Calculus is a branch of mathematics, developed from algebra and geometry, built on two major

complementary ideas.

One concept is called differential calculus. It studies rates of change, which are usually illustrated by
the slope of a line. Differential calculus is based on the problem of finding the instantaneous rate of
change of one quantity relative to another. Examples of typical differential calculus problems are those
of finding the following quantities:

• The acceleration and speed of a free-falling body at a particular moment

• The loss in speed and trajectory of a fired projectile, such as an artillery shell or bullet
• Change in profitability over time of a growing business at a particular point

Another concept is called integral calculus. It studies the accumulation of quantities, such as areas
under a curve, linear distance travel, or volume displaced. Integral calculus is the mirror image of
differential calculus. Examples of integral calculus problems include those of finding the following
quantities:

• The amount of water pumped by a pump with a set power input but varying conditions of
pumping losses and pressure
• The amount of money accumulated by a business under varying business conditions
• The amount of parking lot plowed by a snowplow of given power with varying rates of snowfall.

The two concepts, differentiation and integration, define inverse operations in a sense made precise by
the fundamental theorem of calculus. Therefore, in teaching calculus, either concept may be given
priority, though the usual educational approach (nowadays) is to introduce differential calculus first.

Differential calculus
Main article: Derivative

The derivative measures the sensitivity of one variable to small changes in another variable. A hint is the
formula

Speed = Distance/Time for an object moving at constant speed.

One's speed (a derivative) in a car describes their change in location, relative to changes in time. The
speed itself may be changing; the calculus deals with this more complex but natural and familiar
situation.

Differential calculus determines the instantaneous speed, at any given specific instant in time, not just
average speed during an interval of time. The formula Speed = Distance/Time applied to a single instant
is the meaningless quotient "zero divided by zero". This is avoided, however, because the quotient
Distance/Time is not used for a single instant (as in a still photograph), but for intervals of time that are
very short.

The derivative answers the question: as the elapsed time approaches zero, what does the average speed
computed by Distance/Time approach? In mathematical language, this is an example of "taking a limit."

More formally, differential calculus defines the instantaneous rate of change (the derivative) of a
mathematical function's value, with respect to changes of the variable. The derivative is defined as a
limit of a difference quotient.
The derivative of a function gives information about small pieces of its graph. It is directly relevant to
finding the maxima and minima of a function — because at those points the graph is flat. Another
application of differential calculus is Newton's method, an algorithm to find zeroes of a function by
approximating the function by its tangent lines. Differential calculus has been applied to many questions
that are not first formulated in the language of calculus.

The derivative lies at the heart of the physical sciences. Newton's law of motion,
Force = Mass × Acceleration, has meaning in calculus because acceleration is a derivative. Maxwell's
theory of electromagnetism and Einstein's theory of gravity (general relativity) are also expressed in the
language of differential calculus, as is the basic theory of electrical circuits and much of engineering.

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Integral calculus
Main article: Integral

The definite integral evaluates the cumulative effect of many small changes in a quantity. The simplest
instance is the formula

Distance = Speed x Time

for calculating the distance a car moves during a period of time when it is traveling at constant speed.
The distance moved is the cumulative effect of the small distances moved in each of the many seconds
the car is on the road. The calculus is able to deal with the natural situation in which the car moves with
changing speed.

Integral calculus determines the exact distance traveled during an interval of time by creating a series of
better and better approximations, called Riemann sums, that approach the exact distance.

More formally, we say that the definite integral of a function on an interval is a limit of Riemann sum
approximations.

Applications of integral calculus arise whenever the problem is to compute a number that is in principle
(approximately) equal to the sum of the solutions of many, many smaller problems.

The classic geometric application is to area computations. In principle, the area of a region can be
approximated by chopping it up into many very tiny squares and adding the areas of those squares. (If
the region has a curved boundary, then omitting the squares overlapping the edge does not cause too
great an error.) Surface areas and volumes can also be expressed as definite integrals.

Many of the functions that are integrated are rates, such as a speed. An integral of a rate of change of a
quantity on an interval of time tells how much that quantity changes during that time period. It makes
sense that if one knows their speed at every instant in time for an hour (i.e. they have an equation that
relates their speed and time), then they should be able to figure out how far they go during that hour. The
definite integral of their speed presents a method for doing so.

Many of the functions that are integrated represent densities. If, for example, the pollution density along
a river (tons per mile) is known in relation to the position, then the integral of that density can determine
how much pollution there is in the whole length of the river.

Probability, the basis for statistics, provides one of the most important applications of integral calculus.