1

THE THEMATIC AND FREE DRAWINGS IN

GROUP PSYCHOTHERAPY
Prof. Rezo Korinteli

Ilia State University Tbilisi Georgia

Abstract
The Thematic and free drawing can be the valuable tool for communicating with group
members who have hard time expressing themselves verbally. Every picture tells a story
and helps group members become more sensitive and empathetic to each other through
their drawings. Group members learn to feel confident in working with drawing to
recognize not yet revealed inner conflicts. Thematic and free drawings have diagnostic and
prognostic abilities wit different kinds of patients They are used as projective technique

“ The individual is thus both the picture and the artist

He is the artist of his own personality."
Alfred Adler.
LITERATURE REVIEW

Psychiatric interest in the art of the insane dates back well over eighty years. Many of the several
hundred contributions start from clinical material. The problem is an ancient one in the world.
Cave paintings of Prehistoric Man, The Ritual Objects of ancient Egyptian, Indian
civilizations , Recovered Mayan Temples and Cretan Palaces estimate the meaning of man's
existence as shown through his art. The man of those times sought through such projections to
relate himself to the cosmos and search out the meaning of existence. We can consider the
nature and function of art in its symbolic aspects . It was first and with remarkable wisdom
posed by Plato. His distinction between the 'productive insanity' of the creative genius and the
pathology of insanity itself approximates formulations suggested by contemporary
psychoanalytic insight. Under the influence of the expressionistic and surrealist movements in
contemporary art there has been a search for the genius in the insane.
Sigmund Freud’s views are the foundation for most theories of psychotherapy and undoubtedly
have been a major influence on the development of art therapy in the 20th century and continue
to be up to the present day. Freud observed that many patients’ most meaningful remarks were
descriptions of visual images; in his first case of child analysis he reported on drawings in the
case of Little Hans (1905) and later in the classic case known as “the wolf man” (1918). Freud’s
discovery that dreams have meaning was also key to the foundation of psychoanalytic approach
to art therapy. He noted, “We experience it [a dream] predominantly in visual images . . . part of
the difficulty of giving an account of dreams is due to our having to translate these images into
words. ‘I could draw it,’ a dreamer often says to us, ‘but I don’t know how to say it’ ” (1916–
1917, p. 90). His theory of the unconscious influenced the development of psychoanalytic approach to
art therapy as well as the development of projective drawing techniques that emphasized the
emergence of unconscious material through images. Freud’s theory of ego defense mechanisms,
particularly sublimation which has been related to artistic expression ( Kramer, 1993), also
influenced the course of the psychoanalytic approach to art therapy. Although Freud first
reveal the role of the unconscious in the interpretation of dreams, he placed specific limitation
on such unconscious responses.
S. Freud’s daughter, Anna Freud had an impact on art therapy. Although her father did not
direct his patients to draw, Anna used art and other expressive activity in her work and

1
 2
recognized art expression as an aid in treatment because children could not engage in adult free
association.
C.G. Jung suggest through the drawings we can explore the unconscious mind and decipher
underlying complexes. He had different ideas about the symbolic role of images than Freud. In
contrast to Freud, he used art as a method of self-analysis and his personal experience as the
foundation for his thinking about the importance of imagery in analysis. Jung believed that if a
patient relied on the therapist to interpret a dream or fantasy, the patient would remain in a state
of dependence on the analyst. Jung (1934) invited his patients to paint, noting that “the aim of
this method of expression is to make unconscious content accessible and so bring it closer to the
patient’s understanding” (p.182).
Jung’s ideas about treatment developed partially from his belief that one must establish a
dialogue between the conscious and unconscious in order to achieve psychic equilibrium. He
believed one way this balance could be achieved was through tapping the transcendent qualities
of symbols such as those in art and dreams. Jung considered symbols to be unifiers of opposites
within a single entity and as natural attempts by the psyche to reconcile inner conflicts and to
achieve individuation. Jung believed that all humans shared a collective unconscious and
universal archetypes common to all cultures... Jung understood from his own experiences and
those of his patients that art making was useful method of tapping the healing aspects of
archetypes. Along with analysis he thought images helped his patients to become aware of the
archetypes in their lives and to bring them to consciousness.
Jung’s technique of active imagination has been adapted by McNiff S. (1994) referred to as
“dialoguing with the image,” and others. Prinzhorn's (1922; 1995) book Bildnerei Der
Geisteskranken was based on collection of psychotic art known as the Heidelberg Collection,
which he had gathered from many of the insane asylums of Europe .
The most notable perhaps was Margaret Naumburg (1966) who used spontaneous drawings
within the framework of psychoanalysis. Naumburg, whose training included both Freudian and
Jungian approaches, subscribed to the Freudian concept of free association, encouraging the
image maker to verbally provide descriptions of spontaneous art created. She named her
therapeutic approach dynamically oriented art therapy She believed that the unconscious can be
communicated through symbolic expression. Naumburg noted that art expression made it
possible for a person to place unconscious material directly into an image, whereas in
psychoanalysis, visual experiences must be transformed into verbal communication. Although
Naumburg did not agree with the psychoanalytic practice of putting subjective experiences into
words, she did consider the individual’s verbal associations to be important.
Sechehay M.A. (1951) Swiss psychoanalysts describes approaches which emphasise new
symbolic techniques (Symbolic Realization ) and have contributed some important additions to
the treatment of schizophrenics. Edith Kramer (1979, 1993) with her work with children,
emphasized the importance of sublimation and other defense mechanisms derived from Freud.
According to Judith Rubin (1978, 2001), an art therapist , a psychoanalytic understanding of the
patient is enhanced through the use of art expression as therapy. Milner M. (1957, 1969)
explored and integrated psychoanalytic principles in her clinical work which included the
interplay of analysis, creativity, and artistic process; Levick M. (1983), considers that art
expressions as reflections of defence mechanisms; Winnicott D. (1965, 1971) also provided a
unique contributions to psychoanalytic understanding of art and play therapy with children;
Winnicott’s ideas (scribble technique and art and storytelling). Winnicott’s (1953) concepts of
“transitional space” and “transitional objects” are of particular interest to art therapy.
Schaverien J. (1992) has extensively explored analytic psychology’s role in the art therapy
process, providing the most comprehensive examination to date of the function of image making
in analysis. Edwards M.(1987), a British art therapist trained in Jungian analysis, proposed an
integration of analytic theory and art therapy.

2
 3
More recently, transpersonal approaches to art therapy have incorporated Jungian philosophy
with transpersonal psychology and spiritual practices (Franklin, Farrelly-Hansen, Marek,
Swan-Foster, & Wallingford, 2000; Malchiodi, 2002)
Others who have influenced the development of Jungian-based art therapy include Wallace E.
(1975, 1987), an artist and analyst combined active imagination and art expression; Keyes M.
(1983) blended Jungian principles with more humanistically based therapies such as transaction
analysis and Gestalt therapy; Allan (1988), who combined Jungian principles with counseling
principles in his work with children; and Kellogg (1978), who explored mandala and became
best known for her development of a therapeutic and projective instrument called the
MARI® Card Test©, which evolved from eight years of collecting, observing, and
classifying thousands of Mandala drawings by clients.

PARAMETERS AND METHODS

Methods and Parameters ,Used for Structural Analysis of Drawings and Paintings during
Group Psychotherapy
Formal parameters : 1.Paper format size of sheet of paper which is used for drawing; 2.Human
figures ;3. Abstract symbols ( Numbers, Geometrical figures); 4.Plant, Animal; 5.Colour
Methods:
Since 1988, the author has led a therapy group at a Mental hospital for patients with neuroses in
Tbilisi Georgia. Functioning groups were small , closed and open, heterogeneous socio-cultural
characteristics.

Thematic Drawings .
The function of projective drawing picture is to provide the additional material for discussion in
group. It enables to reveal and understand the problem and experiences which are difficult for
verbalization. The session is set up in the following way: each patient takes a piece of white
paper, colored pencil and starts to draw thematic picture.
The themes could be concerning both individual and group's problems:
Who I am, who I want to be, who I seem to be for the people around me; My family when I was
very little; My family now; My parents; I among people; My concept of a patient with neurosis
and of a healthy person; My most difficult problem; The most pleasant and the most unpleasant
memory or experience (in childhood or life in general); My main problem; What I don't like in
people; Three desires; Island of Happiness; Life without neurosis; My main heroes; My group;
Somebody from the members of the group.
Free Drawing
In order to explain how to use drawing or painting materials to group members it is desirable a
brief demonstration of how to use a chalk pastel .
The drawing takes 30 minutes. First, members of the group discuss what the author wanted to
say in his picture and speak about the associations about picture which come to their mind. Then
it is the turn of the author to speak. Differences in interpretations are discussed . It is possible to
run the session in a different way when the whole group draws one picture. In this case
participation of each participant, nature of contribution of each patient in creating the picture,
and their interactions within the group are discussed. This method is a type of projective art
therapy where the pictures are discussed in the group to reveal the problems of each member of
the group, and those of the group as a whole.

Amplification Method
Amplification was originally a method of dream interpretation developed by Jung and is
different than free association in that it implies “sticking with the image” by viewing it from all
facets (McConeghey, H. 2001). Amplification is strictly an analytic approach in which a dream
image or motif is enlarged, clarified, and given a meaningful context by comparing it with

3
 4

similar images from mythology, folklore, and comparative religion. According to this process, an
image can-not be interpreted by its content alone; it also must be considered in terms of what
the content might symbolize and the symbol itself must be given a meaningful con-text.
Jung believed that amplification establishes the collective context of a dream,
enabling it to be seen not only in its personal aspect but also in general archetypal
terms which are common to all humanity. In other words, each element in an image
may be a representation of the person’s life and current circumstances as well as a
representation of archetypal symbols.
In general, there are two different approaches to amplification: subjective and objective (in
Keyes, M.1983). In objective amplification, the analyst collects themes from mythology,
religion, and other sources to illuminate the symbol. In subjective amplification, the individual
uses the technique of “active imagination” to find associations to the symbol.
Active imagination is a method described by Jung C.(1916) as a way to release creativity within
the individual by using fantasy and dreams as the primary mode of healing. It is the dynamic
production of inward images in which the individual is encouraged to observe those images
(Jacobi, J. 1942).

Von Franz (in Keyes, 1983) describes active imagination in the following four stages:
1. Emptying one’s mind in a similar way to meditation.
2. Allowing images to enter one’s field of attention and focusing on them without
holding on with too much concentration or allowing images to pass by
without observation; this balance between relaxation required to allow images
to emerge and the tension necessary to attend to the images can be difficult
to achieve and may require both patience and practice.
3. Recording what has been seen in writing or in an art form such as paint, to
give form to the experience.
4. Reflecting on the messages received from the experience.

RESULTS

The peculiarities and differences of drawings and paintings of patients with psychosis,
neurosis and personality disorders;
• Most of the patients both schizophrenics and neurotics , in both genders ,choose the
same paper size

• Human figures more frequent in the drawings of neurotics, personality disorders than
schizophrenics

• Color-emotion is less frequent in schizophrenic drawings than in neurotics

• Depressive mood is characterized by colorless drawings in Schizophrenia Neurosis and

personality disorders

4
 5

Schizophrenics drawings are characterized by :

See Picture N 1
• using Geometric forms schematic and decorative elements

• Abstract Symbols

• condensation of the elements

• most of the drawing are static

• Schizophrenic fractions

• break of perspective

• break of the symmetry and balance of the composition

• Above mentioned formal characteristics we can find in neurotics and personality

disorders too. Here the diagnosis always made based on the associations of the patients
on their drawings

Picture 1
5
 6
These are the pictures of a patient, diseased with schizophrenia. She complained about
restricted affect, poverty of thought, apathy and anhedonia. On the picture features, characteristic
for schizophrenia can be noticed: geometric forms, schematic and decorative elements,
schizophrenic fragmentation, condensation of the elements, static character of drawing, break of
symmetry, balance and perspective.
The similar features to schizophrenic one can be found out in pictures of neurotic
patients (see pic. ). In order to distinguish them from schizophrenia, we must take into account
association of the patients on their drawings. In case of schizophrenia, the associations on
drawings have poor links with everyday reality and are not connected with the content of the
drawing, they are symbolic and are accompanied with inadequate emotional reactions,
neologisms are very frequent in these associations.
In the contrary, in cases of neurosis and Personality disorders, the associations reveal
interpersonal conflict and are connected to everyday reality, in particular, to the micro-social
problems. In these cases, the emotional reaction of the patient is adequate.

2. The Associations on drawings and paintings in patients with Neuroses

See Pictures 4 5
• The associations on drawing and paintings in patients with Neuroses :

• a) reveal mainly interpersonal conflicts ;

• b) are connected with micro-social problems( family work);

• c) usually are concrete and connected with the content of the drawings

• d) Clang associations are less than in Schizophrenics

• e) are accompanied with adequate emotions

6
 7

Picture 4
The case of 27 years old woman. Till 25 she lived without partner. A couple years ago she met a
man who after long solicitation and courting made her his girlfriend. Having become his lover,
she supported him financially in spite of the fact that he also had money though of dubious
origin. Soon she discovered that her lover had a love affair with another woman. She was
shocked and shortly afterwards she broke up all relationships with him. After the break he
continued his solicitations, encroached upon her privacy. But she became disappointed and
indifferent towards him. She regrets that till now she has not married and does not have children.
However, she had not wanted to have children, because she thought that they would hinder her
life. She reckoned that if she were a mother, she wouldn’t be able to enjoy her time.
Her association : The question mark is the uncertainty of the condition of my problem. This is
a hand of a lazy man who wants neither to work nor to read. This is a tender aristocratic hand.
A man under a foot is a symbol of scorned dignity, injustice. Money is greed. It is very
important where they come from. They come from unknown, dubious source from uncertainty. I
know who gives me money and what for.
The following picture depicts unfulfilled dream or frustrated erotic desire.
Her associations: " this is a romantic journey, rainbow stands for optimism, concord is expressed
by 7 colours. I like rainbow very much. There is the hope for the future in the sky. The children
in the clouds are the desire of having children, although this desire is still in the sky in the
clouds. The clouds have the shape of heart, while heart is the symbol of love.”
"The sea is symbol of eternity, strength, openness, freedom and unlimited space. There is a
man and a woman in the boat against a background of nature – that is the idyll of love and
romantic relationship between two close people in the sea in the lap of nature. This is the
uninhabited island of love. Love is always heavenly, airy and it is very painful when it is over."
Some members of the group confided to her that in their lives they experienced the same
disappointment. It helped her to overcome the sense of self-isolation and compare her own

7
 8
problems with the problems of other group members. As a result she discovered that in many
respect they coincided with her own experience – the fact helping to overcome the sense of
uniqueness (“nobody had such problems”) of her sufferings.
“I became aware that my problem was not unique. It proved that I am not the only person who
suffered that. It helped me to come closer to other members of the group.” Thus, the patient
develops the sense of unity with the group, the “us-consciousness”, and hence the level of
cohesion of the group is increased, which facilitates further efficient involvement into natural
groups, i.e. re-adaptation.

Picture 5
The case of 22 years old maiden who suffered from anorexia. Anorexia developed during her
stay in Germany. She was staying in a German family as an exchange-program guest. After the
quarrel with the daughter of her mistress she refused to eat. She concealed the quarrel from her
masters, and they got afraid and put her into the hospital. After treatment she returned to
Georgia, her homeland. To avoid possible exacerbations she started participating in group
sessions. Here is her picture on the topic “My family when I was very little”.
During the discussion about her drawing the most members of the group noted that there was no
food on the table and her mother's eyes were turned to her sister.
Below her associations on her drawing and on the associations of group members are given:
“My mother has always paid more attention to my sister. I was deprived of her attention, she
preferred her to me. I felt that almost the whole of my life and I suffered that, but I never spoke
of that. In Germany I suddenly found myself in the similar situation.
The daughter of my mistress, the girl of the same age as me, with whom I lived in the same
room, reproached me. We argued a little. All of a sudden I felt myself alone, powerless in the
alien environment. My mood depressed, appetite disappeared, and I didn’t want to eat anything
anymore”.

8
 9
The drawing made her aware of her jealousy complex, which she had towards the relationship
with her mother and her sister. During the stay in Germany with the host family, the existing
situation triggered and activated the deep-seated jealousy complex existing in the past, which
lead her to the episode of anorexia.

Picture 6
Depressive Mother
40 years old woman suffered from depression. Prior to her group psychotherapy sessions,
she had undergone medicinal treatment with a psychiatrist and on the advice of the psychiatrist
she participated in the group psychotherapy sessions. Her drawings on the topic “My Family
When I was Very Little” clearly shows that she was rejected by her depressive mother.

9
 10

Picture 7
This picture shows the patient’s family when she was very little. Here we can see an alcoholic
father with his boon companions and how depressively this situation influences the child.

3.The Associations on drawings and paintings in patients with Schizophrenia

a) are mainly oriented on intrapsychic/transpersonal sphere;
• b) have poor links with everyday life;

• c) are abstract and have symbolic meaning are often not connected with the content of
the drawings

• d) more clang associations

• e) are accompanied with non adequate emotions

4. The Association on drawing and paintings in patients with Personality Disorders

• Paintings and drawings with personality disorders show main character structure

See picture 8 9 10 11 12a b

10
 11

Picture 8
Patient 33 years old who had a problem of controlling aggression. He brought on the session his
picture on the topic “My family when I was very little”. The analysis of the content of the picture
6, of the associations of the group members, and of his own association about his pictures
revealed the strong father complex. In the picture father is represented as a strong powerful
figure whose forefinger is in upright position with the purpose of warning. It made him aware of
castrating influence of his father. “My father has always been better than me by wit, intellect,
talent and physical force. I have always been in his shade”.
The situation was also complicated by the fact that father and son had the same profession. The
patient had ambivalent feeling towards his father. He was grateful to him and at the same time
angry with him. He experienced anger towards him and he tried to get rid of his infantile
dependency on him.

11
 12

Picture 9
The following picture 7 concerns his family now. The picture distinctly shows inadequate way of
expression of his aggression towards his father, his attempt to get rid of influence from his
father, of inferiority complex, of getting free in an unhealthy way (acting out ),and of the forms
of inadequate unhealthy forms of self-assertion.

12
 13

Picture 10
Patent with Dependent Personality Disorders
Since childhood she has been showing a childlike dependency on others, passively
allowing others to assume responsibility for her life because of her inability to function
independently. She lacked the self-confidence and tended to cling to others, especially when she
was under stress.
In the group she made unusual demands upon group members and often besieged them
for advice and reassurance, not only regarding her illness but also in other cases.
Based on her own associations and opinions, expressed by the group members about her
drawing, she came to the following: “this fungus mushroom symbolises my dependency on
others, my parasite-like life. I live my life like this parasite mushroom – I always lived at the
other’s expense and was feeding with other’s energy”. After the several month she brings this
drawing, where, as you can see, the mushroom is depicted again, but in light colours and on the
light background. In the group she became more active, more self-confident. Here we can
clearly notice her emotional attitude towards the group and positive influence of the group on her
psycho-emotional state; however her character structure, dependent personality, remains
unchanged.

13
 14

Picture 11

The hysterical personality disorders.

The picture clearly shows such traits of hysteric personality as behavior in order to attract
attention, exhibitionistic quality, seeking for open admiration, exaggerated emotional reactions,
seductive appearance, and concerns about physical attractiveness, extreme striving for success.

14
 15

Picture 12 a

15
 16

Picture 12 b
Obsessive Compulsive Personality Disorders
The patient was conscientious, dependable, punctual, precise, who couldn’t adapt easily
to the sudden changes. He appeared to group members as fussy, perfectionist, overly strict, rigid
and inflexible. He sets high standards not only for himself, but also for others, making
unreasonable demands on the family members and on subordinates at work. His sense of
obligation to his employers made difficult for him to relax and to reduce his workload even after
(may be while) recovering from heart attack. Here is his drawing, where we can see the
recurrent, persistent and repetitive - compulsion characteristics. This picture shows the
compulsory repetition of same patterns / motives.

The main practical value of the drawings and paintings and significance of their use
during group psychotherapy:
• Drawings can be the valuable tool for communicating with group members who have a
problem, hard time expressing themselves verbally

• 2. The drawings and paintings allow a true decentering from one's problem

• 3. Real disclosure of some not yet revealed inner conflicts

• 4. Not only can the drawing provide a different avenue of approaches it may also
reveal problems that are of concern to the patient who are unaware of them.

16
 17
• 5. These problems may include: a) the family dynamics, b)issues of grieve and loss
or c) more serious issues The drawing provide an opportunity to discuss as well as
discern these problems

6. They are used as a projective test and intervention techniques;

• 7. Every pictures tells a story and helps group members become more sensitive and
empathetic to each other through their drawing ;

• 8. Group members learn to feel confident in working with drawings to recognise the
family dynamics with member's drawings ;

• 9. They have diagnostic and prognostic abilities with different kinds of patient

• 10. Paintings and drawings with personality disorders show mainly character structure;

• 11. Free drawing gives the visible shape outside the ourselves to the unconscious
psychic energy blocking us from within, and thus loosens its hold on us;

• 12. By observing manifestation of forces objectified on paper ,group members can gain
a better perspective on their inner worlds and understanding leads to release from the
control of unconscious energies.

VI The Influence of the Discussions about Drawings and Painting's on Group Process
• 1.Increases group cohesiveness and member interdependence

• 2. creates communication networks

• 3.Multiple transference reactions take place

REFERENCES
Allan, J. (1988). Inscapes of the child’s world. Dallas, TX: Spring.
Edwards, M. (1987). Jungian analytic art therapy. In J. Rubin (Ed.), Approaches to art therapy
(pp.92–113). New York: Brunner/Mazel.
Franklin, M., Farrelly-Hansen, M., Marek, B., Swan-Foster, N., & Wallingford, S. (2000).
Transpersonal art therapy education. Art Therapy: Journal of the American Art Therapy As-
sociation,17(2), 101–110.
Freud ,A. (1971) Problems of Psychoanalytic Training, Diagnosis, and the Technique of
Therapy. The Writings of Anna Freud, Vol. VII: New York: International Universities Press.
312 pp.
Freud, S. (1905). Analysis of a phobia in a 5-year-old boy (Vol. 10). London: Hogarth Press.
Freud, S. (1916–1917). Introductory letters on psychoanalysis (Vol. 12). London: Hogarth Press.
Freud, S. (1918). From the history of an infantile neurosis (Vol. 17). London: Hogarth Press.
Jacobi, J. (1942). The psychology of C. G. Jung. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Jung, C. G. (1916). The transcendent function, CW 8. Princeton, NJ: Bollingen [reprinted 1960].
Jung, C. G. (1934). Mandala symbolism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Jung, C. G. (1997) Jung on Active Imagination. London: Routledge.
Kellogg, J. (1978). Mandala: Path of beauty. Clearwater, FL: Association for Teachers of
Mandala Assessment.
Keyes, M. (1983). Inward journey: Art as therapy. La Salle, IL: Open Court.
Kramer, E. (1979). Childhood and art therapy. New York: Schocken.
Kramer, E. (1993). Art as therapy with children. Chicago: Magnolia Street.

17
 18
Levick, M. (1983). They could not talk and so they drew: Children’s styles of coping and
thinking.Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas.
Malchiodi, C. A. (2002). The soul’s palette. Boston: Shambhala.
McConeghey, H. (2001). Art and soul. Dallas, TX: Spring.
McNiff, S. (1994). Art as medicine. Boston: Shambhala.
Milner, M. (1957). On not being able to paint. New York: International Universities Press.
Milner, M. (1969). The hands of the living god. New York: International Universities Press.
Naumburg, M. (1966). Dynamically oriented art therapy: Its principles and practice. New York:
Grune & Stratton.

Prinzhorn, H.(1922) . Bildnerei der Geisteskranken, Aufl., Berlin

Prinzhorn, H. (1995). Artistry of the mentally ill, ed. Eric von Brockdorff,, New York (Springer)
Rubin, J. (1978). Child art therapy. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Rubin, J. (2001). Approaches to art therapy. New York: Brunner/Mazel.
Schaverien, J. (1992). The revealing image. London: Routledge.

Sechehay M.A. (1970). Symbolic realization; a new method of psychotherapy applied to a case
of schizophrenia (Barbrö Würsten and Helmut Würsten, Trans.). New York: International
Universities Press. (Original work published 1947)

Wallace, E. (1975). Creativity and Jungian thought. Art Psychotherapy, 2, 181–187.

Wallace, E. (1987). Healing through the visual arts: A Jungian approach. In J. Rubin (Ed.),
Approaches to art therapy (pp. 95–107). New York: Brunner/Mazel.
Winnicott, D. (1953). Transitional objects and transitional phenomena. International Journal of
Psychiatry, 34, 89–97.
Winnicott, D. (1965). The maturation processes and the facilitating environment. New York:
Inter-national Universities Press.
Winnicott, D. W. (1971). Therapeutic consultations in child psychiatry. New York: Basic
Books.

18