DRAIN: It is the terminal through which majority carriers leave the bar. The drain-to-
source voltage VDS drives the drain current ID.
(3) GATE: These are two internally-connected heavily-doped regions which form two P-
N junctions. The gate-source voltage VGS reverse-biases the gates.
(4) CHANNEL: It is the space between two gates through which majority carriers pass
from source to drain when VDS is applied.
It must be kept in mind that gate arrow always points to N-type material.
7.2 MOSFET or IGFET
The metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) is a device used for

amplifying or switching electronic signals. The basic principle of the MOSFET is that the
source-to-drain current (SD current) is controlled by the gate voltage, or better, by the gate

electric field. The electric field induces charge (field effect) in the semiconductor at the
semiconductor –oxide-interface. Thus the MOSFET is a voltage-controlled current source.
The channel can be of n-type or p-type, and is accordingly called an nMOS or a pMOS). The
MOSFET is used in digital CMOS logic, which uses P- and N- channel MOSFETs as
building blocks.
IGFET is a related term meaning insulated-gate field-effect transistor, and is almost

synonymous with MOSFET, though it can refer to FETs with a gate insulator that is not
oxide. Another synonym is MISFET for metal–insulator–semiconductor FET.
It could be further subdivided as follows:
(i) ENHANCEMENT - ONLY MOSFET
As the name indicates, the MOSFET operates only in the enhancement mode and has no
depletion mode. It works with large values of VGS only. It differs in construction from the
DE MOSFET in that structurally there exists no channel between the drain and source.
Hence, it does not conduct when VGS=0. That is why it is called normally OFF MOSFET.
(ii) DEPLETION-ENHANCEMENT MOSFET or DE MOSFET
This MOSFET is so called because it can be operated in both depletion mode and
enhancement mode by changing the polarity of VGS. When negative gate-to-source
voltage is applied, the N-channel DE MOSFET operates in the depletion mode. However,
with positive gate voltage, it operates in the enhancement mode. Since a channel exists
between drain and source,ID flows even when VGS=0. That is why DE MOSFET is known
as normally ON MOSFET.
7.3 SCHEMATIC SYMBOLS

Fig 7.3 Schematic Symbols
The figure 7.3 shows different symbolic representations of N-channel and P-channel FET
7.4 DISADVANTAGESOF FETS
(1) Small gain-bandwidth product,
(2) Greater susceptibility to damage in handling them.
7.5 FET APPLICATIONS
FETs can be used in almost every application in which bipolar transistors can be used.
However, they have certain applications which are exclusive to them:
(1) As input amplifiers in oscilloscopes, electronic voltmeters and other measuring and
testing equipment because their higher rin reduces loading effect to the minimum.
(2) In logic circuits where it is kept OFF when there is zero input while it is turned ON
with very little power input.
(3) For mixer operation of FM and TV receivers.
(4) As voltage-variables resistor (V V R) in operational amplifiers and tone control etc.
(5) Large-scale integration (LSI) and computer memories because of very small size.
Chapter 8

RECTIFIERS
The electronic circuits require a D.C. source of power. For transistor A.c. amplifier
circuit forbiasing, D.C supply is required. The input signal can be A.C. and so the output
signal will beamplified A.c. signal. But without biasing with D.C. supply, the circuit will not
work. So more orless all electronic A.C. instruments require D.C. power. To get this, D.C.
batteries can be used.But they will get dried quickly and replacing them every time is a costly
affair.
Rectifier is a circuit which offers low resistance to the current in one direction and
highresistance in the opposite direction.
Rectifier converts sinusoidal signal to unidirectional flow and not pure D.C.
Filter converts unidirectional flow into pure D.C.
If the input to the rectifier is a pure sinusoidal wave, the average value of such a wave iszero,
since the positive half cycle and negative half cycle are exactly equal.
8.1 HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER

If this signal is given to the rectifier circuit, say Half Wave Rectifier Circuit, the output will
be as shown in Fig. 8.1
.
Fig 8.1 Half wave Rectified out put
Now the average value of this waveform is not zero, since there is no negative half.Hence a
rectifier circuit converts A.C. Signal with zero average value to a unidirectional waveform
with non zero average value.

The rectifying devices are semiconductor diodes for low voltage signals and vacuum
diodesfor high voltage circuit. A basic Half wave Rectifier circuit for rectification is as
shown in Fig. 8.2.
Fig 8.2Half wave rectifier Circuit
A.C input is normally the A.C. main supply. Since the voltage is 230V, and such a
highvoltage cannot be applied to the semiconductor diode, step down transformer should be
used. Iflarge D.C. voltage is required vacuum tubes should be used. Output voltage is taken
across theload resistorRL. Since the peak value of A.C. signal is much larger than Vy' we
neglect Vy' foranalysis.
The purpose of a rectifier circuit is to convert A.C. to D.C. But the simple circuit
shown before will not achieve this. Rectifier converts A.C. to unidirectional flow and not
D.C. So filters are used to get pure D.C. Filters convert unidirectional flow into D.C.
8.2 Ripple Factor

Ripple factor is a measure of the fluctuating components present in rectifier circuits.
Ripple factor, y = RMS value of AC components/Average value of waveform
The ripple factor for half wave rectifier after making some necessary assumptions is 1.21
The ripple factor for Full wave rectifier is 0.482

8.3 TRANSFORMER UTILIZATION FACTOR
Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF) = DC power delivered to the load/AC rating of
transformer secondary
Transformer Utilization Factor for Half Wave Rectifier is 0.287
Transformer Utilization Factor for Full Wave Rectifier is 0.693
8.4 FULL WAVE RECTIFIER (FWR)

Since half wave rectifier circuit has poor ripple factor, for ripple voltage is greater than DC
voltage,it cannot be used. So now analyze a full wave rectifier circuit.The circuit is as shown
in Fig. 8.3.
Fig 8.3 Full Wave Rectifier and Waveforms
8.5 BRIDGE RECTIFIERS

The circuit is shown in Fig. 8.4. During the positive half cycle, DJ and D2 are forward
biased. D3 and D4 are open. So current will flow through DJ first and then through RL and
then through D2 back to the ground. During the -ve half cycle D 4 and D~ are forward biased
and they conduct. The current flows from D3 through RL to D4. Hence the direction of
current is the same. So we get full wave rectified output. In Bridge rectifier circuit, there is no
need for centre tapped transformer. So the transformer secondary line to line voltage should
be one half of that, used for the FWR circuit, employing two diodes.
2Rf should be used since two diodes in series are conducting at the same time. The
ripple actor and ratio of rectification are the same as for Fu II Wave Rectifier.
The circuit of a bridge rectifier is as shown in the below figure 8.4

Fig 8.4 Bridge rectifier Circuit
Where equation for dc current is
Idc = 2 Im/Π
Where,
Im = Vm/(Rs+ 2Rf + Rl)
Vdc= 2Vm/Π - Idc(Rs + 2Rf)
Rs = Resistance of Transformer Secondary
Rf = Forward Resistance of a diode
Rl = Load Resistance
2Rf should be used since two diodes in series are conducting at the same time. The
ripplefactor and ratio of rectification are the same as for Full Wave Rectifier.
8.6 ADVANTAGES OF BRIDGE RECTIFIER
1. The peak inverse voltage (PIV) across each diode is Vm and not 2Vm as in the case of
FWR. Hence the Voltage rating of the diodes can be less.
2. Centre tapped transformer is not required.
3. There is no D.C. current flowing through the transformer since there is no centre tapping
and the return path is to the ground. So the transformer utilization factor is high.
8.7 DISADVANTAGES
1. Four diodes are to be used.
2. There is some voltage drop across each diode and so output voltage will be slightly less
compared to FWR. But these factors are minor compared to the advantages.
Bridge rectifiers are available in a package with all the 4 diodes incorporated in one
unit. It will have two terminals for A.C. Input and two terminals for DC output. Selenium
rectifiers are also available as a package.

8.8 COMPARISON OF RECTIFIER CIRCUITS

Chapter 9
AMPLIFIERS
9.1 Introduction
Any system whether it is electrical, mechanical, hydraulic or pneumatic may be
considered to have at least one input and one output. If the system is to perform smoothly, we
must be able to measure or control output. If the input is 10m V, gain of the amplifier is 100,
output will be I V. If the input deviates to 9m V or 11 m V, output will be 0.9 V or 1.1 V. So
there is no control over the output. But by introducing feedback between the output and input,
there can be control over the output. If the input is increased, it can be made to increase by
having a link between the output and input. By providing feedback, the input can be made to
depend on output.
Basic definitions
Ideally an amplifier should reproduce the input signal, with change in magnitude and with or
without change in phase. But some of the short comings of the amplifier circuit are
I. Change in the value of the gain due to variation in supplying voltage, temperature or due to
components.
2. Distortion in wave-form due to non linearities in the operating characters of the amplifying
device.
3. The amplifier may introduce noise (undesired signals) the above drawbacks can be
minimizing if we introduce feedback
9.2 Voltage amplifier

This circuit is a 2-port network and it represents an amplifier (see in Fig 9.1). Suppose
R,» Rs, drop across Rs is very small.
Fig 9.1 Equivalent circuit of a voltage amplifier

Vt =Vs
Similarly if Rl>>Ro, Vo = Av Vi
Vo = Av. Vs
Output voltage is proportional to input voltage. The constant of proportionality Ay
doesn't depend on the impedances. (Source or load). Such a circuit is called as Voltage
Amplifier. Therefore, for ideal voltage amplifier
R1= ∞
R0= 0
Av = V0/Vi
RL = ∞
AV represents the open circuit voltage gain. For ideal voltage amplifier, output voltage
is proportional to input voltage and the constant of proportionality is independent of Rs or RL.
9.3. COMPARATOR OR MIXER NETWORK
This is usually a differential amplifier. It has two inputs and gives a single output which is
thedifference of the two inputs.
V = Output voltage of the basic amplifier before sampling [see the blockdiagram of
feedback]
V, = Input voltage to the basic amplifier
Av = Voltage amplification = V N,
AI = Current amplification = III,
GM = Transconductance ofbasic amplifier = IN i
RM = Trans resistance = VII,
All these four quantities, Av, Af, GM and RM represent the transfer gains (Though
GM and RM are not actually gains) of the basic amplifier without feedback. So the symbol
'A' is used to represent these quantities. Ar is used to represent the ratio of the output to the
input with feedback. This is called as the transfer gain of the amplifier with feedback.

Chapter 10
CLASSIFICATION OF FEEDBACK NETWORKS
10.1 Feedback Concept
A sampling network samples the output voltage or current and this signal is applied to
the input through a feedback two port network. The block diagram representation is as shown
in Fig. 10.1.
Fig 10.1 Block Diagram of a feedback Network

Signal Source
It can be a voltage source V s or a current source Is
Feedback Network
It is a passive two port network. It may contain resistors, capacitors or inductors. But usually
a resistance is used as the feedback element. Here the output current is sampled and feedback.
The feedback network is connected in series with the output. This is called as Current
Sampling or Loop Sampling.
A voltage feedback is distinguished in this way from current feedback. For voltage feedback,
the feedback element (resistor) will be in parallel with the output. For current feedback the
element will be in series.

Feedback amplifiers are classified as shown below.
10.2 TYPES OF FEEDBACK

Feedback means a portion of the output of the amplifier circuit is sent back or given
back or feedback at the input terminals. By this mechanism the characteristics of the
amplifier circuit can be changed. Hence feedback is employed in circuits. There are two types
of feedback.
I. Positive Feedback
2. Negative Feedback
Negative feedback is also called as degenerative feedback. Because in negative feedback, the
feedback signal opposes the input signal. So it is called as degenerative feedback. But there
are many advantages with negative feedback.
Advantages of Negative Feedback

I. Input impedance can be increased.
2. Output impedance can be decreased.
3. Transfer gain Afcan be stabilized against variations in It-parameter of the transistor with
temperature etc. i.e. stability is improved.
4. Bandwidth is increased.
5. Linearity of operation is improved.
6. Dist0l1ion is reduced.
7. Noise reduces.
Based on series/shunt and voltage/current the four different types of feedback are,
1. Voltage series feedback.
2. Voltage shunt feedback.

3. Current series feedback.
4. Current shunt feedback.
Figure 10.2 below shows the different types of feedback
Fig 10.2 Different types of feedback

10.3Improvement of Stability with Feedback
Stability means, the stability of the voltage gain. The voltage gain must have a stable value,
with frequency. Let the change in Av is represented by S.
S = dAv/(1+βAv)
For negative Feedback, β is negative: denominator> 1;S' < S
i.e., variation in Ay' or % change in A, is less with -negative feedback.
:. Stability is good.

10.4 Summary
An Amplifier circuit is to provide voltage gain or current gain or both in theform of
power gain. But the other desirable characteristics of the amplifiercircuits are high Z, Low
Z,and Large B. W, low distortion, low noise and highstability. To achieve these
characteristics a part of output signal is feedbackand coupled to input, to oppose in phase
with (V). So it is negative feedback.Though gain reduces due to negative feedback, it is
employed in amplifiercircuits to get the other advantages.
• Feedback factor β = V ~V o' The product I3A is called returned ratio. (1 + I3A) is
called return difference D or desensitivity factor.
• The different types of feedback are (i) voltage series (ii) current series (iii)
voltage shunt and (iv) current shunt.
• With voltage feedback (series or shunt) output resistance Ro decreases.
• With current feedback (series or shunt) Ro increases.
• With series feedback (current or voltage) R increases.
• With shunt feedback (current or voltage) Ro decreases.
• With negative feedback, distortion, noise, gain reduces by a factor (1 + I3A).
Bandwidth, f2' stability improve by (l + I3A).
• If the feedback signal is proportional to voltage, it is voltage feedback. If the
feedback signal is proportional to current, it is current feedback. If the
feedback signal V] is coming in series with input signal V" it is series
feedback. If V] is in parallel with V, it is shunt feedback.
• If the feedback signal VI is out of phase with V" opposing it is negative
feedback. IfVj is in phase with V" adding to it or aiding V" it is positive
feedback.

Chapter 11
OSCILLATORS
11.1 Introduction
Oscillator is a source of AC voltage or current. We get A.C output from the oscillator
circuit. In alternators (AC generators) the thermal energy is converted to electric energy at
50Hz. In the oscillator circuits that we are describing now, the electric energy in the form of
DC is converted into electric energy in the form of AC. 'Invertors ' in electrical engineering
convert DC to AC, but there, only output power is the criterion and not the actual shape of the
wave form.
An amplifier is different from oscillator in the sense that an amplifier requires some
A.C. input which will be amplified. But an oscillator doesn't need any external AC signal.
This is shown in Fig. 11.1 below:
Fig 11.1 the difference between an amplifier and oscillator
For an amplifier, the additional power due to amplification is derived from the DC
bias supply. So an amplifier effectively converts DC to AC. But it needs AC input. Without
AC input, there is no AC output. In the oscillator circuits also DC power is converted to AC.
But there is no AC input signal. So the difference between amplifier and oscillator is in
amplifiers circuits, the DC power conversion to AC is controlled by the AC input signal. But
in oscillators, it is not so. There are two types of oscillator’s circuits:
I. Harmonic Oscillators
2. Relaxation Oscillators.
Harmonic Oscillators produce sine waves. Relaxation Oscillators produce saw tooth and
square waves etc. Oscillator circuits employ both active and passive devices. Active devices
convert the DC power to AC. Passive components determine the frequency of oscillators

11.2 PERFORMANCE MEASURES OF OSCILLATOR CIRCUITS:
1. Stability: This is determined by the passive components. R,C and L determine frequencyof
oscillations.Capacitors should beof high quantity with low leakage. So silver mica and
ceramic capacitors are widely used.
2. Amplitude stability: To get large output voltage, amplification is to be done.
3. Output Power: Class A, Band C operations can be done. Class C gives largest outputpower
but harmonics are more.Class A gives less output power but harmonics are low.
4. Harmonics: Undesirable frequency components are harmonics.
11.3 SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS
Figure 11.2 shows an amplifier, a feedback network and input mixing circuit not yet
connected toform a closed loop. The amplifier provides an output signal Xo' as a
consequence of the signalXI applied directly to the amplifier input terminal. Output of
feedback network
Fig 11.2 Sinusoidal Amplifier

11.4 BARKHAUSEN CRITERION
We make an assumption that the circuit operates only in the linear region, and the
amplifier feedback network contains reactive elements. For a sinusoidal wave form, if XI =
X~ , the amplitude, phase and frequency of Xi and X~ be identical. The frequency of a
sinusoidal oscillator is determined by the condition that loop gain, Phase shift is zero at
that frequency. For oscillator circuits positive feedback must be there i.e., V [must be in
phase with VI to get added to VI . When active device BJT or FET gives 180° phase shift, the
feedback network must produce another 180° phase shift so that net phase shift is 0° or 360°
and V [is in phase with VI to make it positive feedback. Oscillations will not be sustained if,
at the oscillator frequency the magnitude of the product of the transfer gain of the amplifier
and of P are less than unity.
The conditions - Aβ = 1 is called Barkhausen criterion
i.e. |βA| = 1 and phase of - Aβ = 0

11.5 R - C PHASE-SHIFT OSCILLATOR (USING JFET)
This is voltage series feedback. FET amplifier is followed by three cascaded
arrangements of a capacitor C, resistor R. The output of the last RC combination is returned
to the gate. This forms the feedback connection. The FET amplifier shifts the phase of
voltage appearing at the gate by 180°. The RC network shifts the phase by additional amount.
At some frequency, the phase-shift introduced by this network will be exactly 180°. The total
phase-shift at this frequency, from the gate around the circuit and back to the gate is + 180 -
180 = 0°. At this particular frequency, the circuit will oscillate.
11.6 Hartley and Colpitts Oscillators
The Hartley and Colpitts Oscillators can be studied from the figure 11.3 given below
Fig 11.3 Colpitts and Hartley Oscillators Circuit Diagram

FOR HARTELY OSCILLATOR
f = [2 Π ]-1
FOR COLPITTS OSCILLATOR
f = [2 Π ]-1
Ct = C1C2/(C1 + C2)

11.7 WIEN BRIDGE OSCILLATORS
In this circuit, a balanced bridge is used as the feedback network. The active element
is an operational amplifier. It employs lead-lag Network. Frequency focan be varied in the
ratio of 10:1 compared to 3:1 in other oscillator circuits. External voltage V 0 is applied
between 3 and 4, as shown in Fig.11.4
Fig 11.4 Wien Bridge Oscillator

11.8 CRYSTAL OSCILLATORS
When certain solid materials are deformed, they generate within them, an electric charge.
This effect is reversible in that, if a charge is applied, the material will mechanically deform
in response. This is called Piezoelectric effect.
Naturally available materials: 1. Quartz 2. Rochelle salt.
Synthetic materials: 1. Lithium sulphate 2. Ammonium-di-hydrogen phosphate, PZT(Lead
Zircon ate Titanate), BaTi03 (Barium Titanate).
If the crystal is properly mounted, deformations take place within the crystal, and an
electromechanical system is formed which will vibrate when properly excited. The resonant
frequency andQ depend upon crystal dimensions etc. With these, frequencies from few KHz
to MHz and Q in therange from 1000s to 100,000 can be obtained. Since Q is high, and for
Quartz, the characteristics areextremely stable, with respect to time, temperature etc., very
stable oscillators can be designed. Thefrequency stability will be ± 0.00 I %. It is same as ±
10 parts per million (l0 ppm).

Values for a 90 kHz crystal are L = 137 H, C = 0.023pF; R = 15kO corresponding to
Q = 5,500. The dimension of a crystal will be 30 x 4 x 1.5 mm. C' is the electrostatic
capacitance between electrodes with the crystal as a dielectric. C' = 3.5 pF and is larger than
C. When the crystal slabs are cut in proper directions, with regard to the crystal axis, a
potential difference exists between the faces of the crystal slab when pressure is brought to
bear on them. And if the slab is placed in an electrostatic field, the slab undergoes
deformation. (Fig.11.5).
If the electric field is an alternating one, with a frequency which sets the slab into
mechanical resonance, the slab will physically vibrate vigorously. Such a crystal can be
employed to maintain an oscillation of great frequency stability. When the L.C. circuit in the
plate circuit is tuned close to the crystal resonant frequency, steady oscillations will be
established. These are maintained by C whose oscillations value is small. By placing crystal
between the gate andsource, of the FET amplifier, and .feeding back a small A.C. voltage
from the output, to keep crystal vibrating, the circuit becomes an oscillator with precise
stability. Accuracy =~0.01 % 'f range is 0.1 to 20 MHz’s.
By keeping crystal in an oven, accuracy can be improved by 0.001 %.
Fig 11.5 Crystal Oscillator

II
MICROWAVE
ENGINEERING

Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Microwave Frequencies
The descriptive term microwave is used to describe electromagnetic waves with

wavelengths ranging from 1 cm to 1 m. The corresponding frequency range is 300 MHz up to
30 GHz for 1-cm-wavelength waves. Electromagnetic waves with wavelengths ranging from
1 to 10 mm are called millimetre waves. The infrared radiation spectrum comprises
electromagnetic waves with wavelengths in the range 1 am (10 6 m) up to 1 mm. Beyond the
infrared range is the visible optical spectrum, the ultraviolet spectrum, and finally x-rays.
Several different classification schemes are in use to designate frequency bands in the
electromagnetic spectrum. These classification schemes are summarized in Tables 1.1 and
1.2. The radar band classification came into use during World War II and is still in common
use today even though the new military band classification is the recommended one. In the
UHF band up to around a frequency of 1 GHz, most communications circuits are constructed
using lumped-parameter circuit component. In the frequency range from 1 up to 100 GHz.
lumped circuit elements are usually replaced by transmission-line and waveguide
components. Thus by the term microwave engineering we shall mean generally the
engineering and design of information-handling systems in the frequency range from 1 to 100
GHz corresponding to wavelengths as long as 30 cm and as short as 3 mm. At shorter
wavelengths we have what can be called optical engineering since many of the techniques
used are derived from classical optical techniques. The characteristic feature of microwave
engineering is the short wavelengths involved, these being of the same order of magnitude as
the circuit elements and devices employed.
The Table 1.1 shows the various bands of Microwave frequencies, their designations
and general applications of each and every band in modern field of Science and Technology

Table 1.1 Different bands of Frequencies and their applications
The short wavelengths involved in turn mean that the propagation time for electrical
effects from one point in a circuit to another point is comparable with the period of the
oscillating currents and charges in the system. As a result, conventional low-frequency circuit
analysis based on Kirchhoffs laws and voltage-current concepts no longer suffices for an
adequate description of the electrical phenomena taking place. It is necessary instead to cany
out the analysis in terms of a description of the electric and magnetic fields associated with
the device. In essence, it might be said, microwave engineering is applied electromagnetic
fields engineering. For this reason the successful engineer in this area must have a good
working knowledge of electromagnetic field theory.
Table 1.2 represents modern labelling of frequency bands according to IEEE
standards.

Table 1.2 IEEE Frequency band Designation
There is no distinct frequency boundary at which lumped-parameter circuit elements

must be replaced by distributed circuit elements. With modern technological processes it is
possible to construct printed-circuit inductors that are so small that they retain their lumped-
parameter characteristics at frequencies as high as 10 GHz or even higher. Likewise, optical
components, such as parabolic reflectors and lenses, are used to focus microwaves with
wavelengths as long as 1 m or more. Consequently, the microwave engineer will frequently
employ low-frequency lumped-parameter circuit elements, such as miniaturized inductors
and capacitors, as well as optical devices in the design of a microwave system.
1.2 Microwave History of Development
The great interest in microwave frequencies arises for a variety of reasons. Basic
among these is the ever-increasing need for more radio-frequency-spectrum space and the
rather unique uses to which microwave frequencies can be applied. When it is noted that the
frequency range 109 to 1012 Hz contains a thousand sections like the frequency spectrum from

0 to 109 Hz, the value of developing the microwave band as a means of increasing the
available usable frequency spectrum may be readily appreciated.
In more recent years microwave frequencies have also come into widespread use in
communication links, generally referred to as microwave links. Since the propagation of
microwaves is effectively along line-of-sight paths, these links employ high towers with
reflector or lens-type antennas as repeater stations spaced along the communication path.
Such links are a familiar sight to the motorist traveling across the country because of their
frequent use by highway authorities, utility companies, and television networks. A further
interesting means of communication by microwaves is the use of satellites as microwave
relay stations. The first of these, the Telstar, launched in July 1962, provided the first
transmission of live television programs from the United States to Europe.
At the present time most communication systems are shifting to the use of digital
transmission, i.e., analogue signals are digitized before transmission. Microwave digital
communication system development is progressing rapidly. In the early systems simple
modulation schemes were used and resulted in inefficient use of the available frequency
spectrum. The development of 64-state quadrature amplitude modulation (64-QAM) has
made it possible to transmit 2,016 voice channels within a single 30-MHz RF channel. This is
competitive with FM analog modulation schemes for voice.
1.3 Microwave Applications
Even though such uses of microwaves are of great importance, the applications of
microwaves and microwave technology extend much further, into a variety of areas of basic
and applied research, and including a number of diverse practical devices, such as microwave
ovens that can cook a small roast in just a few minutes
Waveguides periodically loaded with shunt susceptance elements support slow waves
having velocities much less than the velocity of light, and are used in linear accelerators.
These produce high-energy beams of charged particles for use in atomic and nuclear
research. The slow-traveling electromagnetic waves interact very efficiently with charged-
particle beams having the same velocity, and thereby give up energy to the beam. Another

possibility is for the energy in an electron beam to be given up to the electromagnetic wave,
with resultant amplification
Sensitive microwave receivers are used in radio astronomy to detect and study the
electromagnetic radiation from the sun and a number of radio stars that emit radiation in this
band. Such receivers are also used to detect the noise radiated from plasmas (an
approximately neutral collection of electrons and ions, e.g., a gas discharge). The information
obtained enables scientists to analyze and predict the various mechanisms responsible for
plasma radiation. Microwave radiometers are also used to map atmospheric temperature
profiles, moisture conditions in soils and crops, and for other remote-sensing applications as
well.
The development of the laser, a generator of essentially monochromatic (single-

frequency) coherent-light waves, has stimulated a great interest in the possibilities of
developing communication systems at optical wavelengths. This frequency band is
sometimes referred to as the ultra-microwave band. With some modification, a good deal of
the present microwave technology can be exploited in the development of optical systems.
For this reason, familiarity with conventional microwave theory and devices provides a good
background for work in the new frontiers of the electromagnetic spectrum.
The domestic microwave oven operates at 2,450 MHz and uses a magnetron tube with
a power output of 500 to 1000 W. For industrial heating applications, such as drying grain,
manufacturing wood and paper products, and material curing, the frequencies of 915 and
2,450 MHz have been assigned. Microwave radiation has also found some application for
medical hyperthermia or localized heating of tumours
Chapter 2

WAVEGUIDES –I
2.1 Modes of Propagation
For a large variety of waveguides of practical interest it turns out that all the boundary
conditions can be satisfied by fields that do not have all components present. Specifically, for
transmission lines, the solution of interest is a transverse electromagnetic wave with
transverse components only, that is, Ez = Hz = 0, whereas for waveguides, solutions with Ez =
0 or Hz = 0 are possible. Because of the widespread occurrence of such field solutions, the
following classification of solutions is of particular interest.
1. Transverse electromagnetic (TEM) waves. For TEM waves, Ez = Hz = 0. The electric
field may be found from the transverse gradient of a scalar function *(x,y), which is a
function of the transverse coordinates only and is a solution of the two-dimensional
Laplace equation.
2. Transverse electric (TE), or H, modes. These solutions have Ez = 0, but Hz ¥= 0. All the
field components may be derived from the axial component Hz of magnetic field.
3. Transverse magnetic (TM), or E, modes. These solutions have Hz = "» but Ez ¥= 0. The
field components may be derived from Ez.
In some cases it will be found that a TE or TM mode by itself will not satisfy all the
boundary conditions. However, in such cases linear combinations of TE and TM modes may
be used, since such linear combinations always provide a complete and general solution.
Although other possible types of wave solutions may be constructed, the above three types
are the most useful in practice and by far the most commonly used ones.
The appropriate equations to be solved to obtain TEM, TE, or TM modes will be

derived below by placing E, and Hz, Ez, and Hz. respectively, equal to zero in Maxwell's
equations.
2.2 Rectangular vs Circular Waveguides
Hollow-pipe waveguides do not support a TEM wave. In hollow-pipe waveguides the waves
are of the TE and TM variety. The waveguide with a rectangular cross section is the most
widely used one. It is available in sizes for use at frequencies from 320 MHz up to 333 GHz.
The WR-2300 waveguide for use at 320 MHz has internal dimensions of 58.42 in by 29.1 in
and is a very large duct. By contrast, the WR-3 waveguide for use at 333 GHz has internal

dimensions of 0.034 in by 0.017 in and is a very miniature structure. The standard WR-90 X-
band waveguide has internal dimensions of 0.9 in by 0.4 in and is used in the frequency range
of 8.2 to 12.5 GHz. The rectangular waveguide is widely used to couple transmitters and
receivers the antenna. For high-power applications the waveguide is filled with j inert gas
such as nitrogen and pressurized in order to increase the voltage breakdown rating.
Circular waveguides are not as widely used as rectangular waveguidesbut are
available in diameters of 25.18 in down to 0.239 in to cover tn frequency range 800 MHz up
to 116 GHz.
2.3 Rectangular Waveguides
Fig 2.1 Rectangular Waveguide
Modes of Propagation
The rectangular waveguide with a cross section as illustrated in Fig. 2.1 is an example of
a wave guiding device that will not support a TEM wave. Consequently, it turns out that
unique voltage and current waves do not exist, and the analysis of the waveguide properties
has to be carried out as a field problem rather than as a distributed-parameter-circuit problem.
In a hollow cylindrical waveguide a transverse electric field can exist only if a time-
varying axial magnetic held is present. Similarly, a transverse magnetic field can exist only if
either an axial displacement current or an axial conduction current is present, as Maxwell's
equations show. Since a TEM wave does not have any axial field components and there is no
center conductor on which a conduction current can exist, a TEM wave cannot be propagated
in a cylindrical waveguide.
The types of waves that can be supported (propagated) in a hollow empty waveguide are
the TE and TM modes. The essential properties of all hollow cylindrical waveguides are the

same, so that an understanding of the rectangular guide provides insight into the behavior of
other types as well. As for the case of the transmission line, the effect of losses is initially
neglected. The attenuation is computed later by using the perturbation method given earlier,
together with the loss-free solution for the currents on the walls.
The essential properties of empty loss-free waveguides, which the detailed analysis to follow
will establish, are that there is a double infinity of possible solutions for both TE and TM
waves. These waves, or modes, may be labeled by two identifying integer subscripts n and
m, for example, TEmn.
The integers n and in pertain to the number of standing-wave interference maxima
occurring in the field solutions that describe the variation of the fields along the two
transverse coordinates. It will be found that each mode has associated with it a characteristic
cut-off frequency fcm below which the mode does not propagate and above which the mode
does propagate
TE10 mode is the most dominant mode in Rectangular waveguides
For a rectangular waveguide with a width aequal to twice the height ft, the maximum
bandwidth of operation over which only the dominant TE10 mode propagates is a 2:1 band.
For some system applications it is necessary to have a waveguide that operates with only a
single mode of propagation over much larger bandwidths. A transmission line supporting
only a TEM mode can fulfil this requirement but must then have cross-sectional dimensions
that are small relative to the shortest wavelength of interest. A coaxial transmission line will
support higher-order TE and TM modes in addition to the TEM mode. Thus, to avoid
excitation of a higher-order mode of propagation, the outer radius must be kept small relative
to the wavelength. The small cross section implies a relatively large attenuation; so some
other form of waveguide is needed.
Chapter 3
WAVEGUIDE COMPONENTS-1
3.1 ATTENUATORS

Attenuators may be of the fixed or the variable type, the first is used only if a fixed
amount of attenuation is to be provided. For bridge setups used to measure transmission
coefficients, the variable attenuator is used. There are many ways of constructing a variable
attenuator; only one type, the rotary attenuator, is considered
A simple form of consists of a thin tapered resistive card, of the type used for mat t
whose depth of penetration into the waveguide is adjustable
Perhaps the most satisfactory precision attenuator developed is the rotary attenuator,
which we now examine in some detail. The h components of this instrument consist of two
rectangular-to-circular waveguide tapered transitions, together with an intermediate section of
circular waveguide that is free to rotate,. A thin tapered resistive card is placed at the output
end of each transition section and oriented parallel to the broad walls of the rectangular
guide. A similar resistive card is located in the intermediate circular-guide section. The
incoming TE10 mode in rectangular guide is transformed into the TE1n mode in the circular
guide with negligible reflection by means of the tapered transition. The polarization of the
TE1n mode is such that the electric field is perpendicular to the thin resistive card in the
transition section. As such, this resistive card has a negligible effect on the TEn mode. Since
the resistive card in the centre section can be rotated, its orientation relative to the electric
field of the incoming TE1n mode can be varied so that the amount by which this mode is
attenuated: adjustable.
3.2 Electronically Controlled Attenuators
For applications in various microwave systems, it is desirable to have an attenuator

whose attenuation can be controlled by the application of a suitable signal, such as a dc
voltage or a bias current. Two devices that are suitable for use in an electronically controlled
attenuator are the PIN diode and a field-effect transistor. These devices can be used as
variable resistors whose resistance is controlled by the applied signal.
3.3 PHASE SHIFTERS

A phase shifter is an instrument that produces an adjustable change in the phase angle of the
wave transmitted through it. Ideally, it should perfectly matched to the input and output lines
and should produce zero attenuation. These requirements can be met to within a reasonable
deg of approximation. There are a variety of designs for phase shifters mechanically
adjustable type. The rotary phase shifter is the best in class
Phase shifters are used to change the transmission phase angle (phase of S21) of a network.
Ideal phase shifters provide low insertion loss, and equal amplitude (or loss) in all phase
states. While the loss of a phase shifter is often overcome using an amplifier stage, the less
loss, the less power that is needed to overcome it. Most phase shifters are reciprocal
networks, meaning that they work effectively on signals passing in either direction. Phase
shifters can be controlled electrically, magnetically or mechanically. Most of the phase
shifters described on this web site are passive reciprocal networks; we will concentrate
mainly on those that are electrically-controlled.
While the applications of microwave phase shifters are numerous, perhaps the most important
application is within a phased array antenna system (a.k.a. electrically steerable array, or
ESA), in which the phase of a large number of radiating elements are controlled to force the
electro-magnetic wave to add up at a particular angle to the array. The total phase variation of
a phase shifter need only be 360 degrees to control an ESA of moderate bandwidth. Networks
that stretch phase more than 360 degrees are often called line stretchers, and are constructed
similar to the switched line phase shifters to be described below.
Analogue versus digital phase shifters
Phase shifters can be analogue or digital. Analogue phase shifters provide a

continuously variable phase, perhaps controlled by a voltage. Electrically controlled analogue
phase shifters can be realized withVaractor diodesthat change capacitance with voltage, or
non-linear dielectrics such as barium strontium titanate, or Ferro-electric materials such as
yttrium iron garnet. A mechanically-controlled analogue phase shifter is really just a
mechanically lengthened transmission line, often called a trombone line. Analogue phase
shifters are a mere side-show and will not be covered here in depth at this time. If you are
interested in more information on any of these analogue phase shifter topics, let us know and
we will try to accommodate you.

Most phase shifters are of the digital variety, as they are more immune to noise on their
voltage control lines. Digital phase shifters provide a discrete set of phase states that are
controlled by two-state "phase bits." The highest order bit is 180 degrees, the next highest is
90 degrees, then 45 degrees, etc, as 360 degrees is divided into smaller and smaller binary
steps. A three bit phase shifter would have a 45 degree least significant bit (LSB), while a six
bit phase shifter would have a 5.6 degree least significant bit. Technically the latter case
would have a 5.625 degree LSB, but in the microwave world it is best to ignore precision that
you cannot obtain. If you can't comprehend this point, you might want to consider a different
career such as accounting.
The convention followed for phase shifters is that the shortest phase length is the reference or
"off" state, and the longest path or phase length is the "on" state. Thus a 90 degree phase
shifter actually provides minus ninety degrees of phase shift in its "on" state.
Applications of phase shifters

Frequency translators
Phased arrays
Residual phase noise measurement
3.4DIRECTIONAL COUPLERS
A directional coupler is a four-port microwave junction with the properties discussed below.
With reference to Fig. 3.1, which is a schematic illustration of a directional coupler, the ideal
directional coupler has the property that a wave incident in port 1 couples power into ports 2
and 3 but not into port 4. Similarly, power incident in port 4 couples into ports 2 and 3 but
not into port 1. Thus ports 1 and 4 are uncoupled. For waves incident in port 2 or 3, the
power is coupled into ports 1 and 4 only, 80 that ports 2 and 3 are also uncoupled. In
addition, all four ports are matched. That is. if three ports are terminated in matched loads,
the fourth port appears terminated in a matched load, and an incident wave in this port suffers
no reflection.
Directional couplers are widely used in impedance bridges for microwave
measurements and for power monitoring. For example, if" a radar transmitter is connected to
port 1, the antenna to port 2. a microwave crystal detector to port 3. and a matched load to
port 4. the power received in port 3 is proportional to the power flowing from the transmitter

to the antenna in the forward direction only. Since the reflected wave from the antenna, if it
exists, is not coupled into port 3, the detector monitors the power output of the transmitter.
If the coupler is designed for 3-dB coupling, then it splits the input power in port 2 into equal
powers in ports 2 and 3. Thus a 3-dB directional coupler serves as a power divider.
Directional couplers with 3-dB coupling are also called hybrid junctions and are widely used
in microwave mixers and as input, and output couplers in balanced microwave amplifier
circuits. There are many available designs and configurations for directional couplers, hybrid
junctions, and power dividers. The directional coupler showing input and output ports is as
shown in the figure 3.1.
Fig 3.1 Directional Coupler showing input and output ports
Chapter 4

WAVEGUIDE COMPONENTS _II
4.1 HYBRID JUNCTIONS - Magic Tee
A waveguide hybrid junction, known as a magic T, is illustrated in Fig. 4.1. When a

TE10 mode is incident in port 1, the electric field within the junction is like that sketched in
Fig. 6.326. This electric field has even symmetry about the midplane and hence cannot excite
the TE1U mode in arm 4 since this mode must have an electric field with odd symmetry
(shown dashed in Fig. 6.326). Thus there is no coupling between ports 1 and 4. The coupling
between ports 1 and 2, and 1 and 3, is clearly the same, as may be seen from the symmetry
involved.
For a TE10 mode incident in arm 4.the electric field within the junction is sketched in
Fig. 4.1. Symmetry again shows that there is no coupling into port 1 (this is required by
reciprocity as well). The coupling from port 4 into ports 2 and 3 is equal in magnitude but
180" out of phase. since S,3 = S13, So,, = -S34, from symmetry.
Matching elements that do not destroy the symmetry of the junction may be placed in
the E-plane and //-plane arms so as to make S,, = S44 = 0. For a lossless structure we may then
show that the unitary properties of the scattering matrix require that S.J2 = S,;i= 0, so that all
ports are matched. In addition, S23 = 0; so ports 2 and 3 as well as ports 1 and 4 are
uncoupled. The hybrid T now becomes a directional coupler with 3-dB coupling, and is often
called a magic T, even though there is nothing magic about its operation. The magic T is
commonly used in waveguide balanced mixers and in bridge networks. The figure 4.1 shows
the physical arms of a Magic Tee.
Fig 4.1 Magic Tee
The Scattering matrix for a magic T is

|0 1 1 0|
|1 0 0 1|
S= |1 0 0 -1|
|0 1 -1 0|
4.2 Hybrid ring or Rat Race

Applications of rat-race couplers are numerous, and include mixers and phase shifters.
The rat-race gets its name from its circular shape, shown below. The circumference is 1.5
wavelengths. For an equal-split rat-race coupler, the impedance of the entire ring is fixed at
1.41xZ0, or 70.7 ohms for a 50 ohm system. For an input signal Vin, the outputs at ports 2 and
4 are equal in magnitude, but 180 degrees out of phase.The coupling of the two arms is
shown in the figure below, for an ideal rat-race coupler centred at 10 GHz (10,000 MHz). An
equal power split of 3 dB occurs at only the centre frequency. The 1-dB bandwidth of the
coupled port (S41) is shown by the markers to be 3760 MHz, or 37.6 per cent. The equal split
rat race coupler or hybrid ring is shown in the fig 4.2 below.
Fig 4.2 Equal split Rat race coupler

Chapter 5
MICROWAVE PROPAGATION IN FERRITES
5.1 MICROWAVE DEVICES EMPLOYING FARADAY ROTATION
The development of ferrite materials suitable for use at microwave frequencies has
resulted in a large number of microwave devices. A number of them have nonreciprocal
electrical properties; i.e., the transmission coefficient through the device is not the same for
different directions of propagation
5.2 Gyrator
A gyrator is defined as a two-port device that has a relative difference in phase

shift of 180° for transmission from port 1 to port 2 as compared the phase shift for
transmission from port 2 to Port1.

The phase shift may be obtained by employing the nonreciprocal property of
Faraday rotation. It consists of a rectangular guide with a 90° twist connected to a circular
guide, which in turn connected to another rectangular guide at the other end. The two
rectangular guides have the same orientation at the input ports. The circular guide
contains a thin cylindrical rod of ferrite with the ends tapered to reduce reflections. A
static axial magnetic field is applied so as to produce 90' Faraday rotation of the TE,,
dominant mode in the circular guide. Consider a wave propagating from left to right. In
passing through the twist the plane of polarization is rotated by 90° in a counter-
clockwise direction. If the ferrite produces an additional 90° of rotation, the total angle of
rotation will be 180°, as indicated in Fig. 6.45. For a wave propagating from right to
left.the Faraday rotation is still 90° in the same sense. However, in passing through the
twist, the next 90° of rotation is in a direction to cancel Faraday rotation. Thus, for
transmission from port 2 to port 1, therenet rotation of the plane of polarization. The 180°
rotation for transmission from port 1 to port 2 is equivalent to an additional 180° of phase
shift since it reverses the polarization of the field. It is apparent, then, that the device just
described satisfies the definition of a gyrator.
If the inconvenience of having the input and output rectangular guides oriented at 90°
can be tolerated, a gyrator without a 90" twist section can be built. With reference to Fig.
6.46, it is seen that if the ferrite produces 90° of rotation and the output guide is rotated by
90" relative to the input guide, the emerging wave will have the right polarization to
propagate in the output guide. When propagation is from port 2 to port 1, the wave arriving in
guide 1 will have its polarization changed by 180°, as shown in Fig. 6.46. Hence a
differential phase shift of 180° is again produced.
The solution for wave propagation in a circular guide with a longitudinal magnetized cylinder
placed in the centre can be carried out exactly.t However, the solution requires a great deal of
algebraic manipulation, and it is very laborious to compute numerical values from the
resultant transcendental equations for the propagation constants. The solution does verify that
Faraday rotation takes place as would be expected, by analogy with propagation in an infinite
ferrite medium.
5.3ISOLATOR
The isolator is similar to the gyrator in construction except that it employs a 45° twist
section and 45° of Faraday rotation. In addition, thin resistive cards are inserted in the input

and output guides to absorb the field that is polarized, with the electric vector parallel to the
wide side of the guide, as shown in Fig. 6.47. The operation is as follows: A wave
propagating from port 1 to port 2 has its polarization rotated 45° counter clockwise by the
twist section and 45° clockwise by the Faraday rotator. It will emerge at port 2 with the
correct polarization to propagate in the output guide. A wave propagating from port 2 to port
1 will have its plane of polarization rotated by 90c and will enter the guide at port 1 with the
electric field parallel to the resistance card, and hence be absorbed. Without the resistance
card, the wave would be reflected from port 1 because of the incorrect
polarization, which cannot propagate in the guide constituting port 1. However, multiple
reflections within the isolator will lead to transmission in both directions, and this makes it
necessary to use resistance cards in both the input and output guides for satisfactory
performance. Typical performance figures for an isolator are forward transmission loss of
less than l dB, reverse attenuation of 20 to 30 dB, and bandwidth of operation approaching 10
percent-
5.4OTHER FERRITE DEVICES
The devices utilizing ferrites for their operation represent only a small number of the
large variety of devices that have been developed. In addition to the above, there are other
forms of isolators, both reciprocal and nonreciprocal phase shifters, electronically controlled
(by varying the current in the electromagnet that supplies the static biasing field) phase
shifters and modulators, electronic switches and power limiters, etc. The nonlinear property
of ferrites for high signal levels has also been used in harmonic generators, frequency mixers,
and parametric amplifiers. A discussion of these devices, together with design considerations,
performance data, and references to the original literature, contained in the book by Lax and
Button, listed in the references at the end of this chapter. The recent article by Rodriquez
gives a good survey of the present status of ferrite devices.

Chapter 6
MICROWAVE TUBES
Microwave tubes are the prime signal sources in high-power radar systems. The
magnetron is the tube most frequently used and can provide many kilowatts of continuous-
wave (CW) output power and a megawatt or more of peak power with pulsed operation.
Magnetrons are also used for industrial heating applications and in microwave ovens for
consumer use. The traveling-wave-tube amplifier with power outputs up to 10 W or more is
the workhorse in satellite communications. The klystron tube can function as an oscillator or
as an amplifier. It can be designed for either low or high output power applications. In low-
power applications the klystron was once widely used as the local oscillator in microwave
receivers but has now been replaced by solid-state oscillators. Solid-state oscillators are
replacing microwave tubes in many low-power transmitter applications also. Even though
many of the applications for microwave tubes have been taken over solid-state devices, the
requirements for high power can only be me microwave tubes, so they are an essential device
for many systems.
Conventional low-frequency tubes, such as triodes, fail to operate at microwave

frequencies because the electron transit time from the cat the grid becomes an appreciable
fraction of the period of the sinusoidal signal to be amplified. In other words, propagation

time becomes short,and the same limitations that are inherent in low-frequencies are present
in low-frequency tubes also. Microwave tubes must be to utilize the wave-propagation
phenomena to best advantage.
Broadly speaking, there are two basic types of microwave tubes, one that employ
electromagnetic cavities (klystrons and some magnetron) and the other those that employ
slow-wave circuits (travelling-wave tubes)
Both types of tubes utilize an electron beam on which space-charge waves and cyclotron
waves can be excited. The space-charge waves are primarily longitudinal oscillations of the
electrons and interact with the electromagnetic fields in cavities and slow-wave circuits to
give amplification.
6.1 Klystron Amplifier
A klystron is a specialized linear-beam vacuum tube (evacuated electron tube).

Klystrons are used as amplifiers at microwave and radio frequencies to produce both low-
power reference signals for super heterodyne radar receivers and to produce high-power
carrier waves for communications and the driving force for modern particle accelerators.
Klystron amplifiers have the advantage (over the magnetron) of coherently amplifying
a reference signal so its output may be precisely controlled in
amplitude, frequency and phase. Many klystrons have a waveguide for coupling microwave
energy into and out of the device, although it is also quite common for lower power and
lower frequency klystrons to use coaxial couplings instead. In some cases a coupling probe is
used to couple the microwave energy from a klystron into a separate external waveguide.
The name klystron comes from the stem form κλυσ- (klys) of a Greek verb referring to
the action of waves breaking against a shore, and the end of the word electron
Working
Klystrons amplify RF signals by converting the kinetic energy in a DC electron beam
into radio frequency power. A beam of electrons is produced by a thermionic cathode (a
heated pellet of low work function material), and accelerated by high-voltage electrodes
(typically in the tens of kilovolts). This beam is then passed through an input cavity. RF

energy is fed into the input cavity at, or near, itsnatural frequency to produce a voltage which
acts on the electron beam. The electric field causes the electrons to bunch: electrons that pass
through during an opposing electric field are accelerated and later electrons are slowed,
causing the previously continuous electron beam to form bunches at the input frequency. To
reinforce the bunching, a klystron may contain additional "buncher" cavities. The RF current
carried by the beam will produce an RF magnetic field, and this will in turn excite a voltage
across the gap of subsequent resonant cavities. In the output cavity, the developed RF energy
is coupled out. The spent electron beam, with reduced energy, is captured in a collector.
6.2 Two Cavity Klystron
Fig 6.1 Two Cavity Klystron

The above figure 6.1 shows the two cavity klystron. In the two-chamber klystron,
the electron beam is injected into a resonant cavity. The electron beam, accelerated by a
positive potential, is constrained to travel through a cylindrical drift tube in a straight path by
an axial magnetic field. While passing through the first cavity, the electron beam is velocity
modulated by the weak RF signal. In the moving frame of the electron beam, the velocity
modulation is equivalent to a plasma oscillation.Plasma oscillations are rapid oscillations of
the electron density in conducting media such as plasmas ormetals.(The frequency only
depends weakly on the wavelength). So in a quarter of one period of the plasma frequency,
the velocity modulation is converted to density modulation, i.e. bunches of electrons. As the

bunched electrons enter the second chamber they induce standing waves at the same
frequency as the input signal. The signal induced in the second chamber is much stronger
than that in the first. The figure below is that of a two cavity klystron amplifier.
6.3 Reflex klystron
Fig 6.2 Reflex Klystron
The figure 6.2 shows reflex Klystron. In the reflex klystron (also known as a 'Sutton' klystron
after its inventor), the electron beam passes through a single resonant cavity. The electrons
are fired into one end of the tube by an electron gun. After passing through the resonant
cavity they are reflected by a negatively charged reflector electrode for another pass through
the cavity, where they are then collected. The electron beam is velocity modulated when it
first passes through the cavity. The formation of electron bunches takes place in the drift
space between the reflector and the cavity. The voltage on the reflector must be adjusted so
that the bunching is at a maximum as the electron beam re-enters the resonant cavity, thus
ensuring a maximum of energy is transferred from the electron beam to the RF oscillations in
the cavity. The voltage should always be switched on before providing the input to the reflex
klystron as the whole function of the reflex klystron would be destroyed if the supply is
provided after the input. The reflector voltage may be varied slightly from the optimum
value, which results in some loss of output power, but also in a variation in frequency. This
effect is used to good advantage for automatic frequency control in receivers, and
in frequency modulation for transmitters. The level of modulation applied for transmission is
small enough that the power output essentially remains constant. At regions far from the
optimum voltage, no oscillations are obtained at all. This tube is called a reflex klystron
because it repels the input supply or performs the opposite function of a klystron.

There are often several regions of reflector voltage where the reflex klystron will oscillate;
these are referred to as modes. The electronic tuning range of the reflex klystron is usually
referred to as the variation in frequency between half power points—the points in the
oscillating mode where the power output is half the maximum output in the mode. The
frequency of oscillation is dependent on the reflector voltage, and varying this provides a
crude method of frequency modulating the oscillation frequency, albeit with accompanying
amplitude modulation as well.
Modern semiconductor technology has effectively replaced the reflex klystron in most
applications.
6.4 Cavity Magnetron
Fig 6.3 Magnetron

Thecavity magnetronis a high-poweredvacuum tubethat generatesmicrowavesusing
the interaction of a stream of electrons with a magnetic field. The 'resonant' cavity magnetron
variant of the earlier magnetron tube was invented by Randall and Boot in 1940. The high

power of pulses from the cavity magnetron made centimetre-band radar practical. Shorter
wavelength radars allowed detection of smaller objects. The compact cavity magnetron tube
drastically reduced the size of radar sets so that they could be installed in anti-submarine
aircraft and escort ships. At present, cavity magnetrons are commonly used in microwave
ovens and in various radar applications.
The basic structure of a magnetron is a number of identical resonant cavities arranged
in a cylindrical pattern around a cylindrical cathode, as shown inFig.6.3. A permanent magnet
is used to produce a strong magnetic fieldT normal to the cross section. The anode is kept at a
high positive voltage v relative to the cathode. Electrons emitted from the cathode are
accelerator toward the anode block, but the presence of the magnetic field B Q produce a force
~evrB„ in the azimuthal direction which causes the electron trajectory to be deflected in the
same direction. If the cathode radius is a and the anode radius is 6, the potential at any radius
r is V(r) = V0Un(r/a)]/lln(b/a)].
6.5 OTHER TYPES OF MICROWAVE TUBES
In addition to the main types of microwave tubes already discussed thereare a variety of
others as well. In one form of travelling-wave tube the resistance-wall amplifier, the helix is
replaced by a circular guide lined with a resistive material. The resistive lining enables a slow
wave to propagate in the guide, a wave that is highly attenuated in the absence of a beam If
an electron beam is present, amplification takes place with a growth constant aB large enough
to offset the attenuation due to the resistive lining. Thus a net overall amplification is
obtained,
In another form of travelling-wave tube, the double-stream amplifier.two parallel
electron beams are used. In this tube one of the beams provides the slow-wave structure, or
circuit, for the other beam.
It is also possible to amplify the space-charge waves directly by passing the beam
through a succession of accelerating and decelerating regions. This type of tube is called a
velocity-jump amplifier because the beam velocity v{l is periodically changed, or jumped, to
new values.
For both the O-type and M-type travelling-wave tubes, it is possible to adjust the beam
velocity so that it is equal to the phase velocity of any one of the spatial harmonics making up

the Bloch wave that can propagate along the periodic structure used for the slow-wave
circuit. In particular, interaction between the beam and one of the backward-propagating
spatial harmonics is possible
Chapter 7
THE GUNN EFFECT AND ITS APPLICATIONS
7.1 The Gunn Effect
In some materials (III-V compounds such as GaAs and InP), after an electric field in
the material reaches a threshold level, the mobility of electrons decrease as the electric field
is increased, thereby producing negative resistance. A two-terminal device made from such a
material can producemicrowave oscillations, the frequency of which is primarily determined
by the characteristics of the specimen of the material and not by any external circuit. The
Gunn Effect was discovered by J. B. Gunn of IBM in 1963.
7.2 The Gunn Diode
In certain semiconductors, notably GaAs, electrons can exist in a high-mass low

velocity state as well as their normal low-mass high-velocity state and they can be forced into
the high-mass state by asteady electric field of sufficient strength. In this state they form
clusters or domains which cross thefield at a constant rate causing current to flow as a series

of pulses. This is the Gunn effect and one form of diode which makes use of it consists of an
epitaxial layer of n-type GaAs grown on a GaAs substrate. A potential of a few volts applied
between Ohmic contacts to the n-layer and substrate produces the electric field which causes
clusters. The frequency of the current pulses so generated depends on the transit time through
the n-layer and hence on its thickness. If the diode is mounted in a suitably tuned cavity
resonator, the current pulses cause oscillation by shock excitation and R.Fpower up to 1 W at
frequencies between 10 and 30 GHz is obtainable.
7.3 Gunn Diode Theory
The Gunn diode is a so-called transferred electron device. Electrons are transferred
from one valley in the conduction band to another valley. In order to understand the nature of
the transferred electron effect exhibited by Gunn diodes, it is necessary to consider the
electron drift velocity versus electric field (or current versus voltage) relationship for GaAs
(see Figure7.1). Below the threshold field, Eth, of approximately 0.32 V/mm, the device acts
as a passive resistance. However, above Eth the electron velocity (current) decreases as the
field (voltage) increases producing a region of negative differential mobility, NDM
(resistance, NDR). This is the essential feature that leads to current instabilities and Gunn
oscillations in an active device and is due to the special conductance band structure of direct
band gap semiconductors such as GaAs
Fig 7.1 Gunn Effect

The above figure 7.1 shows the Gunn Effect by plotting drift velocity of electrons
against the electric field. The energy-momentum relationship contains two conduction band
energy levels, G and L (also known as valleys) with the following properties:
l In the lower G valley, electrons exhibit a small effective mass and very high
mobility, µ. In the satellite L valley, electrons exhibit a large effective mass and very low
mobility, µ
2. The two valleys are separated by a small energy gap, D E, of approximately

0.31eV. In equilibrium at room temperature most electrons reside near the bottom of the
lower G valley. Because of their high mobility (~ 8000 cm 2V -1s-1), they can readily be
accelerated in a strong electric field to energies in the order of the G -L intervalley separation,
D E. Electrons are then able to scatter into the satellite L valley, resulting in a decrease in the
average electron mobility, µ, as given below:
µ = (n 1 µ 1 + n 2 µ 2) / (n 1 + n 2 (where n 1 = electron density in G valley, n 2 = electron

density in L valley
Above the high field, E H, most electrons reside in the L valley and the device
behaves as a passive resistance (of greater magnitude) once again. In a practical Gunn diode,
electrons are accelerated from the cathode by the prevailing electric field. When they have
acquired sufficient energy, they begin to scatter into the low mobility satellite valley and
slow down.
The question of exactly how the NDR phenomenon in GaAs results in Gunn-
oscillations can now be answered with the aid of Figure 4. A sample of uniformly doped n-
type GaAs of length L is biased with a constant voltage source V=0
The electrical field is therefore constant and its magnitude given by E. 0 =V 0 /L.
From the bottom graph in Figure 4 it is clear that the electrons flow from cathode to anode
with constant velocity v3
7.4 Applications
Gunn diodes are reliable, relatively easy to install and the lower output power levels fall well
below the safety exposure limits. They are ideally suited for use in low noise sources such as

local oscillators, locking oscillators, low and medium power transmitter applications and
motion detection systems. Higher power varieties can be used in phase-locked oscillators or
as reflection amplifiers in point-to-point communication links and telemetry systems.
Microwave sources have the advantages over ultrasonic detectors of size and beam width,
and over optical systems of working in dusty and adverse environments. The low voltage
requirements of Gunn oscillators mean that battery or regulated mains supplies may be used,
(battery drain can be reduced by using low current devices or by operation in a pulsed mode).
However, microwaves are reflected from metal surfaces and partially reflected from many
others e.g. brick, Tarmac and concrete and they are attenuated by oxygen, water or water
vapour. The range of application of Gunn sensors for industrial and commercial use is
extensive and the following is only a brief list:
Collision avoidance radar
Vehicle ABS
Traffic analyser sensors
`Blind spot' car radar
Pedestrian safety systems
Elapsed distance meters
Automatic identification
Presence/absence indicators
Movement sensors
Distance measurements

Chapter 8
AVALANCHE TRANSIT TIME DEVICE
Some Basic types of Avalanche Transit Time Devices are
1. IMPATT Diode
2. TRAPPATT Diode
3. BARITT Diode
8.1 IMPATT Diode
An IMPATT diode (IMPact ionization Avalanche Transit-Time) is a form of high

power diode used in high-frequency electronics and microwave devices. They are typically
made with carbide owing to their high breakdown fields.
They operate at frequencies between about 3 and 100 GHz or more. A main advantage is
their high power capability. These diodes are used in a variety of applications from low
power radar systems to alarms. A major drawback of using IMPATT diodes is the high level
of phase noise they generate. This results from the statistical nature of the avalanche process.
Nevertheless these diodes make excellent microwave generators for many applications.
8.2 Device Structure

Fig 8.1 Structure of an IMPATT Diode
The IMPATT diode family includes many different junctions and

metal semiconductor devices. The first IMPATT oscillation was obtained from a simple
silicon p-n junction diode biased into a reverse avalanche break down and mounted in a
microwave cavity. Because of the strong dependence of the ionization coefficient on the
electric field, most of the electron–hole pairs are generated in the high field region. The
generated electron immediately moves into the N region, while the generated holes drift
across the P region. The time required for the hole to reach the contact constitutes the transit
time delay.
The original proposal for a microwave device of the IMPATT type was made by Read and
involved a structure. The Read diode consists of two regions (i) The Avalanche region (a
region with relatively high doping and high field) in which avalanche multiplication occurs
and (ii) the drift region (a region with essentially intrinsic doping and constant field) in which
the generated holes drift towards the contact. A similar device can be built with the
configuration in which electrons generated from the avalanche multiplication drift through
the intrinsic region.
An IMPATT diode generally is mounted in a microwave package. The diode is mounted with
its high–field region close to a copper heat sink so that the heat generated at the diode
junction can be readily dissipated. Similar microwave packages are used to house other
microwave devices.
8.3 Principle of operation
Impact ionization
If a free electron with sufficient energy strikes a silicon atom, it can break the covalent
bond of silicon and liberate an electron from the covalent bond. If the electron liberated gains
energy by being in an electric field and liberates other electrons from other covalent bonds
then this process can cascade very quickly into a chain reaction producing a large number of
electrons and a large current flow. This phenomenon is called impact avalanche.

At breakdown, the n – region is punched through and forms the avalanche region of the
diode. The high resistivity region is the drift zone through which the avalanche generated
electrons move toward the anode.
Consider a dc bias VB, just short of that required to cause breakdown, applied to the diode.
Let an AC voltage of sufficiently large magnitude be superimposed on the dc bias, such that
during the positive cycle of the AC voltage, the diode is driven deep into the avalanche
breakdown. At t=0, the AC voltage is zero, and only a small pre-breakdown current flows
through the diode. As t increases, the voltage goes above the breakdown voltage and
secondary electron-hole pairs are produced by impact ionization. As long as the field in the
avalanche region is maintain above the breakdown field, the electron-hole concentration
grows exponentially with t. Similarly this concentration decays exponentially with time when
the field is reduced below breakdown voltage during the negative swing of the AC voltage.
The holes generated in the avalanche region disappear in the p+ region and are collected by
the cathode. The electrons are injected into the i – zone where they drift toward the n+ region.
Then, the field in the avalanche region reaches its maximum value and the population of the
electron-hole pairs starts building up. At this time, the ionization coefficients have their
maximum values. The generated electron concentration does not follow the electric field
instantaneously because it also depends on the number of electron-hole pairs already present
in the avalanche region. Hence, the electron concentration at this point will have a small
value. Even after the field has passed its maximum value, the electron-hole concentration
continues to grow because the secondary carrier generation rate still remains above its
average value. For this reason, the electron concentration in the avalanche region attains its
maximum value at, when the field has dropped to its average value. Thus, it is clear that the
avalanche region introduces a 90o phase shift between the AC signal and the electron
concentration in this region.
With a further increase in t, the AC voltage becomes negative, and the field in the avalanche
region drops below its critical value. The electrons in the avalanche region are then injected
into the drift zone which induces a current in the external circuit which has a phase opposite
to that of the AC voltage. The AC field, therefore, absorbs energy from the drifting electrons
as they are decelerated by the decreasing field. It is clear that an ideal phase shift between the
diode current and the AC signal is achieved if the thickness of the drift zone is such that the
bunch of electron is collected at the n+ - anode at the moment the AC voltage goes to zero.
This condition is achieved by making the length of the drift region equal to the wavelength of

the signal. This situation produces an additional phase shift of 90o between the AC voltage
and the diode current.
8.4 Applications of Microwave Devices
1. MICROWAVE GENERATOR
2. MODULATED OUTPUT OSCILLATOR
3. RECEIVER LOCAL OSCILLATOR
4. PARAMETRIC AMPLIFIER (par amps)
5. INTRUSION ALARM NETWORK
6. FM TELECOMMMUNICATION TRANSMITTERS
7. CW DOPPLER RADAR TRANSMITTER.
8.5 TRAPATT Diodes
TRApped-Plasma Avalanche Trigged Transit Diode
It is derived from IMPATT Diode.Silicon or Gallium Arsenide is used for fabricating

TRAPATT Diode. TRAPATT Diode can be constructed either by p+ -n-n+ or n+-p-p+.
Figure 8.2 shows the structure of a TRAPPATT diode
Fig 8.2 TRAPATT Diode
The graph in figure 8.3 below shows the working of TRAPPATT diode

Fig 8.3 Voltage and Current characteristics of a TRAPPATT Diode
In the above figure
AB – Charging of junction capacitance
BC – Electron and hole plasma formation by depressed field
DE – Plasma extraction
EF – Residual extraction
FG – Charging of diode
GA – Constant voltage after full charging
8.6 SALIENT FEATURES OF TRPATT DIODE
1. It is a high efficiency diode oscillations

2. Its oscillations depend on delay in current caused by avalanche process.
3. The diode diameter is about 50 mm for CW operations and is about 750 mm at lower
frequency for high peak power application.
4. It can be operated over a range of 400MHz to 12GHz.

5. Its has an efficiency of 20% - 40%.
APPLICATIONS
1.They are used in microwave beacon.
2.They are used in low power Doppler radar as local oscillator
3.They are used in landing system.
Chapter 9
TRANSMISSION LINES AND CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE
Transmission line is any conducting structure that supports an electromagnetic wave

"in captivity". Most transmission lines use two conductors, where one is considered ground.
This includes coax (the outer conductor is ground), micro strip and strip line. The
transmission line that does not use a pair of conductors is waveguide. By the way, we are
talking about lossless transmission lines here, or at least near-lossless.
When microwave engineers talk about a "fifty-ohm system", what does that mean? A
common misconception is that if you placed an ohmmeter across the ground and conductor of
a fifty-ohm coax cable, you would always read 50 ohms. This is not the case, here's what
we're talking about: transmission lines have two important properties that depend on their
geometry, their inductance per unit length, and their capacitance per unit length. The
"characteristic impedance" of a system is calculated from the ratio of these two:
Z=sqrt(L'/C')

Where L' is the inductance per unit length and C' is the capacitance per unit length. Note that
higher inductance translates to higher impedance, and higher capacitance translates to lower
impedance. Notice also that the units of length don't matter, since they are "lost in the sauce".
The units of inductance and capacitance must be self-consistent, such as Pico-henries/foot
and Pico-farads/foot.
Let's start with coax cable. The inductance per unit length is mainly attributed to the
diameter of the centre conductor. Decrease this diameter (keeping everything else the same)
and you will increase the inductance. This also raises the characteristic impedance, referring
to the equation above. Filling the cable with a material of higher relative dielectric raises the
unit capacitance, and lowers the line impedance.
Another example: micro strip. Here unit capacitance and inductance are inexorably linked
together; widening the micro strip line decreases its inductance while it increases it
capacitance. Hence, wide lines are always lower in impedance than narrow lines for a given
substrate height. As with coax, the dielectric constant of the substrate has a big effect on
capacitance; using a higher dielectric substrate will yield a lower impedance line, all other
things being equal. So it is important not to mix up your Rogers Droid materials, once your
circuit is etched it is pretty hard to judge the dielectric constant from color and texture alone!
9.1Impedance matching
Impedance matching of source and load is important to get maximum power transfer. If you
have a 75 ohm load, you don't want to drive it with a 50 ohm source, because it is inefficient.
You can learn more about the simple math behind maximum power transfer by clicking here.
Simple impedance transformation can be done using quarter wave transformers. Click here to
go to our main page on quarter-wave tricks!
9.2 Dielectric constant and effective dielectric constant
"Dielectric constant" is another way to say "relative permittivity". Check out our separate
page on permittivity for more info on this subject. Although some people use the phrase
"relative dielectric constant", this is incorrect, akin to saying "deja vu again".

Remember back to your physics class, when you learned that dielectric constant is used to
calculate the value of a capacitor?The higher the dielectric constant, the higher the capacitor
value. For an ideal parallel plate capacitor, the capacitance is calculated by:
C=( 0x R xA)/D
where 0 is the permittivity of free space (thanks, Maarten!), R is the relative permittivity
(the dielectric constant) of the material between the plates, A is the area of the parallel plates,
and D is the distance they are separated. Technically for this expression to be 100% accurate,
the material surrounding the plates must be of the same relative dielectric constant R, but
this induces only a small error in the calculation under most circumstances. 0 is equal to
8.854x10-12 Farads per meter (you should commit this to memory). Most often it is the
dielectric constant R that is most important in microwaves.
For electromagnetic radiation, the permittivity of the medium that the wave is propagating in
is equal to R 0. In a vacuum or in dry air, R is equal to unity, and the signal travels at the
speed of light. All electromagnetic energy, from 60 Hertz power that your electric company
sells you, to signals that the latest Mars satellite returns to earth, travels really, really fast. In a
vacuum, the speed of light, denoted "c" in textbooks, is 2.998 x 1010centimetres/second
(thanks, Jared!) , or 2.998 x 108 meters per second, or about 186,000 miles per second, which
puts the moon about 1.5 seconds away by radio.
The dielectric constant of a material can be used to quantify how much a material "slows" an
electromagnetic signal. The velocity of the signal within any transmission line that is 100%
filled with a material of dielectric constant R is computed by:
v=c/sqrt( R )
So if your strip line or coax transmission line is fabricated on a material with dielectric
constant 2.2, the velocity of propagation is only 67% of the speed of light in free space.
Similarly, because wavelength is proportional to velocity, the length of a quarter-wave
transformer is also 67% of what it would be in free space. Thus one of the tricks of reducing
the size of microwave components is revealed; by using materials of higher dielectric
constant, distributed structures can be made smaller. One of the advantages of using GaAs for

microwave ICs (known in the industry as MMICs) is its dielectric constant of 12.9, which is
appreciably higher than ceramics such as alumina, and most soft substrates.
A very good rule of thumb is that electromagnetic radiation in free space travels about
one foot in one nanosecond; a more exact value is 0.983571 feet per nanosecond. This slows
to about 8 inches per nanosecond for coax cables filled with PTFE (almost all coax cables are
filled with PTFE, or a combination of PTFE and air.) For more information please see our
discussion of group delay.
This brings us to the subject of "effective dielectric constant". In transmission lines

realized in micro strip media, most of the electric fields are constrained within the substrate,
but a fraction of the total energy exists within the air above the board. The effective dielectric
constant takes this into account. The effective dielectric constant of a fifty-ohm transmission
line on ten mil alumina is a number somewhere around 7, which is less than the dielectric
constant of the substrate bulk material. Another example of an effective dielectric constant is
if you were to create a strip line circuit using two sheets of substrates with different dielectric
constants. To a first order, the effective dielectric constant would be the average of the two
materials' dielectric constants. A third example is coplanar waveguide transmission lines with
air above the substrate. Here the effective dielectric constant is very nearly the average of the
substrate dielectric constant and one (the dielectric constant of air=1). Thus the effective
dielectric constant of CPW circuits on GaAs ( R=12.9) is approximately
9.3Lumped elements versus distributed elements
When the behaviour of a resistor, capacitor, or inductor can be fully described by a

simple linear equation, microwave engineers refer to it as a lumped element. For example, a
50-ohm resistor at low frequencies will obey Ohm's law (V=IxR). Put five volts across it and
it will draw 100 milliamps of current. "Lumped element hood" is restricted to components
that are operate at frequencies where they are physically much smaller than a quarter-
wavelength. For example, axial-leaded components perform well up to 10s of MHz, but at
one GHz, chances are that an axial-leaded resistor is closer to an open circuit, or a lousy
inductor, rather than an ideal resistor. This is why you will rarely be asked the resistor color
code as a microwave engineer!

At microwave frequencies, other factors must be considered. To accurately calculate the
behaviour of that same 50-ohm resistor, you need to consider its length, width, and thickness
of metal (due to the skin effect), and its proximity to the ground plane. This is when we must
consider it as a distributed element.
By designing really tiny parts, you can often consider them lumped elements, even at
microwave frequencies. You must keep the critical dimensions (such as length and width of a
thin-film resistor) small compared to an electrical quarter wavelength. For example, if you
are designing a 50 ohm micro strip load resistor at X-band, on an alumina substrate (dielectric
constant 9.8), a quarter wavelength is approximately 120 mils. You'd better keep both the
length and width of the resistor to less than 40 mils, or you else you have to spend some time
with a EDA simulation tool such as Agilent ADS or Eagleware Genesis evaluating the
performance. Where else but microwave engineering can you make a project out of designing
a stupid fifty-ohm resistor?!
At low frequencies, the metal that connects components together is treated as an ideal
connection, with no loss, no characteristic impedance, and no transmission phase angle.
When interconnects become an appreciable fraction of the signal wavelength, these
interconnections themselves must be treated as distributed elements or transmission lines. An
extreme example of the need to consider the distributed properties of transmission lines is
when we are dealing with a quarter-wavelength. At this electrical length (90 degrees), an
open circuit is transformed to a short circuit, and a short-circuit is transformed to an open
circuit! Think about this: a short-circuited 90 degree "stub" hanging in shunt off of a
transmission line will be invisible to signals propagating down the transmission line, while an
open circuited 90 degree stub shunting a transmission line will cause a short circuit and the
propagating signal will get hosed! A whole lot of microwave engineering exploits this
concept, so you'd better understand it.
One "classic" distributed element is the quarter-wave transformer (we've written an entire
chapter on this and other quarter wave tricks! The quarter wave transformer is used to shift
the impedance of a circuit by the following simple formula:
Z2=sqrt(Z0ZL)

where Z2 is the characteristic impedance of the transformer, ZL is the load impedance, and Z0
is the characteristic impedance of the system you are trying to maintain. Do you detect a
pattern? Most of the equations on this page use the square-root function... perhaps they put
that button on your Casio calculator for a reason!
9.4 VSWR and return loss
VSWR stands for voltage standing wave ratio. It is a measure of how well a network is
matched to it's intended characteristic impedance (Z0), which is almost always 50 ohms in
microwave engineering. Return loss is just another way to express the same thing. Both are
used in microwave engineering, that's just to keep you on your toes.
VSWR dates back to the days when a "standing wave meter" was an important piece of lab
equipment. Long before you could buy s network analyzer for measuring how well a part is
impedance matched, the standing wave meter was used by engineers to evaluate the same
problem. A small probe was inserted into a waveguide, the output of which was rectified,
producing a current or voltage proportional to the electric field with the waveguide. The
engineer would pull the probe longitudinally along the waveguide, in search of local maxima
and minima readings. These are due to the standing wave within the transmission line. The
ratio of the maximum to the minimum voltage recorded was known as the voltage standing
wave ratio (VSWR). To this day VSWR is often used to quantify how well a part is
impedance matched. Always expressed as a ratio to unity, a VSWR of 1.0:1 indicates
perfection (there is no standing wave). A VSWR of 2:1 means the maxima are twice the
voltage of the minima. A high VSWR such as 10:1 usually indicates you have a problem,
such as a near open or near short circuit.

III
DIGITAL
COMMUNICATION
Chapter 1
DIGITAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
1.1 Introduction
In the simplest form, a transmission-reception system is a three-block system,

consisting of a) a transmitter, b) a transmission medium and c) a receiver. If we think of a
combination of the transmission device and reception device in the form of a ‘transceiver’
and if (as is usually the case) the transmission medium allows signal both ways, we are in a
position to think of a both-way (bi-directional) communication system. For ease of
description, we will discuss about a one-way transmission-reception system with the implicit
assumption that, once understood, the ideas can be utilized for developing / analyzing two-
way communication systems. So, our representative communication system, in a simple

form, again consists of three different entities, viz. a transmitter, a communication channel
and a receiver.
Before seeing what is a digital communication system let us first see what is a
communication system. The Communication system is as shown in the figure 1.1 below
Fig 1.1 Basic Communication System
A digital communication system has several distinguishing features when compared with an
analogue communication system. Both analogue (such as voice signal) and digital signals
(such as data generated by computers) can be communicated over a digital transmission
system. When the signal is analogue in nature, an equivalent discrete-time-discrete-amplitude
representation is possible after the initial processing of sampling and quantization. So, both a
digital signal and a quantized analogue signal are of similar type, i.e. discrete-time-discrete-
amplitude signals.
A key feature of a digital communication system is that a sense of ‘information’, with
appropriate unit of measure, is associated with such signals. This visualization, credited to
Claude E. Shannon, leads to several interesting schematic description of a digital
communication system. For example, consider Fig.1.1which shows the signal source at the
transmission end as an equivalent ‘Information Source’ and the receiving user as an
‘Information sink’. The overall purpose of the digital communication system is ‘to collect
information from the source and carry out necessary electronic signal processing such that the
information can be delivered to the end user (information sink) with acceptable quality’. One
may take note of the compromising phrase ‘acceptable quality’ and wonder why a digital
transmission system should not deliver exactly the same information to the sink as accepted
from the source. A broad and general answer to such query at this point is: well, it depends on
the designer’s understanding of the ‘channel’ (Fig. 1.1) and how the designer can translate his
knowledge to design the electronic signal processing algorithms / techniques in the ’Encoder’

and ‘decoder’ blocks in Fig. 1.1. We hope to pick up a few basic yet good approaches to
acquire the above skills. However, pioneering work in the 1940-s and 1950-s have
established a bottom-line to the search for ‘a flawless (equivalently, ‘error-less’) digital
communication system’ bringing out several profound theorems (which now go in the name
of Information Theory) to establish that, while error-less transmission of information can
never be guaranteed, any other ‘acceptable quality’, arbitrarily close to error-less
transmission may be possible. This ‘possibility’ of almost error-less information transmission
has driven significant research over the last five decades in multiple related areas such as, a)
digital modulation schemes, b) error control techniques, c) optimum receiver design, d)
modelling and characterization of channel and so forth. As a result, varieties of digital
communication systems have been designed and put to use over the years and the overall
performance have improved significantly.
It is possible to expand our basic ‘three-entity’ description of a digital communication
system in multiple ways. For example, Fig. 1.1 shows a somewhat elaborate block diagram
explicitly showing the important processes of ‘modulation-demodulation’, ‘source coding-
decoding’ and ‘channel encoding – decoding’. A reader may have multiple queries relating to
this kind of abstraction. For example, when ‘information’ has to be sent over a large distance,
it is a common knowledge that the signal should be amplified in terms of power and then
launched into the physical transmission medium. Diagrams of the type in Figs. 1.1 and 1.2
have no explicit reference to such issues. However, the issue here is more of suitable
representation of a system for clarity rather than a module-by-module replication of an
operational digital communication system.
Fig 1.2
Block Diagram of Digital Communication

Chapter 2
PULSE CODE MODULATION
2.1 Pulse-codemodulation (PCM)
It is a method used to digitally represent sampled analogy signals, which was invented
by Alec Reeves in 1937. It is the standard form for digital audio in computers and
various Blu-ray, Compact Disc and DVD formats, as well as other uses such as
digital telephone systems. A PCM stream is a digital representation of an analog signal, in
which the magnitude of the analogue signal is sampled regularly at uniform intervals, with
each sample being quantized to the nearest value within a range of digital steps.
PCM streams have two basic properties that determine their fidelity to the original analog
signal: the sampling rate, which is the number of times per second that samples are taken; and
the bit depth, which determines the number of possible digital values that each sample can
take.

Fig 2.1 PCM Block Diagram
2.2Modulation
In the diagram, fig 2.2 a sine wave (red curve) is sampled and quantized for pulse
code modulation. The sine wave is sampled at regular intervals, shown as ticks on the x-axis.
For each sample, one of the available values (ticks on the y-axis) is chosen by some
algorithm. This produces a fully discrete representation of the input signal (shaded area) that
can be easily encoded as digital data for storage or manipulation. For the sine wave example
at right, we can verify that the quantized values at the sampling moments are 7, 9, 11, 12, 13,
14, 14, 15, 15, 15, 14, etc. Encoding these values as binary numbers would result in the
following set of nibbles: 0111, 1001, 1011, 1100, 1101, 1110, 1110, 1111, 1111, 1111, 1110,
etc. These digital values could then be further processed or analyzed by a purpose-
specific digital signal processor or general purpose DSP. Several Pulse Code Modulation
streams could also be multiplexed into a larger aggregate data stream, generally for
transmission of multiple streams over a single physical link. One technique is called time-
division multiplexing, or TDM, and is widely used, notably in the modern public telephone
system. Another technique is called Frequency-division multiplexing, where the signal is
assigned a frequency in a spectrum, and transmitted along with other signals inside that
spectrum. Currently, TDM is much more widely used than FDM because of its natural
compatibility with digital communication, and generally lower bandwidth requirements.
There are many ways to implement a real device that performs this task. In real systems, such
a device is commonly implemented on a single integrated that lacks only the clock necessary
for sampling, and is generally referred to as an ADC (Analogue-to-Digital converter). These
devices will produce on their output a binary representation of the input whenever they are
triggered by a clock signal, which would then be read by a processor of some sort.

Fig 2.2
Demodulation
To produce output from the sampled data, the procedure of modulation is applied in
reverse. After each sampling period has passed, the next value is read and a signal is shifted
to the new value. As a result of these transitions, the signal will have a significant amount of
high-frequency energy. To smooth out the signal and remove these
undesirable aliasing frequencies, the signal would be passed through analogue filters that
suppress energy outside the expected frequency range (that is, greater than the Nyquist
frequency fs / 2). Some systems use digital filtering to remove some of the aliasing,
converting the signal from digital to analogue at a higher sample rate such that the analogue
filter required for anti-aliasing is much simpler. In some systems, no explicit filtering is done
at all; as it's impossible for any system to reproduce a signal with infinite bandwidth, inherent
losses in the system compensate for the artefacts — or the system simply does not require
much precision. The sampling theorem suggests that practical PCM devices, provided a
sampling frequency that is sufficiently greater than that of the input signal, can operate
without introducing significant distortions within their designed frequency bands.
The electronics involved in producing an accurate analogue signal from the discrete data are
similar to those used for generating the digital signal. These devices are DACs (digital-to-

analog converters), and operate similarly to ADCs. They produce on their output
a voltage or current (depending on type) that represents the value presented on their inputs.
This output would then generally be filtered and amplified for use.
2.3Limitations
There are two sources of impairment implicit in any PCM system:
 Choosing a discrete value near the analogue signal for each sample leads
to quantization error, which swings between -q/2 and q/2. In the ideal case (with a fully
linear ADC) it is distributed over this interval, with zero mean and variance of q2/12.
 Between samples no measurement of the signal is made; the sampling
theorem guarantees non-ambiguous representation and recovery of the signal only if it has
no energy at frequency fs/2 or higher (one half the sampling frequency, known as
the Nyquist frequency); higher frequencies will generally not be correctly represented or
recovered.
As samples are dependent on time, an accurate clock is required for accurate reproduction. If
either the encoding or decoding clock is not stable, its frequency drift will directly affect the
output quality of the device. A slight difference between the encoding and decoding clock
frequencies is not generally a major concern; a small constant error is not noticeable. Clock
error does become a major issue if the clock is not stable, however. A drifting clock, even
with a relatively small error, will cause very obvious distortions in audio and video signals,
for example.
Extra information: PCM data from a master with a clock frequency that can not be influenced
requires an exact clock at the decoding side to ensure that all the data is used in a continuous
stream without buffer under run or buffer overflow. Any frequency difference will be audible
at the output since the number of samples per time interval can not be correct. The data speed
in a compact disk can be steered by means of a servo that controls the rotation speed of the
disk; here the output clock is the master clock. For all "external master" systems like DAB
the output stream must be decoded with a regenerated and exact synchronous clock. When
the wanted output sample rate differs from the incoming data stream clock then a sample rate
converter must be inserted in the chain to convert the samples to the new clock domain.

Digitization as part of the PCM process
In conventional PCM, the analogue signal may be processed (e.g., by amplitude compression)
before being digitized. Once the signal is digitized, the PCM signal is usually subjected to
further processing (e.g., digital data compression).
PCM with linear quantization is known as Linear PCM (LPCM).[1]
Some forms of PCM combine signal processing with coding. Older versions of these systems
applied the processing in the analogue domain as part of the A/D process; newer
implementations do so in the digital domain. These simple techniques have been largely
rendered obsolete by modern transform-based audio compression techniques.
 DPCM encodes the PCM values as differences between the current and the predicted
value. An algorithm predicts the next sample based on the previous samples, and the
encoder stores only the difference between this prediction and the actual value. If the
prediction is reasonable, fewer bits can be used to represent the same information. For
audio, this type of encoding reduces the number of bits required per sample by about 25%
compared to PCM.
 Adaptive DPCM (ADPCM) is a variant of DPCM that varies the size of the
quantization step, to allow further reduction of the required bandwidth for a given signal-
to-noise ratio.
 Delta modulation is a form of DPCM which uses one bit per sample.
In telephony, a standard audio signal for a single phone call is encoded as 8,000 analogue
samples per second, of 8 bits each, giving a 64 Kbit/s digital signal known as DS0. The
default signal compression encoding on a DS0 is either μ-law (mu-law) PCM (North America
and Japan) or A-law PCM (Europe and most of the rest of the world). These are logarithmic
compression systems where a 12 or 13-bit linear PCM sample number is mapped into an 8-bit
value. This system is described by international standard G.711. An alternative proposal for
a floating point representation, with 5-bit mantissa and 3-bit radix, was abandoned.
Where circuit costs are high and loss of voice quality is acceptable, it sometimes makes sense
to compress the voice signal even further. An ADPCM algorithm is used to map a series of 8-
bit µ-law or A-law PCM samples into a series of 4-bit ADPCM samples. In this way, the
capacity of the line is doubled. The technique is detailed in the G.726 standard.

Later it was found that even further compression was possible and additional standards were
published. Some of these international standards describe systems and ideas which are
covered by privately owned patents and thus use of these standards requires payments to the
patent holders.
Some ADPCM techniques are used in Voice over IP communications.
Chapter 3
DIGITAL MODULATION TECHNIQUES I
There are three major classes of digital modulation techniques used for transmission
of digitally represented data:
 Amplitude-shift keying (ASK)

 Frequency-shift keying (FSK)

 Phase-shift keying (PSK)
All convey data by changing some aspect of a base signal, the carrier wave (usually
a sinusoid), in response to a data signal. In the case of PSK, the phase is changed to represent
the data signal. There are two fundamental ways of utilizing the phase of a signal in this way:
 By viewing the phase itself as conveying the information, in which case

the demodulator must have a reference signal to compare the received signal's phase
against; or
 By viewing the change in the phase as conveying information
— differential schemes, some of which do not need a reference carrier (to a certain
extent).
A convenient way to represent PSK schemes is on a constellation diagram. This shows the
points in the Argand plane where, in this context, the real and imaginary axes are termed the
in-phase and quadrature axes respectively due to their 90° separation. Such a representation
on perpendicular axes lends itself to straightforward implementation. The amplitude of each
point along the in-phase axis is used to modulate a cosine (or sine) wave and the amplitude
along the quadrature axis to modulate a sine (or cosine) wave.
In PSK, the constellation points chosen are usually positioned with uniform angular spacing
around a circle. This gives maximum phase-separation between adjacent points and thus the
best immunity to corruption. They are positioned on a circle so that they can all be
transmitted with the same energy. In this way, the moduli of the complex numbers they
represent will be the same and thus so will the amplitudes needed for the cosine and sine
waves. Two common examples are "binary phase-shift keying" (BPSK) which uses two
phases, and "quadrature phase-shift keying" (QPSK) which uses four phases, although any
number of phases may be used. Since the data to be conveyed are usually binary, the PSK
scheme is usually designed with the number of constellation points being a powerof 2.
3.1 Amplitude-shift keying (ASK) is a form of modulation that represents digital data as
variations in the amplitude of a carrier wave.
The amplitude of an analogue carrier signal varies in accordance with the bit stream
(modulating signal), keeping frequency and phase constant. The level of amplitude can be

used to represent binary logic 0s and 1s. We can think of a carrier signal as an ON or OFF
switch. In the modulated signal, logic 0 is represented by the absence of a carrier, thus giving
OFF/ON keying operation and hence the name given.
Like AM, ASK is also linear and sensitive to atmospheric noise, distortions, propagation
conditions on different routes in PSTN, etc. Both ASK modulation and demodulation
processes are relatively inexpensive. The ASK technique is also commonly used to
transmit digital data over optical fibre. For LED transmitters, binary 1 is represented by a
short pulse of light and binary 0 by the absence of light. Laser transmitters normally have a
fixed "bias" current that causes the device to emit a low light level. This low level represents
binary 0, while a higher-amplitude light wave represents binary 1.
3.2 Phase-shift keying (PSK) is a digital modulation scheme that conveys data by changing,
or modulating, the phase of a reference signal (the carrier wave).
Any digital modulation scheme uses a finite number of distinct signals to represent digital
data. PSK uses a finite number of phases; each assigned a unique pattern of binary digits.
Usually, each phase encodes an equal number of bits. Each pattern of bits forms
the symbol that is represented by the particular phase. The demodulator, which is designed
specifically for the symbol-set used by the modulator, determines the phase of the received
signal and maps it back to the symbol it represents, thus recovering the original data. This
requires the receiver to be able to compare the phase of the received signal to a reference
signal — such a system is termed coherent (and referred to as CPSK).
Alternatively, instead of using the bit patterns to set the phase of the wave, it can instead be
used to change it by a specified amount. The demodulator then determines the changes in the
phase of the received signal rather than the phase itself. Since this scheme depends on the
difference between successive phases, it is termed differential phase-shift keying (DPSK).
DPSK can be significantly simpler to implement than ordinary PSK since there is no need for
the demodulator to have a copy of the reference signal to determine the exact phase of the
received signal (it is a non-coherent scheme). In exchange, it produces more erroneous
demodulations. The exact requirements of the particular scenario under consideration
determine which scheme is used.
3.3 Differential Phase-shift keying (DPSK) is a digital modulation scheme that

conveys data by changing, or modulating, the phase of a reference signal (the carrier wave).

Any digital modulation scheme uses a finite number of distinct signals to represent digital
data. PSK uses a finite number of phases, each assigned a unique pattern of binary digits.
Usually, each phase encodes an equal number of bits. Each pattern of bits forms
the symbol that is represented by the particular phase. The demodulator, which is designed
specifically for the symbol-set used by the modulator, determines the phase of the received
signal and maps it back to the symbol it represents, thus recovering the original data. This
requires the receiver to be able to compare the phase of the received signal to a reference
signal — such a system is termed coherent (and referred to as CPSK).
Alternatively, instead of using the bit patterns to set the phase of the wave, it can instead be
used to change it by a specified amount. The demodulator then determines the changes in the
phase of the received signal rather than the phase itself. Since this scheme depends on the
difference between successive phases, it is termed differential phase-shift keying (DPSK).
DPSK can be significantly simpler to implement than ordinary PSK since there is no need for
the demodulator to have a copy of the reference signal to determine the exact phase of the
received signal (it is a non-coherent scheme). In exchange, it produces more erroneous
demodulations. The exact requirements of the particular scenario under consideration
determine which scheme is used.
3.4 BPSK(Binary Phase shift keying)
BPSK (also sometimes called PRK, Phase Reversal Keying, or 2PSK) is the simplest form of
phase shift keying (PSK). It uses two phases which are separated by 180° and so can also be
termed 2-PSK. It does not particularly matter exactly where the constellation points are
positioned, and in this figure they are shown on the real axis, at 0° and 180°. This modulation
is the most robust of all the PSKs since it takes the highest level of noise or distortion to
make the demodulator reach an incorrect decision. It is, however, only able to modulate at 1
bit/symbol (as seen in the figure) and so is unsuitable for high data-rate applications when
bandwidth is limited.
In the presence of an arbitrary phase-shift introduced by the communications channel, the

demodulator is unable to tell which constellation point is which. As a result, the data is
often differentially encoded prior to modulation.
3.5 QPSK

Sometimes this is known as quaternary PSK, quadriphase PSK, 4-PSK, or 4-QAM.
(Although the root concepts of QPSK and 4-QAM are different, the resulting modulated radio
waves are exactly the same.) QPSK uses four points on the constellation diagram, equispaced
around a circle. With four phases, QPSK can encode two bits per symbol, shown in the
diagram with gray coding to minimize the bit error rate (BER) — sometimes misperceived as
twice the BER of BPSK.
The mathematical analysis shows that QPSK can be used either to double the data rate
compared with a BPSK system while maintaining the same bandwidth of the signal, or
to maintain the data-rate of BPSK but halving the bandwidth needed. In this latter case, the
BER of QPSK is exactly the same as the BER of BPSK - and deciding differently is a
common confusion when considering or describing QPSK.
Given that radio communication channels are allocated by agencies such as the Federal
Communication Commission giving a prescribed (maximum) bandwidth, the advantage of
QPSK over BPSK becomes evident: QPSK transmits twice the data rate in a given bandwidth
than BPSK does - at the same BER. The engineering penalty that is paid is that QPSK
transmitters and receivers are more complicated than the ones for BPSK. However, with
modern electronics technology, the penalty in cost is very moderate.
As with BPSK, there are phase ambiguity problems at the receiving end, and differentially
encoded QPSK is often used in practice.
Fig 3.1 QPSK Transmitter
Fig 3.2 QPSK Receiver

3.6 Frequency Shift Keying - FSK
The two binary states, logic 0 (low) and 1 (high), are each represented by an analogue
waveform. Logic 0 is represented by a wave at a specific frequency, and logic 1 is
represented by a wave at a different frequency.
Fig 3.2 below shows the basic representation.
Fig 3.2 FSK Representation
With binary FSK, the centre or carrier frequency is shifted by the binary input data. Thus the
input and output rates of change are equal and therefore the bit rate and baud rate
equal.
The frequency of the carrier is changed as a function of the modulating signal (data),
which is being transmitted. Amplitude remains unchanged. Two fixed-amplitude
carriers are used, one for a binary zero, the other for a binary one.
You can see from the movie below how the FSK wave form is generated. Note when
the edge of aa new logic level enters the transmitter the frequency of the output.
Chapter 4
DELTA MODULATION
Delta modulation (DM or Δ-modulation) is an analogue-to-digital and digital-to-analogue

signal conversion technique used for transmission of voice information where quality is not

of primary importance. DM is the simplest form of differential pulse-code
modulation (DPCM) where the difference between successive samples is encoded into n-bit
data streams. In delta modulation, the transmitted data is reduced to a 1-bit data stream.
Its main features are:
 the analogue signal is approximated with a series of segments

 each segment of the approximated signal is compared to the original analogue wave to
determine the increase or decrease in relative amplitude
 the decision process for establishing the state of successive bits is determined by this
comparison
 only the change of information is sent, that is, only an increase or decrease of the
signal amplitude from the previous sample is sent whereas a no-change condition causes
the modulated signal to remain at the same 0 or 1 state of the previous sample.
To achieve high signal-to-noise ratio, delta modulation must use oversampling techniques,
that is, the analog signal is sampled at a rate several times higher than the Nyquist rate.
Derived forms of delta modulation are continuously variable slope delta modulation, delta-
sigma modulation, and differential modulation. The Differential Pulse Code Modulation is
the super set of DM. The block diagram of Delta modulation is given below in diagram 4.1
Fig 4.1 Block Diagram of Delta modulation
4.1Principle
Rather than quantizing the absolute value of the input analogue waveform, delta
modulation quantizes the difference between the current and the previous step, as shown in
the block diagram in Fig. 4.1

The modulator is made by a quantizer which converts the difference between the
input signal and the average of the previous steps. In its simplest form, the quantizer can be
realized with a comparator referenced to 0 (two levels quantizer), whose output is 1 or 0 if the
input signal is positive or negative. It is also a bit-quantizer as it quantizes only a bit at a time.
The demodulator is simply an integrator (like the one in the feedback loop) whose output
rises or falls with each 1 or 0 received. The integrator itself constitutes a low-pass filter.
4.2 Adaptive delta modulation
Adaptive delta modulation (ADM) or continuously variable slope delta modulation (CVSD)
is a modification of DM in which the step size is not fixed. Rather, when several consecutive
bits have the same direction value, the encoder and decoder assume that slope overload is
occurring, and the step size becomes progressively larger. Otherwise, the step size becomes
gradually smaller over time. ADM reduces slope error, at the expense of increasing
quantizing error. This error can be reduced by using a low pass filter.
Chapter 5
INFORMATION THEORY

Coding theory is one of the most important and direct applications of information theory. It
can be subdivided into source coding theory and coding theory. Using a statistical description
for data, information theory quantifies the number of bits needed to describe the data, which
is the information entropy of the source.
 Data compression (source coding): There are two formulations for the compression
problem:
1. lossless data compression: the data must be reconstructed exactly;

2. lossy data compression: allocates bits needed to reconstruct the data, within a
specified fidelity level measured by a distortion function. This subset of Information
theory is called rate–distortion theory.
 Error-correcting codes (channel coding): While data compression removes as

much redundancy as possible, an error correcting code adds just the right kind of
redundancy (i.e., error correction) needed to transmit the data efficiently and faithfully
across a noisy channel.
This division of coding theory into compression and transmission is justified by the
information transmission theorems, or source–channel separation theorems that justify the
use of bits as the universal currency for information in many contexts. However, these
theorems only hold in the situation where one transmitting user wishes to communicate to
one receiving user. In scenarios with more than one transmitter (the multiple-access channel),
more than one receiver (the broadcast channel) or intermediary "helpers" (the relay channel),
or more general networks, compression followed by transmission may no longer be
optimal. Network information theory refers to these multi-agent communication models.
5.1 Source theory
Any process that generates successive messages can be considered a source of information.
A memory less source is one in which each message is an independent identically-distributed
random variable, whereas the properties of periodicity and stationary impose more general
constraints. All such sources are stochastic. These terms are well studied in their own right
outside information theory.
5.2 Information Rate

Information rate is the average entropy per symbol. For memory less sources, this is merely
the entropy of each symbol
5.3Channel Capacity
Communication over a channelsuch as an Ethernet cableis the primary motivation of

information theory. As anyone who's ever used a telephone (mobile or landline) knows,
however, such channels often fail to produce exact reconstruction of a signal; noise, periods
of silence, and other forms of signal corruption often degrade quality.
Consider the communications process over a discrete channel. A simple model of the
process is shown below: in fig 5.1
Fig 5.1 A Model of Communication System
Here X represents the space of messages transmitted, and Y the space of messages received
during a unit time over our channel. Let p(y | x) be the conditional probability distribution
function of Ygiven X. We will consider p(y | x) to be an inherent fixed property of our
communications channel (representing the nature of the noise of our channel). Then the joint
distribution of X and Y is completely determined by our channel and by our choice of f(x), the
marginal distribution of messages we choose to send over the channel. Under these
constraints, we would like to maximize the rate of information, or the signal, we can
communicate over the channel. The appropriate measure for this is the mutual information,
and this maximum mutual information is called the capacity and is given by:
Chapter 6
SHANNON – HARTLEY THEORM

In information theory, the Shannon–Hartley theorem (also known as Shannon's
law) is an application of the noisy channel coding theorem to the archetypal case of
a continuous-time analogue communications channel subject to Gaussian noise. The theorem
establishes Shannon's channel capacity for such a communication link, a bound on the
maximum amount of error-free digital data (that is, information) that can be transmitted with
a specified bandwidth in the presence of the noise interference, assuming (a) the signal power
is bounded; (b)the Gaussian noise process is characterized by a known power or power
spectral density. The law is named after Claude Shannon and Ralph Hartley.
6.1Statement of the theorem
Considering all possible multi-level and multi-phase encoding techniques, the

Shannon–Hartley theorem states the channel capacity C, meaning the theoretical tightest
upper bound on the information rate (excluding error correcting codes) of clean (or arbitrarily
low bit error rate) data that can be sent with a given average signal power S through an
analogue communication channel subject to additive white Gaussian noise of power N, is:
where
C is the channel capacity in bits per second;

B is the bandwidth of the channel in hertz (pass band bandwidth in case of a
modulated signal);
S is the total received signal power over the bandwidth (in case of a modulated signal,
often denoted C, i.e. modulated carrier), measured in watt or volt2;
N is the total noise or interference power over the bandwidth, measured in watt or
volt2; and
S/N is the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) or the carrier-to-noise ratio (CNR) of the
communication signal to the Gaussian noise interference expressed as a linear power
ratio (not as logarithmic decibels).

6.2 Nyquist rate
In 1927, Nyquist determined that the number of independent pulses that could be put through
a telegraph channel per unit time is limited to twice the bandwidth of the channel. In symbols,
where fp is the pulse frequency (in pulses per second) and B is the bandwidth (in hertz). The
quantity 2B later came to be called the Nyquist rate, and transmitting at the limiting pulse
rate of 2B pulses per second as signalling at the Nyquist rate. Nyquist published his results in
1928 as part of his paper "Certain topics in Telegraph Transmission Theory."
6.3 Noisy channel coding theorem and capacity
Claude Shannon's development of information theory during World War II provided

the next big step in understanding how much information could be reliably communicated
through noisy channels. Building on Hartley's foundation, Shannon's noisy channel coding
theorem (1948) describes the maximum possible efficiency of error-correcting
methods versus levels of noise interference and data corruption.[5][6] The proof of the theorem
shows that a randomly constructed error correcting code is essentially as good as the best
possible code; the theorem is proved through the statistics of such random codes.
Shannon's theorem shows how to compute a channel capacity from a statistical description of
a channel, and establishes that given a noisy channel with capacity C and information
transmitted at a line rate R, then if
there exists a coding technique which allows the probability of error at the receiver to be
made arbitrarily small. This means that theoretically, it is possible to transmit information
nearly without error up to nearly a limit of C bits per second.
The converse is also important. If
the probability of error at the receiver increases without bound as the rate is increased. So no
useful information can be transmitted beyond the channel capacity. The theorem does not
address the rare situation in which rate and capacity are equal.

6.4 Shannon–Hartley theorem
The Shannon–Hartley theorem establishes what that channel capacity is for a finite-
bandwidth continuous-time channel subject to Gaussian noise. It connects Hartley's result
with Shannon's channel capacity theorem in a form that is equivalent to specifying the M in
Hartley's line rate formula in terms of a signal-to-noise ratio, but achieving reliability through
error-correction coding rather than through reliably distinguishable pulse levels.
If there were such a thing as an infinite-bandwidth, noise-free analog channel, one could
transmit unlimited amounts of error-free data over it per unit of time. Real channels,
however, are subject to limitations imposed by both finite bandwidth and nonzero noise.
So how do bandwidth and noise affect the rate at which information can be transmitted over
an analogue channel?
Surprisingly, bandwidth limitations alone do not impose a cap on maximum information rate.
This is because it is still possible for the signal to take on an indefinitely large number of
different voltage levels on each symbol pulse, with each slightly different level being
assigned a different meaning or bit sequence. If we combine both noise and bandwidth
limitations, however, we do find there is a limit to the amount of information that can be
transferred by a signal of a bounded power, even when clever multi-level encoding
techniques are used.
In the channel considered by the Shannon-Hartley theorem, noise and signal are combined by
addition. That is, the receiver measures a signal that is equal to the sum of the signal
encoding the desired information and a continuous random variable that represents the noise.
This addition creates uncertainty as to the original signal's value. If the receiver has some
information about the random process that generates the noise, one can in principle recover
the information in the original signal by considering all possible states of the noise process. In
the case of the Shannon-Hartley theorem, the noise is assumed to be generated by a Gaussian
process with a known variance. Since the variance of a Gaussian process is equivalent to its
power, it is conventional to call this variance the noise power.
Such a channel is called the Additive White Gaussian Noise channel, because Gaussian noise
is added to the signal; "white" means equal amounts of noise at all frequencies within the
channel bandwidth. Such noise can arise both from random sources of energy and also from
coding and measurement error at the sender and receiver respectively. Since sums of
independent Gaussian random variables are themselves Gaussian random variables, this

conveniently simplifies analysis, if one assumes that such error sources are also Gaussian and
independent.
Chapter 7
Linear Block Codes

In coding theory, a linear code is an error-correcting code for which any linear
combination of code words is another code word of the code. Linear codes are traditionally
partitioned into block codes and convolutional, although Turbo codes can be seen as a hybrid
of these two types[1]. Linear codes allow for more efficient encoding and decoding algorithms
than other codes (cf. syndrome decoding).
Linear codes are used in forward error correction and are applied in methods for transmitting
symbols (e.g., bits) on a communications channel so that, if errors occur in the
communication, some errors can be detected by the recipient of a message block. The "codes"
in a linear block code are blocks of symbols which are encoded using more symbols than the
original value to be sent. A linear code of length n transmits blocks containing n symbols. For
example, the "(7,4)" Hamming code is a linear binary code which represents 4-bit values each
using 7-bit values. In this way, the recipient can detect errors as severe as 2 bits per block.
[2]
As there are 16 distinct 4-bit values expressed in binary, the size of the (7,4) Hamming
code is sixteen.
7.1 Formal definition
A linear code of length n and rank k is a linear subspace C with dimension k of
the vector space where is the finite field with q elements. Such a code with
parameter q is called a q-ary code (e.g., when q = 5, the code is a 5-ary code). If q = 2
or q = 3, the code is described as a binary code, or a ternary code respectively.
7.2Generator matrix and parity check matrix
Because the linear code could be considered as a linear subspace C of (and therefore a
codeword is a vector in this linear subspace), any codeword could be represented as a
linear combination of a set of basis vectors such
that

,
where is the message and is thegenerator matrix.
On another hand, for any linear subspace , there is a dimension n − k null
space such that . The basis vectors of the null
space form another matrix such that , where is

called parity check matrix.
7.2Hamming codes
As the first class of linear codes developed for error correction purpose, famousHamming
codeshas been widely used in digital communication systems. For any positive integer ,
there exists a [2r − 1,2r − r − 1,3]2 Hamming code. Since d = 3, this Hamming code can
correct 1-bit error.
Example: The linear block code with the following generator matrix and parity check matrix
is a [7,4,3]2 Hamming code.
:
7.3 Hadamard codes
Hadamard code is a [2r,r,2r – 1]2 linear code and is capable of correcting many errors.
Hadamard code could be constructed column by column : the ith column is the bits of the
binary representation of integer I, as shown in the following example. Hadamard code has
minimum distance 2r – 1 and therefore can correct 2r – 2 – 1 errors.

Example : The linear block code with the following generator matrix is
a [8,3,4]2 Hadamard code: .
Hadamard code is a special case of Reed-Muller code If we take the first column (the all-zero
column) out from , we get [7,3,4]2 simplex code, which is the dual code of Hamming
code. Let be the parity check matrix of C, then the code generated by is called
the dual code of C.
7.4 Types of LBC and applications
There are many types of linear block codes, such as
1. Cyclic codes (e.g., Hamming codes)

2. Repetition codes
3. Parity codes
4. Polynomial codes (e.g., BCH codes)
5. Reed–Solomon codes
6. Algebraic geometric codes
7. Reed–Muller codes
8. Perfect codes.
Block codes are tied to the sphere packing problem, which has received some attention over
the years. In two dimensions, it is easy to visualize. Take a bunch of pennies flat on the table
and push them together. The result is a hexagon pattern like a bee's nest. But block codes rely
on more dimensions which cannot easily be visualized. The powerful Golay code used in
deep space communications uses 24 dimensions. If used as a binary code (which it usually is)
the dimensions refer to the length of the code word as defined above.
The theory of coding uses the N-dimensional sphere model. For example, how many pennies
can be packed into a circle on a table top, or in 3 dimensions, how many marbles can be
packed into a globe. Other considerations enter the choice of a code. For example, hexagon
packing into the constraint of a rectangular box will leave empty space at the corners. As the
dimensions get larger, the percentage of empty space grows smaller. But at certain

dimensions, the packing uses all the space and these codes are the so-called "perfect" codes.
The only nontrivial and useful perfect codes are the distance-3 Hamming codes with
parameters satisfying (2r – 1, 2r – 1 – r, 3), and the [23,12,7] binary and [11,6,5] ternary
Golay codes.
Another code property is the number of neighbours a single code word may have.Again, let's
use pennies as an example. First we pack the pennies in a rectangular grid. Each penny will
have 4 near neighbours (and 4 at the corners which are farther away). In a hexagon, each
penny will have 6 near neighbours. When we increase the dimensions, the number of near
neighbours increases very rapidly. The result is the number of ways for noise to make the
receiver choose a neighbour (hence an error) grows as well. This is a fundamental limitation
of block codes, and indeed all codes. It may be harder to cause an error to a single neighbour,
but the number of neighbours can be large enough so the total error probability actually
suffers.
Properties of linear block codes are used in many applications. for example Syndrome-Coset
uniqueness property of linear block codes is used in Trellis shaping,one of the best
known shaping codes. This same property is used in Sensor networks for distributed source
coding

Chapter 8
CONVOLUTIONAL CODES
8.1 Definition
Convolutional code is a type of error-correcting code in which
 each m-bit information symbol (each m-bit string) to be encoded is transformed into
an n-bit symbol, where m/n is the code rate (n ≥ m) and
 The transformation is a function of the last k information symbols, where k is the
constraint length of the code.
To convolutional encode data, start with k memory registers, each holding 1 input bit.
Unless otherwise specified, all memory registers start with a value of 0. The encoder
has n modulo-2 adders (a modulo 2 adder can be implemented with a single Boolean XOR
gate, where the logic is: 0+0 = 0, 0+1 = 1, 1+0 = 1, 1+1 = 0), and n generator polynomials —
one for each adder (see figure below). An input bit m1 is fed into the leftmost register. Using
the generator polynomials and the existing values in the remaining registers, the encoder
outputs n bits. Now bit shift all register values to the right (m1 moves to m0, m0 moves to m-1)
and wait for the next input bit. If there are no remaining input bits, the encoder continues
output until all registers have returned to the zero state.
The figure below is a rate 1/3 (m/n) encoder with constraint length (k) of 3. Generator
polynomials are G1 = (1, 1, 1), G2 = (0,1,1), and G3 = (1,0,1). Therefore, output bits are
calculated (modulo 2) as follows:
n1 = m1 + m0 + m-1
n2 = m0 + m-1
n3 = m1 + m-1.

8.2 Decoding convolutional codes
Several algorithms exist for decoding convolutional codes. For relatively small values
of k, the Viterbi algorithm is universally used as it provides maximum
likelihood performance and is highly parallelizable. Viterbi decoders are thus easy to
implement in VLSI hardware and in software on CPUs with SIMD instruction sets.
Longer constraint length codes are more practically decoded with any of several sequential
decoding algorithms, of which the Fanon algorithm is the best known. Unlike Viterbi
decoding, sequential decoding is not maximum likelihood but its complexity increases only
slightly with constraint length, allowing the use of strong, long-constraint-length codes. Such
codes were used in the Pioneer program of the early 1970s to Jupiter and Saturn, but gave
way to shorter, Viterbi-decoded codes, usually concatenated with large Reed-Solomon error
correction codes that steepen the overall bit-error-rate curve and produce extremely low
residual undetected error rates.
Both Viterbi and sequential decoding algorithms return hard-decisions: the bits that form the
most likely code word. An approximate confidence measure can be added to each bit by use
of the Soft output Viterbi algorithm. Maximum a posteriori (MAP) soft-decisions for each bit
can be obtained by use of the BCJR algorithm.
8.3 Popular convolutional codes (Applications)
An especially popular Viterbi-decoded convolutional code, used at least since the Voyager
program has a constraint length k of 7 and a rate r of 1/2.
 Longer constraint lengths produce more powerful codes, but the complexity of the
Viterbi algorithm increases exponentially with constraint lengths, limiting these more
powerful codes to deep space missions where the extra performance is easily worth the
increased decoder complexity.

 Mars Pathfinder, Mars Exploration Rover and the Cassini probe to Saturn use a k of
15 and a rate of 1/6; this code performs about 2 dB better than the simpler k=7 code at a
cost of 256× in decoding complexity (compared to Voyager mission codes).
REFERENCES
BOOKS
ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS
1. Electronic Devices and Circuits – J.Millman, C.C.Halkias, and SatyabrathaJit Tata

McGraw Hill, 2nd Ed., 2007.
2. Electronic Devices and Circuits – R.L. Boylestad and Louis Nashelsky,

Pearson/Prentice Hall,9th Edition,2006.
MICROWAVE ENGINEERING
1. Microwave Devices and Circuits – Samuel Y. Liao, PHI, 3rd Edition,1994.
2. Foundations for Microwave Engineering – R.E. Collin, IEEE Press, John Wiley, 2nd
Edition, 2002
DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS
1. Modern Analog and Digital Communication – B.P.Lathi, Oxford reprint, 3rd edition, 2004
2. Digital communications - Simon Haykin, John Wiley, 2005
URL
1. http://ieee-elearning.org/

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MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Page 1

Fig 1.1 P-N junction diode under no bias condition

MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Page 2

Fig 1.2 P N Junction Diode

MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Page 3

Fig 1.3 V-I characteristics of a forward bias diode

MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Page 4

1.3 Diode Equations

MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Page 5

2.1 Zener Region

MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Page 6

Fig 2.2 Zener diode and semiconductor Diode

MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Page 7

MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Page 8

Fig 3.1 Graphic symbol of a diode

MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Page 9

Fig 3.2 Color Intensity vs eavelength

MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Page 10

MAHAVEER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Page 11

Fig.4.1. Half-wave rectifier.

The ac represents a source of ac voltage. It can be a transformer or just ac sine-wave

Fig.4.2. Voltage across Rload in Fig.3.

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Fig.4.3. Full-wave bridge rectifier. Fig.4.4. Voltage across Rload in Fig.4.3.

4.2 Power supply filtering

Fig.4.5. Full-wave bridge with RC filter.

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Fig.4.6. Power-supply ripple calculation.

Instead of ∆t we use 1/ f or 1/ 2f respectively for half-wave rectification and for

Fig.4.7. Bridge rectifier circuit.

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Fig.4.8. A series of pulses' rectifier.

4.4 Diode clamps

Fig.4.9. Diode voltage clamp.

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Fig.4.10 Diode limiter.

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Fig 5.1 PNP & NPN Transistor

These two junctions give rise to three regions as follows:

(2) E/B junction is always forward-biased.

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A junction transistor is simply a sandwich of one type of semiconductor material between

(a) Emitter-Base (E/B) junction and

(b) Collector-Base (C/B) junction.

5.1 TRANSISTOR BIASING

(a)Emitter-Base junction is always forward-biased, and

(b) Collector-Base junction is always reverse-biased.

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TRANSISTOR CIRCUIT CONFIGURATIONS

(1) Common-base (CB),

(2) Common-emitter (CE),

(3) Common – collector (CC),

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Fig 6.2 Common Collector Configuration

Fig 5.3 Common Emitter configuration

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6.4 USING A TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH

Fig 6.4 Transistor as a switch

The power developed in a switching transistor is very small:

• In the OFF state: power = Ic × VCE, but Ic = 0, so the power is zero.