Conflict War and Terrorism

Conflict

A clash of interests, values, actions or directions often sparks a conflict. Conflicts

refer to the existence of that clash. Psychologically, a conflict exists when the
reduction of one motivating stimulus involves an increase in another, so that a
new adjustment is demanded. The word is applicable from the instant that the
clash occurs. Even when we say that there is a potential conflict we are implying
that there is already a conflict of direction even though a clash may not yet have
occurred.

Types and modes

A conceptual conflict can escalate into a verbal exchange and/or result in

fighting.

Conflict can exist at a variety of levels of analysis:

• community conflict
• diplomatic conflict
• economic conflict
• emotional conflict
• environmental resources conflict
• group conflict
• ideological conflict
• international conflict
• interpersonal conflict
• intersocietal conflict
• intrastate conflict (for example: civil wars, election campaigns)
• intrapersonal conflict (though this usually just gets delegated out to
psychology)
• organizational conflict
• intra-societal conflict
• military conflict
• religious-based conflict
• workplace conflict
• data conflict
• relationship conflict
• racial conflict

Conflicts in these levels may appear "nested" in conflicts residing at larger levels
of analysis. For example, conflict within a work team may play out the dynamics
of a broader conflict in the organization as a whole. Theorists have claimed that
parties can conceptualize responses to conflict according to a two-dimensional

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scheme; concern for one's own outcomes and concern for the outcomes of the
other party. This scheme leads to the following hypotheses:

• High concern for both one's own and the other party's outcomes leads to
attempts to find mutually beneficial solutions.
• High concern for one's own outcomes only leads to attempts to "win" the
conflict.
• High concern for the other party's outcomes only leads to allowing the
other to "win" the conflict.
• No concern for either side's outcomes leads to attempts to avoid the
conflict.

Often a group finds itself in conflict over facts, goals, methods or values. It is
critical that it properly identify the type of conflict it is experiencing if it hopes to
manage the conflict through to resolution. For example, a group will often treat an
assumption as a fact.

The more difficult type of conflict is when values are the root cause. It is more
likely that a conflict over facts, or assumptions, will be resolved than one over
values. It is extremely difficult to "prove" that a value is "right" or "correct". In
some instances, a group will benefit from the use of a facilitator or process
consultant to help identify the specific type of conflict. Practitioners of
nonviolence have developed many practices to solve social and political conflicts
without resorting to violence or coercion.

Conflict can arise between several characters and there can be more than one in
a story or plot line. The little plot lines usually enhance the main conflict.

Conflict also defines as natural disagreement resulting from individuals or groups

that differ in beliefs, attitudes, values or needs. It can also originate from past
rivalries and personality differences. Other causes of conflict include trying to
negotiate before the timing is right or before needed information is available. The
following is the causes of conflict: • communication failure • personality conflict •
value differences • goal differences • methodological differences • substandard
performance • lack of cooperation • differences regarding authority • differences
regarding responsibility • competition over resources • non-compliance with rules

Causes

Structural Factors (How the conflict is set up)

• Authority Relationships (The boss and employees beneath them)

• Common Resources (Sharing the same secretary)
• Goal Differences (One person wants production to rise and others want
communication to rise)

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 • Interdependence (A company as a whole can't operate w/o other
departments)
• Jurisdictional Ambiguities (Who can discipline whom)
• Specialization (The experts in fields)
• Status inconsistencies

Personal Factors

• Communication barriers
• Conflict management style
• Cultural differences
• Emotions
• Perception
• Personalities
• Skills and abilities
• Values and Ethics

The assertion that "the conflict is emotionally defined and driven," and "does not
exist in the absence of emotion" is challenged by Economics. In this context,
scarcity means that available resources are insufficient to satisfy all wants and
needs. The subject of conflict as a purely rational, strategic decision is
specifically addressed by Game Theory, a branch of Economics.

Where applicable, there are many components to the emotions that are
intertwined with conflict. There is a behavioral, physiological, cognitive
component.

• Behavioral- The way emotional experience gets expressed which can be

verbal or non-verbal and intentional or un-intentional.
• Physiological- The bodily experience of emotion. The way emotions
make us feel in comparison to our identity.
• Cognitive- The idea that we "assess or appraise" an event to reveal its
relevancy to ourselves.

These three components collectively advise that "the meanings of emotional

experience and expression are determined by cultural values, beliefs, and
practices."

• Cultural values- culture tells people who are a part of it, "Which emotions
ought to be expressed in particular situations" and "what emotions are to
be felt."
• Physical- This escalation results from "anger or frustration."
• Verbal- This escalation results from "negative perceptions of the
annoyer's character."

There are several principles of conflict and emotion.

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 1. Conflict is emotionally defined-conflict involves emotion because
something "triggers" it. The conflict is with the parties involved and how
they decide to resolve it — "events that trigger conflict are events that elicit
emotion."
2. Conflict is emotionally valence — emotion levels during conflict can be
intense or less intense. The "intensity" levels "may be indicative of the
importance and meaning of the conflict issues for each" party.
3. Conflict Invokes a moral stance — when an event occurs it can be
interpreted as moral or immoral. The judging of this morality "influences
one's orientation to the conflict, relationship to the parties involved, and
the conflict issues".
4. Conflict is identity based — Emotions and Identity are a part of conflict.
When a person knows their values, beliefs, and morals they are able to
determine whether the conflict is personal, relevant, and moral. "Identity
related conflicts are potentially more destructive."
5. Conflict is relational — "conflict is relational in the sense that emotional
communication conveys relational definitions that impact conflict." "Key
relational elements are power and social status."

Emotions are acceptable in the workplace as long as they can be controlled and
utilized for productive organizational outcomes and are used at the appropriate
timing.

Ways of addressing conflict

Five basic ways of addressing conflict were identified by Thomas and Kilman in
1976:

• Accommodation – surrender one's own needs and wishes to

accommodate the other party.
• Avoidance – avoid or postpone conflict by ignoring it, changing the
subject, etc. Avoidance can be useful as a temporary measure to buy time
or as an expedient means of dealing with very minor, non-recurring
conflicts. In more severe cases, conflict avoidance can involve severing a
relationship or leaving a group.
• Collaboration – work together to find a mutually beneficial solution.
Collaboration can also be time-intensive and inappropriate when there is
not enough trust, respect or communication among participants for
collaboration to occur.
• Compromise – find a middle ground in which each party is partially
satisfied.
• Competition – assert one's viewpoint at the potential expense of another.
It can be useful when achieving one's objectives outweighs one's concern
for the relationship.

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 What is war?

War is a reciprocated, armed conflict, between two or more non-congruous

entities, aimed at achieving a subjectively designed, geo-politically desired result.
In his book, On War, Prussian military theoretician Carl Von Clausewitz calls war
the "continuation of political intercourse, carried on with other means." War is an
interaction in which two or more militaries have a “struggle of wills”.

A civil war is a dispute between parties within the same nation. War is not
considered to be the same as occupation, murder, or genocide because of the
reciprocal nature of the violent struggle, and the organized nature of the units
involved.

A proxy war is a war that results when two powers use third parties as substitutes
for fighting each other directly.

War is also a cultural entity, and its practice is not linked to any single type of
political organization or society. Rather, as discussed by John Keegan in his
“History Of Warfare”, war is a universal phenomenon whose form and scope is
defined by the society that wages it. The conduct of war extends along a
continuum, from the almost universal tribal warfare that began well before
recorded human history, to wars between city states, nations, or empires.

A group of combatants and their support is called an army on land, a navy at sea,
and an air force in the air. Wars may be conducted simultaneously in one or
more different theatres. Within each theatre, there may be one or more
consecutive military campaigns.

A military campaign includes not only fighting but also intelligence, troop
movements, supplies, propaganda, and other components. A period of
continuous intense conflict is traditionally called a battle, although this
terminology is not always applied to conflicts involving aircraft, missiles or bombs
alone, in the absence of ground troops or naval forces. Also many other actions
may be undertaken by military forces during a war, this could include weapons
research, prison internment, assassination, occupation, and in some cases
genocide may occur.

War is not limited to the human species, as ants engage in massive inter-species
conflicts which might be termed warfare, or chimpanzee packs will engage each
other in tribe like warfare. It is theorized that other species also engage in similar
behavior, although this is not well documented.

As the strategic and tactical aspects of warfare are always changing, theories
and doctrines relating to warfare are often reformulated before, during, and after
every major war. As Clausewitz said, "every age had its own kind of war, its own
limiting conditions, and its own peculiar preconceptions." This was clearly evident

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in the 18-20th century where the industrial revolution had a major influence on
the art of military affairs, and present day nuclear deterrence theory represents
the next stage of this process of re-assessment.

Organizations and Nations abroad may take extreme measures to both prevent
and instigate warfare. This may take many forms including espionage, sanctions,
embargoes, treaties, petitions, and protests.

Definitions of war:

• “the waging of armed conflict against an enemy”

• “a legal state created by a declaration of war and ended by official
declaration during which the international rules of war apply
• an active struggle between competing entities; "a price war"; "a war of
wits"; "diplomatic warfare"
• make or wage war
• a concerted campaign to end something that is injurious; "the war on
poverty"; "the war against crime"

Tradeoff analysis theories

Wars happen when a group of people or an organization perceives the benefits

that can be obtained to be greater than the cost. This can happen for a variety of
reasons:

1. To protect national pride by preventing the loss of territory

2. To protect livelihood by preventing the loss of resources or by declaring
independence
3. To inflict punishment on the "wrongdoer", especially when one country is
stronger than the other and can effectively deal out the punishment.

What is Terrorism?

Terrorism is not new, and even though it has been used since the beginning of
recorded history it can be relatively hard to define. Terrorism has been described
variously as both a tactic and strategy; a crime and a holy duty; a justified
reaction to oppression and an inexcusable abomination. Obviously, a lot depends
on whose point of view is being represented. Terrorism has often been an
effective tactic for the weaker side in a conflict. As an asymmetric form of conflict,
it confers coercive power with many of the advantages of military force at a
fraction of the cost. Due to the secretive nature and small size of terrorist
organizations, they often offer opponents no clear organization to defend against
or to deter.

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That is why preemption is being considered to be so important. In some cases,
terrorism has been a means to carry on a conflict without the adversary realizing
the nature of the threat, mistaking terrorism for criminal activity. Because of these
characteristics, terrorism has become increasingly common among those
pursuing extreme goals throughout the world. But despite its popularity, terrorism
can be a nebulous concept. Even within the U.S. Government, agencies
responsible for different functions in the ongoing fight against terrorism use
different definitions.

The United States Department of Defense defines terrorism as “the calculated

use of unlawful violence or threat of unlawful violence to inculcate fear;
intended to coerce or to intimidate governments or societies in the pursuit
of goals that are generally political, religious, or ideological.” Within this
definition, there are three key elements—violence, fear, and intimidation—and
each element produces terror in its victims. The FBI uses this: "Terrorism is the
unlawful use of force and violence against persons or property to
intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment
thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives." The U.S. Department
of State defines "terrorism" to be "premeditated politically-motivated
violence perpetrated against non-combatant targets by sub-national
groups or clandestine agents, usually intended to influence an audience.

Outside the United States Government, there are greater variations in what
features of terrorism are emphasized in definitions. The United Nations produced
this definition in 1992; "An anxiety-inspiring method of repeated violent
action, employed by (semi-) clandestine individual, group or state actors,
for idiosyncratic, criminal or political reasons, whereby - in contrast to
assassination - the direct targets of violence are not the main targets." The
most commonly accepted academic definition starts with the U.N. definition
quoted above, and adds two sentences totaling another 77 words on the end;
containing such verbose concepts as "message generators" and 'violence based
communication processes." Less specific and considerably less verbose, the
British Government definition of 1974 is"…the use of violence for political ends,
and includes any use of violence for the purpose of putting the public, or any
section of the public, in fear."

Terrorism is a criminal act that influences an audience beyond the

immediate victim. The strategy of terrorists is to commit acts of violence that
.draws the attention of the local populace, the government, and the world to their
cause. The terrorists plan their attack to obtain the greatest publicity, choosing
targets that symbolize what they oppose. The effectiveness of the terrorist act
lies not in the act itself, but in the public’s or government’s reaction to the act. For
example, in 1972 at the Munich Olympics, the Black September Organization
killed 11 Israelis. The Israelis were the immediate victims. But the true target was
the estimated 1 billion people watching the televised event.

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The Black September Organization used the high visibility of the Olympics to
publicize its views on the plight of the Palestinian refugees. Similarly, in October
1983, Middle Eastern terrorists bombed the Marine Battalion Landing Team
Headquarters at Beirut International Airport. Their immediate victims were the
241 U.S. military personnel who were killed and over 100 others who were
wounded. Their true target was the American people and the U.S. Congress.
Their one act of violence influenced the United States’ decision to withdraw the
Marines from Beirut and was therefore considered a terrorist success.

There are three perspectives of terrorism: the terrorist’s, the victim’s, and
the general public’s. The phrase “one man’s terrorist is another man’s freedom
fighter” is a view terrorists themselves would accept. Terrorists do not see
themselves as evil. They believe they are legitimate combatants, fighting for what
they believe in, by whatever means possible. A victim of a terrorist act sees the
terrorist as a criminal with no regard for human life. The general public’s view is
the most unstable. The terrorists take great pains to foster a “Robin Hood” image
in hope of swaying the general public’s point of view toward their cause. This
sympathetic view of terrorism has become an integral part of their psychological
warfare and needs to be countered vigorously.

History of Terrorism

Terrorist acts or the threat of such action have been in existence for
millennia.

So we see that distinctions of size and political legitimacy of the actors using
terror raise questions as to what is and is not terrorism. The concept of moral
equivalency is frequently used as an argument to broaden and blur the definition
of terrorism as well. This concept argues that the outcome of an action is what
matters, not the intent. Collateral or unintended damage to civilians from an
attack by uniformed military forces on a legitimate military target is the same as a
terrorist bomb directed deliberately at the civilian target with the intent of creating
that damage.

Simply put, a car bomb on a city street and a jet fighter dropping a bomb on a
tank are both acts of violence that produce death and terror. Therefore (at the
extreme end of this argument) any military action is simply terrorism by a
different name. This is the reasoning behind the famous phrase "One man's
terrorist is another man's freedom fighter". It is also a legacy of legitimizing the
use of terror by successful revolutionary movements after the fact.

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The very flexibility and adaptability of terror throughout the years has contributed
to the confusion. Those seeking to disrupt, reorder or destroy the status quo
have continuously sought new and creative ways to achieve their goals. Changes
in the tactics and techniques of terrorists have been significant, but even more
significant are the growth in the number of causes and social contexts where
terrorism is used.

Over the past 20 years, terrorists have committed extremely violent acts for
alleged political or religious reasons. Political ideology ranges from the far left to
the far right. For example, the far left can consist of groups such as Marxists and
Leninists who propose a revolution of workers led by a revolutionary elite. On the
far right, we find dictatorships that typically believe in a merging of state and
business leadership.

Nationalism is the devotion to the interests or culture of a group of people or a

nation. Typically, nationalists share a common ethnic background and wish to
establish or regain a homeland.

Religious extremists often reject the authority of secular governments and view
legal systems that are not based on their religious beliefs as illegitimate. They
often view modernization efforts as corrupting influences on traditional culture.

Special interest groups include people on the radical fringe of many legitimate
causes; e.g., people who use terrorism to uphold antiabortion views, animal
rights, radical environmentalism. These groups believe that violence is morally
justifiable to achieve their goals.

Terrorist Behavior

There is clearly a wide choice of definitions for terrorism. Despite this, there are
elements in common among the majority of useful definitions. Common threads
of the various definitions identify terrorism as:

• Political
• Psychological
• Coercive
• Dynamic
• Deliberate

Political

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A terrorist act is a political act or is committed with the intention to cause a
political effect. Clausewitz' statement that "war is a continuation of policy by other
means" is taken as a truism by terrorists. They merely eliminate the intermediate
step of armies and warfare, and apply violence directly to the political contest.

Psychological
The intended results of terrorist acts cause a psychological effect ("terror"). They
are aimed at a target audience other than the actual victims of the act. The
intended target audience of the terrorist act may be the population as a whole,
some specific portion of a society (an ethnic minority, for example), or decision-
making elites in the society's political, social, or military populace.

Coercive
Violence and destruction are used in the commission of the act to produce the
desired effect. Even if casualties or destruction are not the result of a terrorist
operation, the threat or potential of violence is what produces the intended effect.
For example, a successful hostage taking operation may result in all hostages
being freed unharmed after negotiations and bargaining. Regardless of the
outcome, the terrorist bargaining chips were nothing less than the raw threat of
applying violence to maim or kill some or all of the hostages. When the threat of
violence is not credible, or the terrorists are unable to implement violence
effectively, terrorism fails.

Dynamic
Terrorist groups demand change, revolution, or political movement. The radical
worldview that justifies terrorism mandates drastic action to destroy or alter the
status quo. Even if the goals of a movement are reactionary in nature, they
require action to "turn back the clock" or restore some cherished value system
that is extinct. Nobody commits violent attacks on strangers or innocents to keep
things "just the way they are."

Deliberate
Terrorism is an activity planned and intended to achieve particular goals. It is a
rationally employed, specifically selected tactic, and is not a random act. Since
the victims of terrorist violence are often of little import, with one being as good
for the terrorists' purposes as another, victim or target selection can appear
random or unprovoked. But the target will contain symbolic value or be capable
of eliciting emotional response according to the terrorists' goals. Remember that
the actual target of terrorism is not the victim of the violence, but the
psychological balance

Media Exploitation
Terrorism's effects are not necessarily aimed at the victims of terrorist violence.
Victims are usually objects to be exploited by the terrorists for their effect on a

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third party. In order to produce this effect, information of the attack must reach
the target audience. So any terrorist organization plans for exploitation of
available media to get the message to the right audiences. Victims are simply the
first medium that transmits the psychological impact to the larger target audience.
The next step in transmission will depend on what media is available, but it will
be planned, and it will frequently be the responsibility of a specific organization
within the terrorist group to do nothing else but exploit and control the news
cycle.

Some organizations can rely on friendly or sympathetic news outlets, but this is
not necessary. News media can be manipulated by planning around the
demands of the "news cycle", and the advantage that control of the initiative
gives the terrorist. Pressures to report quickly, to "scoop" competitors, allow
terrorists to present claims or make statements that might be refuted or critically
commented on if time were available. Terrorists often provide names and details
of individual victims to control the news media through its desire to humanize or
personalize a story. For the victims of a terrorist attack, it is a certainty that the
impact on the survivors (if there are any) is of minimal importance to the
terrorists. What is important is the intended psychological impact that the news of
their death or suffering will cause in a wider audience.

Operations in Permissive Societies

Terrorists conduct more operations in societies where individual rights and civil
legal protections prevail. While terrorists may base themselves in repressive
regimes that are sympathetic to them, they usually avoid repressive governments
when conducting operations wherever possible. An exception to this case is a
repressive regime that does not have the means to enforce security measures.
Governments with effective security forces and few guaranteed civil liberties
have typically suffered much less from terrorism than liberal states with excellent
security forces. Al Qaeda has shown, however, that they will conduct operations
anywhere.

Illegality of Methods
Terrorism is a criminal act. Whether the terrorist chooses to identify himself with
military terminology (as discussed under insurgencies below), or with civilian
imagery ("brotherhood", "committee", etc.), he is a criminal in both spheres. The
violations of civil criminal laws are self-evident in activities such as murder,
arson, and kidnapping regardless of the legitimacy of the government enforcing
the laws. Victimizing the innocent is criminal injustice under a dictatorship or a
democracy. If the terrorist claims that he is justified in using such violence as a
military combatant, he is a de facto war criminal under international law and the
military justice systems of most nations.

Preparation and Support

It's important to understand that actual terrorist operations are the result of
extensive preparation and support operations. Media reporting and academic

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study have mainly focused on the terrorists' goals and actions, which is precisely
what the terrorist intends. This neglects the vital but less exciting topic of
preparation and support operations. Significant effort and coordination is required
to finance group operations, procure or manufacture weapons, conduct target
surveillance and analysis, and deliver trained terrorists to the operational area.
While the time and effort expended by the terrorists may be a drop in the bucket
compared to the amounts spent to defend against them, terrorist operations can
still involve large amounts of money and groups of people. The need for
dedicated support activities and resources on simple operations are significant,
and get larger the greater the sophistication of the plan and the complexity of the
target.

Defining Terrorism

There is no globally accepted definition of terrorism. Most scholarly texts devoted

to the study of terrorism contain a section, chapter, or chapters devoted to a
discussion of how difficult it is to define the term. In fact, various US government
agencies employ different definitions of the term. The most widely accepted
definition is probably that put forward by the US State Department, which defines
terrorism as “premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against
noncombatant targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents, usually
intended to influence an audience" [Title 22 of the United States Code, Section
2656f(d)].

Types of Terrorism

Different types of terrorism have been defined by lawmakers, security

professionals and scholars. Types differ according to what kind of attack agents
an attacker uses (biological, for example) or by what they are trying to defend (as
in ecoterrorism). Here, a comprehensive list of types of terrorism, with links to
more information, examples and definitions.

State Terrorism

Many definitions of terrorism restrict it to acts by non-state actors.

But it can also be argued that states can, and have, been terrorists. States can
use force or the threat of force, without declaring war, to terrorize citizens and
achieve a political goal. Germany under Nazi rule has been described in this
way.

It has also been argued that states participate in international terrorism, often by
proxy. The United States considers Iran the most prolific sponsor of terrorism

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because Iran arms groups, such as Hizballah, that help carry out its foreign
policy objectives. The United States has also been called terrorist, for example
through its covert sponsorship of Nicaraguan Contras in the 1980s.

Bioterrorism

U.S. Government

Bioterrorism refers to the intentional release of toxic biological agents to harm

and terrorize civilians, in the name of a political or other cause.The U.S. Center
for Disease Control has classified the viruses, bacteria and toxins that could be
used in an attack. Category A Biological Diseases are those most likely to do the
most damage. They include:

• Anthrax (Bacillus anthracis)

• Botulism (Clostridium botulinum toxin)
• The Plague (Yersinia pestis)
• Smallpox (Variola major)
• Tularemia (Francisella tularensis)
• Hemorrahagic fever, due to Ebola Virus or Marburg Virus

Cyberterrorism

Cyberterrorists use information technology to attack civilians and draw attention

to their cause. This may mean that they use information technology, such as
computer systems or telecommunications, as a tool to orchestrate a traditional
attack. More often, cyberterrorism refers to an attack on information technology
itself in a way that would radically disrupt networked services. For example,
cyberterrorists could disable networked emergency systems or hack into
networks housing critical financial information. There is wide disagreement over
the extent of the existing threat by cyberterrorists.

Ecoterrorism

Ecoterrorism is a recently coined term describing violence in the interests of

environmentalism. In general, environmental extremists sabotage property to
inflict economic damage on industries or actors they see as harming animals or
the natural enviroment. Thes have included fur companies, logging companies
and animal research laboratories, for example.

Nuclear terrorism

courtesy of Department of Homeland Security

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"Nuclear terrorism" refers to a number of different ways nuclear materials might
be exploited as a terrorist tactic. These include attacking nuclear facilities,
purchasing nuclear weapons, or building nuclear weapons or otherwise finding
ways to disperse radioactive materials.

Narcoterrorism

Narcoterrorism has had several meanings since its coining in 1983. It once
denoted violence used by drug traffickers to influence governments or prevent
government efforts to stop the drug trade. In the last several years,
narcoterrorism has been used to indicate situations in which terrorist groups use
drug trafficking to fund their other operations.

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