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Geographic Perspectives of Air Transportation

Timothy M. Vowlesa
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Victoria University of Wellington,

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Geographic Perspectives of Air Transportation

Timothy M. Vowles
Victoria University of Wellington

Past, present, and future research directions and advances in this highly dynamic research area of air trans-
portation are reviewed with an eye toward geographers’ contributions to the air transportation industry. The
study of air transportation within the field of transportation geography and the larger discipline of geography is
important as geographers use air transportation to help describe concepts such as connectivity and linkages,
development patterns at various scales, and the global economy. This article takes three approaches in exploring
geographers’ contributions to research in the field: historical, publication outlets, and topic focus. The goal of
the article is to commemorate the contributions of pioneer and current researchers in the field, and open to
discussion future research paths in air transportation. Key Words: air transportation, transportation geogra-
phy, transportation history.

Overview
he general topic of air transportation is
T studied in a large number of disciplines
by a wide range of researchers including econ-
omists, engineers, historians, marketers, poli-
cy analysts, and others. Within the field of
transportation geography and the larger disci-
pline of geography, an understanding of air
transportation is essential to describing geo-
graphical concepts of connectivity and linkages,
development patterns at various scales, and the
global economy. This article takes three ap-
proaches in exploring geographers’ contribu-
tions to research in the field: historical,
publication outlets, and topic focus. To accom-
plish this task, a survey of works by geographers
was conducted, with its main focus on publica-
tions in refereed journals, books, and chapters
within books. To obtain this information, vari-
ous databanks and search engines were used,
including OCLC FirstSearch, GEO Base, Web
of Knowledge, Google, JSTOR, Science Di-
rect, and the Northwestern University Trans-
portation Library. A list of keywords was used to
target articles, then the affiliations and back-
grounds of the authors were determined to see
whether they should be included in the project.
A total of 176 works were found to meet the
criteria of (1) focus on air transportation and (2)
written by a geographer (affiliated with a geog-
raphy department or having an advanced degree
in the discipline).1
Historical
Air transportation has been a focal point of
geographic research for nearly seventy years
(Figure 1). The first works published by
geographers in air transportation are found in
Geographical Review in 1935 and 1937. Light
(1935) described traveling by airplane around
the globe and Pollog (1937) illustrated com-
mercial aviation in the Mediterranean in the
first of what would be many regional descriptive
works. The 1940s saw the publication of two
books, Human Geography in the Air Age by
George Renner (1942) and The Geography of
World Air Transport by J. Parker Van Zandt
(1944), the first by geographers to focus exclu-
sively on the interaction between geography
and air transportation. Renner’s work considers
the effects of air transport on other areas of
geography and Van Zandt’s concentrates on the
various air routes developed and being devel-
oped at the time.
The 1950s saw a continuation of regional de-
scriptions, along with two papers by Ned Taaffe
(1956, 1959) expanding geographic research to
look at the new trends and urban linkages cre-
ated by the fledgling commercial air passenger
sector. In The Geography of Air Transport, Ken-
neth Sealy (1957) encompassed a wide range of
issues in air transportation geography, includ-
ing the physical geography of aviation, air
routes, and airport location. His book is a de-
parture from the strictly descriptive regional

The Professional Geographer, 58(1) 2006, pages 12–19 r Copyright 2006 by Association of American Geographers.
Initial submission, September 2004; final acceptance, December 2004.
Published by Blackwell Publishing, 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148, and 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2DQ, U.K.
Downloaded By: [Association of American Geographers - Referer URL for Annals of the Association of American Geographers and The Professional Geographer] At: 01:57 26 August 2010
Geographic Perspectives of Air Transportation
Figure 1 History of air transport
research.
works that prevailed earlier and shows the wide
range of air transport topics applicable to geo-
graphic research methods.
The 1960s did not see an increase in the
quantity of research by geographers in air trans-
port; it did however see a broadening of the
types of research pursued. William Warntz
(1961) examined the effects of physical geogra-
phy/weather systems on transatlantic air routes;
Taaffe (1962) continued his influential work on
the connections between air service and the U.S.
urban system; and works by British geographers
focused on the airport portion of the air trans-
port equation: Sealy (1957) followed his book
with work on British airport location and de-
velopment (Sealy 1967), which led to a discus-
sion by other researchers in the same issue of the
Geographical Journal. Blake (1969) added to the
newly expanding field of airport research by
looking at how the creation of an airport site and
the associated development impact the physical
landscape.
Research on airports was the focus of seven of
the ten published research articles in the 1970s.
The research ranged from continued studies of
British airports, concentrating on Heathrow
(Hoare 1974) and a third London airport
(Adams 1971), to the emergence of a new area
of research, airport noise. Three papers were
published in the late 1970s on the topic of air-
port noise, two of them by Neil Wrigley (1976,
1977).
Although the 1980s was the first complete
decade in which the U.S. airline industry was
deregulated, the main focus of geographic
works was concentrated on airport research.
13
Research by Taylor (1984) and Taylor, Hall, and
Birnie (1980, 1987) into the spatial impacts of
noise around airports continued throughout the
1980s. Other research in the decade varied from
case studies on individual airports, including
Atlanta (Cruickshank 1981) and Singapore
(Raguraman 1986), to Fleming’s (1984) unique
article examining the influence and interaction
between cartography and airline advertising.
The dearth of available data and the time need-
ed to observe the significant changes brought on
by deregulation within the industry led to fewer
research outputs on the subject.
The 1990s saw a dramatic increase in pub-
lished research by geographers in the field of air
transport, an increase that was associated with
three events. First, the deregulation of the airline
industry in the United States in 1978 had created
a ripe area of research, and by the 1990s the ge-
ographic impacts were readily visible. Sec-
ond,increased utilization of personal computers
and the advent of the Internet greatly increased
the availability of data. Third, the founding of
the Journal of Transport Geography gave geogra-
phers a theme-specific outlet for their research.
Previously, geographic air transportation re-
search had had to compete with other specialty
area research for publication in the mainstream
geography journals. The 1990s also witnessed an
increase in the number of journals available to
researchers for publishing their work. This in-
crease in published research brought with it a
wider range of research topics, including studies
on hub-and-spoke operational systems, deregu-
lation and privatization, low-fare carriers, and
network analysis. A number of researchers came
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14 Volume 58, Number 1, February 2006
to the forefront in the discipline, including Mor-
ton O’Kelly, Peter Nijkamp, Brian Graham,
Andy Goetz, Keith Debbage, Kevin O’Connor,
Thomas Liebach, John Bowen, and K. Ragura-
man. A number of books on air transport written
by geographers (or coauthored by geographers)
were published in the decade, including Gra-
ham’s Geography and Air Transport (1995), De-
mpsey and Goetz’s Airline Deregulation and
Laissez-faire Mythology (1992), and Dempsey,
Goetz, and Szyliowicz’s Denver International Air-
port: Lessons Learned (1997).
The beginning of the twenty-first century
sees the continued growth of geographer-led
research on air transportation. From 1990 to
2003 geographers in air transport published
more research than the total prior to 1990. Re-
search subject trends continue from the 1990s
with liberalization and privatizations being hot
topics, as well as looks at development in and
around airports. Another trend becoming evi-
dent is that researchers are using the Journal of
Transport Geography and the Journal of Air Trans-
portation Management as their major publishing
outlets.
Publication
As with many subdisciplines within geography,
air transport geographers’ interests cross a
broad spectrum, as is evident in the publication
outlets used over the past sixty-nine years (Fig-
ure 2). Eighteen journals have published at least
two articles on air transportation written by ge-
ographers and another twenty-two articles ap-
pear in other journals. The majority of early
articles in the field appeared in either the
Geographical Review, which published the first
air transport piece (by Richard Light, 1935), or
in Economic Geography. In the 1960s, the Geo-
graphical Journal became an outlet for research
in air transport by geographers. The mid-1980s
saw an explosion in the number of outlets for
publication by air transport geographers, and
geographers writing on air transport branched
out and targeted their research toward diverse
journals such as Journal of Sound and Vibration
and Tourism Management.
The creation of the Journal of Transport Ge-
ography and to a lesser extent the Journal of Air
Transportation Management in the 1990s helped
fuel the massive amount of publication by ge-
ographers in air transport. These journals pro-
vided specialty focus with an audience that,
although multidisciplined, was targeted toward
transportation and air transport in particular.
The emergence of these specialty journals is
both a blessing and an impediment for air trans-
port geographers. They are excellent outlets for
geographers to publish their work where not
only other air transport geographers have access
but also those in other disciplines. But because
they lead air transport geographers away from
publishing in the more general geography jour-
nals, geographers in other subdisciplines are
deprived of easy access to the work of air trans-
port geographers.
Topic Focus
The work of geographers in air transportation
can be divided into five main topic areas (with
subclassifications for some areas): specific air-
lines, aircraft, airports, industry, and a combi-
Figure 2 Journal of publication.
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Geographic Perspectives of Air Transportation 15

Figure 3 Themes of geographic analysis in air transportation.

nation of the four previous topics (Figures 3 and
4). Relatively few studies by geographers focus
on specific airlines; instead, an airline is used
primarily as a case study to demonstrate larger
concepts such as nation building (Raguraman
1997) and service issues (Kuby and Gray 1993;
Ivy 1997). Six of the seven articles focusing on
specific airlines were published after 1990, dem-
onstrating that this is still an undeveloped area
of geographic research.
Geographic research on aircraft as the main
topic is also a comparatively small area of in-
quiry. Of the seven pieces of research found,
four concentrate on the geographic dimension
of noise produced by various aircraft. Noise re-
search is a particularly rich area of inquiry for air

Figure 4 Focus of air transport

research.
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16 Volume 58, Number 1, February 2006
transport geographers, whether the focus is on
the aircraft themselves or on noise levels around
airports. Other research targeting aircraft has
included the effect of wind on aircraft (Warntz
1961; Perry and Symons 1994) and an economic
study on aircraft parts manufacturers in South-
ern California (Scott and Mattingly 1989).
The research conducted by geographers con-
cerning airports can be grouped into five areas:
policy, development at and around airports, in-
teraction and competition between airports
within a region, specific airports, and miscella-
neous other. Research on specific airports tends
to be directed toward two subareas: policy stud-
ies focusing on the creation of a particular air-
port and the role that airport plays within a local
area and the larger air transport network. These
works differ from works in the areas of policy
and development at and around airports in that
they focus on specific airports whereas the latter
studies concentrate on the role airports have in a
more wide-reaching sense.
O’Kelly and colleagues (O’Kelly and Miller
1994; O’Kelly 1998; O’Kelly and Bryan 1998;
Horner and O’Kelly 2001) used airport location
as part of their work on hub location theory and
hub-and-spoke systems analysis. Their research
on hub-and-spoke networks in air transport
systems concentrates on the optimal location of
hubs within a network, the differences between
models and reality, and the variation between
passenger and freight air transport systems.
This work is widely accepted as being at the
forefront in this area across many disciplines.
Another area of inquiry that geographers
have made inroads into is the analysis of com-
petition in multiairport regions. The first work
in this area was by Sealy (1967), who examined
the location and development of the British air-
port system in the late 1960s. Pels, Nijkamp,
and Rietveld (2000, 2001, 2003) and Fuelhart
(2003) focused on competition not only be-
tween airports within regions but also between
airlines as they competed for passengers within
a multiairport region. The various aspects stud-
ied and modeled include costs, access, and fares.
Vowles (2001) examined the role played by a
particular carrier, Southwest Airlines, in alter-
ing air service patterns and airfares in multiair-
port regions.
For nearly thirty years a relatively large area
of geographers’ airport research has been the
examination of noise effects at and around air-
ports. The problems addressed have ranged
from the effects of noise on residential property
values (Feitelson, Hurd, and Mudge 1996; Esp-
ey and Lopez 2000) to the recognition of airport
and aircraft noise as a hazard (Harvey, Frazier,
and Matulionis 1979). The advancement of ge-
ographic information systems allows geogra-
phers to continue to be at the forefront of this
field.
Industry-focused research has been by far the
largest area of inquiry and is typically concen-
trated in two areas: service levels and govern-
ment policy. Deregulation of the airline
industry—in the United States in 1978 and sub-
sequently in other parts of the world—was the
catalyst for a large amount of research by geog-
raphers. Geographers dealing with deregula-
tion or privatization, or both, have published
fifteen papers dealing with the subject. Al-
though most of this research has concentrated
on the spatial implications of deregulation in the
United States and Europe, there is also a rela-
tively rich body of research on deregulation in
Australia and the South Pacific in the late 1990s,
led by Kissling (1996, 1998a, b), O’Connor
(1995), O’Connor and Dempsey (1996a, b), and
Dempsey and O’Connor (1997). Other work by
air transport geographers has included studies
on development within the industry and pricing
issues, particularly those centered on low-cost
carriers (Sorenson 1991; Vowles 2000, 2001).
An emerging area of investigation within the
industry is that of air cargo and freight. Re-
searchers John Bowen, Thomas Lienbach, and
Daniel Mabazza have examined on air cargo in
the Asia Pacific region (Bowen, Lienbach, and
Mabazza 2002), and Jean-Paul Rodrigue (1999)
has concentrated on the terminal side of the air
cargo equation.
Research on various service issues makes up
more than half of all research centered on the
airline industry as a whole. Within this subject
area there is quite a diverse mix of topics. A large
amount of the work in the area focuses on net-
work-level questions, correlation between serv-
ice and urban growth, and connectivity/service
levels. Unique contributions in this area include
a look at the cartographic strategies employed
by airline companies to sell their product (Fle-
ming 1984) and an examination of the role of
air travel in the spread of the pandemic influ-
enza (Grais, Ellis, and Glass 2003a, b). Much
like the broader discipline of geography, re-
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Geographic Perspectives of Air Transportation
Figure 5 Regional focus.
search by geographers on the airline industry is
broad in scope.
Research for this article concentrated on
work published in English, therefore the focus
is heavily weighted toward North American and
European (British) geographers (Figure 5). This
explains some of the bias in the amount of work
focusing on North America and Europe: 97 of
160 articles are centered on these two regions.
Moreover, these two areas are the largest avia-
tion markets in the world and the availability of
data, especially in the United States, is quite
good. Over the past fifteen years Asia’s growing
air transport market has attracted increased in-
terest from air transport geographers, and re-
search opportunities will continue to expand in
that area. Regionally focused research on
Southeast Asia (Bowen and Leinbach 1995;
Bowen 2000; Bowen, Leinbach, and Mabazza
2002) has looked at many different aspects of the
industry, including the role it plays in the po-
litical economy of the region. Work in the Aus-
tralasian region was led by Spoehr (1946), who
examined the role of the Marshall Islands in
transpacific aviation (Spoehr 1946); subsequent
work by Kevin O’Connor and others has cov-
ered a wide range of topics in the area. The
combination of this region and East Asia into an
Asia Pacific region will likely open a
rich area of study in the future. The under-
17
represented regions of South America and Af-
rica seem to have suffered from a lack of interest
by English-language journals, with only three
articles published, two on Zimbabwe by Chris
Mutambirwa and Brian Turton (2000) and Tur-
ton and Mutambirwa (1996) and one on Niger-
ia. As air transport becomes more accessible and
markets for both freight and passengers contin-
ue to emerge, these areas may become areas of
research focus.
Conclusion
Research by air transport geographers will con-
tinue to increase in both the number and scope
of articles published. On a regional and country
scale the Chinese aviation market is predicted to
explode in this decade, along with the rest of the
Asian region including India, southeast Asia,
and certain Middle East markets. In contrast, a
growing number of North American commu-
nities will lose direct access to the air transport
system. Airport research will continue to focus
on development issues, especially as older air-
ports reach and go beyond their planned capac-
ities. Another airport-related issue of increasing
interest to geographers is the growing trend of
airports to provide niche services to both air-
lines and passengers. Service issues ready for
exploration by geographers include the growing
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18 Volume 58, Number 1, February 2006
strength and extent of global air service alliances
and the increasing number of low-cost carriers
around the world.
The diversity and dynamic nature of the air
transport industry provides a rich research vein
for geographers to explore. The very geograph-
ic nature of the industry allows the viewpoints of
geographers to be sought after by researchers in
other disciplines and by practitioners within the
industry. It is up to air transportation geogra-
phers to look back to their disciplinary home
and make those within geography aware of their
skills and accomplishments.’
Note
1
The author acknowledges that this methodology
may have omitted some works, especially historical
ones, but feels that the majority of the works by ge-
ographers in the field of air transport have been cap-
tured. Articles appearing prior to 2004 are included
in the analysis.
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TIMOTHY M. VOWLES is a lecturer in the Insti-
tute of Geography at Victoria University of Welling-
ton, Wellington, New Zealand. E-mail: tim.vowles@
vuw.ac.nz. His research interests include the growth of
low cost airlines, airfare pricing and service
issues, and the role air transport plays in linking
urban areas.