What Is This Module About?

When was the last time you felt an earthquake? Do you know what causes an
earthquake? What areas in the Philippines and in the world are most likely to
experience earthquakes? Would you like to know more about earthquakes?
This module is all about eartquakes—their types and causes as well as their
effects on both living and nonliving things. This module is divided into two lessons.
These are:
Lesson 1 – Earthquakes: Types and Causes
Lesson 2 – The Effects of Earthquakes

What Will You Learn From This Module?

After reading this module, you should be able to:

♦ describe how an earthquake occurs;
♦ identify earthquake-prone areas in the Philippines and the rest of the world;
♦ describe how the occurrence of an earthquake is detected and how its
strength is measured;
♦ explain how earthquakes affect people and the environment; and
♦ discuss safety measures to take before, during and after an earthquake.

1
 Let’s See What You Already Know

Before you start studying this module, take the following test first to find out
how much you already know about the topics to be discussed.
Write the letter of the correct answer in the blank before each number.
_____ 1. Giant sea waves caused by an earthquake on the ocean floor are called
__________.
a. plates
b. faults
c. tides
d. tsunamis
_____ 2. The shaking and trembling that result from the sudden movement of a
part of the earth’s crust is known as ___________.
a. landslide
b. mudflow
c. earthquake
d. tectonic plate

Study the figure below. Use it as your basis for your answers to items 3 and 4.

_____ 3. The underground point of origin of an earthquake is located at x.

What does x represent?
a. focus
b. epicenter
c. magma
d. wave

2
_____ 4. The spot on the surface of the earth directly above x is y. What do
you call y?
a. focus
b. epicenter
c. magma
d. wave
_____ 5. The phenomenon that results when the shaking brought on by an
earthquake decreases the stiffness and strength of soil is called
_______.
a. siltation
b. liquefaction
c. landslide
d. fire
_____ 6. The zone that circles the Pacific Ocean is called the Ring of Fire
because there are many _________ in this area.
a. forest fires starting
b. denuded mountains
c. volcanoes erupting
d. deep valleys
_____ 7. The ___________ Scale contains the values of the magnitude of an
earthquake.
a. Celsius
b. Richter
c. Mercalli
d. Rossi-Forel
_____ 8. The destructive effects of an earthquake are indicated by its
intensity.
a. True
b. False
_____ 9. When an earthquake has a magnitude of 8 on the Richter Scale, how
will you describe its effects on areas near the epicenter?
a. damaging shocks
b. destruction in populated areas
c. serious damage to buildings
d. destroyed communities

3
 _____ 10. What is the safety measure that people should observe before an
earthquake occurs?
a. Conduct fire drills.
b. Conduct earthquake drills.
c. Conduct military drills.
d. Conduct calisthenics drills.

Well, how was it? Do you think you fared well? Compare your answers with those
in the Answer Key on page 39 to find out.
If all your answers are correct, very good! This shows that you already know
much about the topics in this module. You may still study the module to review what
you already know. Who knows, you might learn a few more new things as well.
If you got a low score, don’t feel bad. This means that this module is for you. It
will help you understand some important concepts that you can apply in your daily
life. If you study this module carefully, you will learn the answers to all the items in
the test and a lot more! Are you ready?
You may go now to the next page to begin Lesson 1.

4
 LESSON 1

Earthquakes: Types and Causes

When you throw a pebble into a pond, waves radiate outward in all directions on
the surface of the water. Similarly, when rocks in the earth’s crust break, earthquake
waves travel through the earth in all directions. The ground shakes and trembles.
During a strong earthquake, the ground can rise and fall like waves on an ocean. The
motion of the ground causes buildings, trees, electrical and telephone posts to sway
and fall. Loud noises can sometimes be heard coming from deep within the earth.
Would you like to learn more about earthquakes? This lesson will teach you many
things about earthquakes. You will find out how an earthquake occurs, how its
occurrence is predicted and its strength measured. You will also learn more about
areas in our country and in the rest of the world where earthquakes occur regularly.

Let’s Try This

Do you know how to make a stick move back and forth? Do the following
activity:
1. Get a wooden stick.
2. Hold the ends of the stick with both hands.
3. Bend the stick slowly.
4. Continue applying force on the stick until it breaks. Take note of the
movement of the stick as it breaks.

Let’s Think About This

The activity you did shows what happens when an earthquake occurs.
1. What caused the stick to bend?
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
2. Describe what happened to the stick right after it broke.
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________

Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on page 39.

5
 Let’s Learn

What causes earthquakes? Did you know that there are two types of earthquakes?
These are volcanic earthquakes and tectonic earthquakes.

Volcanic earthquakes are

earthquakes caused by volcanic
eruptions. The effects of volcanic
earthquakes are usually felt only in
areas around the erupting
volcanoes.

Volcanic earthquakes occur as

a result of volcanic eruptions.

Tectonic earthquakes occur

when there is movement under the
earth’s crust. They occur over a
wider area than volcanic
earthquakes.

The effects of a tectonic earthquake

are seen over a large area.

You will understand this better if we discuss the theory of plate tectonics. This
theory tells us that the earth’s lithosphere is made up of separate plates that are in
constant motion. These plates, called tectonic plates, are like pieces of a jigsaw
puzzle that fit together.

6
 North
American
Plate
Juan Eurasian
de Fuca Caribbean Plate
Plate Plate Philippine
Plate
Arabian
Cocos
Plate Caroline Plate
Plate South African Fuji
American Plate Plate
Pacific Plate
Nazca Plate
Plate Indo-Australian
Plate

Scolia Plate
Antarctic Plate

The earth’s lithosphere is made up of plates that are constantly moving.

The arrows point to the directions in which the plates are moving.

To understand the theory of plate tectonics better, let us first discuss the
composition of the earth. Do you know how the inner layer of the earth looks? The
interior of the earth is made up of three parts—the crust, mantle and core.
The crust is the outer layer of the earth. It is a relatively thin layer of rocks. This
is the layer of the earth that is visible to us. On it we find mountains, hills, valleys,
plains and even bodies of water. This outer layer is thickest in the continents (the land
part of the earth) and thinnest in the oceans.
The layer underneath the crust is the mantle. It is made up of rock materials,
although part of the upper mantle is actually a layer of semi-liquid molten rock called
magma. This molten material flows slowly underneath the crust.
The core is the innermost part of the earth. The outer core is made up of liquid
iron while the inner core is made up of solid iron.

continental crust
oceanic crust
lithosphere
rigid upper mantle

asthenosphere

The earth’s outer layer is the lithosphere. It is made up of the rigid

upper mantle and the crust. The asthenosphere is the part of the
mantle that flows, and it is on this that the lithosphere moves.

7
 The crust and the solid upper mantle are what make up the lithosphere.
According to the plate tectonics theory, the lithosphere is made up of plates, each
about 100 kilometers (km) thick, which float upon a hot, soft rock layer called the
asthenosphere. If you would like to know how the lithosphere looks, imagine several
slabs of ice floating on water. The slabs of ice are the plates, while the water is the
asthenosphere.
There are two types of plates—the continental and oceanic plates. The
continental plates make up the land part of the earth. Oceanic plates “hold” the earth’s
oceans. They are usually thinner but denser than continental plates.
There are nine large plates on earth, with some smaller ones around them. Study
the diagram below. It shows the nine major plates and a number of minor ones,
including the Philippine Plate. These plates are moving constantly in varying
directions relative to each other.

Eurasian Plate Philippine

Plate North American
Juan De Fuca Plate
Arabian Plate

African
Plate Pacific Plate

Cocos
South
Plate Nazca
Indo-Australian American
Plate
Plate Plate

Antarctic Plate

The major and smaller tectonic plates of the world

The nine major plates are the North American, South American, Eurasian,
African, Indo-Australian, Antarctic, Pacific, Nazca and Cocos Plates.
The smaller plates include the Philippine Plate. These plates are also very
important because they, too, are responsible for the many activities on the surface of
the earth.
Most plates are combinations of both oceanic and continental plates. However,
the Pacific Plate is almost entirely oceanic.

8
 Do you wonder why we don’t feel the plates of the earth moving underneath us?
Do you know how fast the plates move? Try imagining how fast your fingernails grow.
That’s how fast the earth’s plates are moving. The average speed at which a plate moves
in from 2 to 12 centimeters (cm) a year. No wonder we hardly ever notice this
movement! And yet, these movements are able to cause drastic changes on the surface
of the earth. Because of these movements, mountains and volcanoes are formed,
continents are divided and new islands are born.
It is not yet known what exactly causes the plates to move, but a lot of scientists
believe that the reason for this is the high temperature in the earth’s inner core, which
heats up the mantle. The heat causes convection currents, which are rising and
sinking movements, in the magma. The magma rises and spreads out then cools and
sinks, dragging along the plates attached to it.
Convection causes plate motion. This constant plate motion puts stress on the
lithosphere. When this stress is great enough, the lithosphere breaks or shifts. Do you
recall the activity you performed in “Let’s Try This” on page 5? The stick represents
the lithosphere and the force you applied to it represents the stress caused by plate
movements. When you put too much force on the stick, the stick broke. In the same
way, when there is too much stress on the earth’s crust, an earthquake occurs. When
stress is released, a tremendous amount of energy in the form of an earthquake is
released along with it.

Did you know that earthquakes occur every day? In fact,

several million earthquakes occur every day. The constant shifting
of the earth’s lithosphere is responsible for this. Fortunately for us,
most of these earthquakes are too small for us to feel.

Earthquakes most often occur along plate boundaries. Plate boundaries are
areas where plates meet. There are three types of plate boundaries, depending on the
movement of the plates—divergent, convergent and transform plate boundaries.
The first type of plate boundary is the divergent boundary or spreading center.
At this type of boundary, the plates are moving away from each other. As the two
plates move apart, magma rises from the mantle and mid-ocean ridges are created.
Mid-ocean ridges are vast mountain chains found in the ocean. This in turn leads to
the creation of new crust on either side of the vent.

9
 The pull-apart motion along divergent boundaries creates tension in the plates.
The crust eventually breaks and an earthquake occurs. However, because most rocks
are weaker when pulled apart than when compressed or pushed together, earthquakes
along divergent boundaries tend to be weak and small.

Cross-section Map view

sea level

In a divergent plate boundary, two plates are moving

away from each other, as indicated by the arrows.

The second type of plate boundary is the convergent boundary or subduction

zone. This boundary occurs when two plates move toward each other. When the two
plates collide, one of three things can happen, depending on the type of plates that
converge. When an oceanic plate collides with a continental plate, the oceanic plate
goes down into the mantle and melts partially because of the magma. The magma finds
an opening through which to come out, hence a volcano arc (a chain of volcanoes) is
formed.

oceanic plate
Cross-section Map view
sea level
continental
plate
oceanic plate

In a convergent plate boundary, two plates move toward each other.

When an oceanic plate collides with a continental plate, the oceanic
plate goes down into the mantle as indicated in the diagram on the left.

10
 When an oceanic plate collides with another oceanic plate, an island arc is
formed. An island arc is a curved chain of oceanic islands. The Philippines is an
example of an island arc. This also leads to the formation of trenches. A trench is the
deepest part of an ocean.

island arc trench

oceanic
lithosphere lithosphere

asthenosphere

asthenosphere

Collision between two oceanic plates leads to

the formation of island arcs and trenches.

When two continental plates collide, a mountain range is formed. For instance,
the Himalayas, which is the famous mountain range in India, was formed when the
Indian Plate collided with the Eurasian Plate.
The collision process in convergent boundaries leads to compression or the
pushing together of rocks on the earth’s crust. This action is the reason why the
strongest earthquakes occur in subduction zones. Hence, the Philippines is an
earthquake-prone area.
Do you know the Ring of Fire? The Ring of Fire is a zone of frequent
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions around the Pacific Ocean. Our country is included
in this zone. The ring stretches from the tip of South America, up the west side of
South, Central and North America, down to Japan, the Marianas Islands, Indonesia,
Papua New Guinea, Tonga and ends at New Zealand. Look at the picture on page 12.

11
 Ring of Fire

Ryujyu Trench Aleutian Trench

Kurile Trench
Japan Trench
Izu Bonin Trench
Puerto Rico
Philippine Trench
Trench
Marianas Trench
Challenger Deep Middle America
Trench
Bougainville Trench

Java Tonga Trench

(Sunda) Peru-Chile
Trench Kermadec Trench Trench
South
Sandwich
Trench

The Ring of Fire is found around the Pacific Ocean. Did you notice
that there are plenty of trenches in this zone?

Do you know why there are plenty of trenches in the Ring of Fire? There are
plenty of trenches here because of the subduction in the Pacific Plate.

T T
American
Plate
Pacific Plate

T
R
Nazca
Indo-Australian
Plate
T
R
Antarctic
R
The Pacific Plate collides with the Indo-Australian and North American
Plates, hence, the formation of trenches (T) around the zone. It also moves
away from the Antarctic Plate, leading to the formation of mid-ocean ridges
(R).

12
 Let’s look more closely at the Pacific Plate of which the Philippines is a part.
The Pacific Plate collides with the Indo-Australian and North American Plates. Being
an oceanic plate, part of the Pacific Plate has gone under the two continental plates.
Hence, there are plenty of subduction zones in this plate, forming the Ring of Fire.
There are also plenty of island arcs, namely, the Aleutian, Japan, Ryukyu, Pacific and
Marianas Arcs.

There are also plenty of subduction zones in the minor plates. For instance, the
Philippine Plate which is found east of our country and the Eurasian Plate which is on
the west are two colliding plates. In fact, the Philippines was formed from the
subduction of these plates. This subduction is also responsible for the strong
earthquakes in Japan.

A transform plate boundary is one where two plates slide past each other.
Movement is not smooth because of friction between the rocks of the two plates and
this sometimes leads to the two plates getting stuck and locked together. Because the
convection currents are still dragging the plates, much tension and pressure are built
up at the transform boundary. When there is sufficient pressure already, the rocks in
the plates break and get jerked apart. This leads to earthquakes.

Cross-section Map View

surface
T A

In a transform plate boundary, one plate is moving toward a certain direction

(T) while the other plate is moving toward the opposite direction (A).

13
 Let’s Review

Let’s find out how much you understood from the discussion. Write the letter of
your choice on the line before each number.
_____1. The three layers of the earth are the ________.
a. core, asthenosphere and mantle
b. crust, mantle and core
c. crust, magma and core
d. mantle, core and magma
_____2. The driving force for the movement of the earth’s plates is _______.
a. conduction
b. stress
c. radiation
d. convection
_____3. A __________ occurs when two plates are moving away from each
other.
a. divergent plate boundary
b. subduction zone
c. convergent plate boundary
d. mid-ocean ridge
_____4. When two continental plates collide, a _________ is formed.
a. mountain range
b. volcano arc
c. mid-ocean ridge
d. trench
_____5. The strongest earthquakes occur in the _________.
a. transform plate boundary
b. subduction zone
c. divergent plate boundary
d. island arc

Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on page 39.

14
 Let’s Try This

Here’s another activity you can do in order to

simulate an earthquake. Place your hands together with
your thumbs up. Push your hands together. When you
do this, you create pressure between your hands. As
you try to slide your hands apart, you create friction
which stops you from sliding your hands easily. Stress
builds in your hands and arms as well.
What do you think your hands represent? Read on
to find out.

Let’s Learn

Faults are areas on the crust where fractures are created by the motion of the
plates. They are the ones that absorb the motion of the plates. It is on faults where
stress builds up.
Faults are narrow zones which separate blocks of crust. A well-known fault is the
San Andreas Fault which separates the Pacific Plate from the North American Plate.
The Pacific Plate has San Francisco and Los Angeles on it, hence, earthquakes occur
frequently in these two districts in the U.S.A.
On the other hand, the Philippine Fault runs from Lingayen Gulf to Eastern
Mindanao. Deep earthquakes can occur along this fault especially in Luzon and
Mindanao. Hence, the largest earthquakes in the twentieth century took place in these
areas. Look at the map on the next page. You can see that the Philippines has plenty of
fault zones, trenches and troughs that are sites of active movements of the earth’s
crust. (A trough is an elongated depression in the earth’s crust that is bounded by
faults.)

15
 Subduction

Fault line, active

Probable active
fault

Zone of collision
North
Luzon
Trench

East Luzon Trench

Lubang

Philippin
Fault
Manila Trench

e Sea
ina Sea

Ph
ilip
pi
ne
South Ch

Fa
ul
tZ

Philippin
on
e

e Trench
ch
ren

ch
T

en
s

r
gro

T
an
Ne

w
la Sulu Sea
Pa
h
enc
Tr
Mi

lu
nd

Su
an
ao
Cotabato

Fa
ult
Trench

Celebes Sea

The major seismic zones of the Philippines are found in the subduction zones and faults.

Faults resist the forces that try to move the plates apart. As the forces build up,
the fault remains locked and the blocks of crust get deformed because of the stress.
Eventually the stresses get so high that the fault breaks in order to release the stress.
Release of the stress allows the sides of the fault to slide past each other. This sliding
motion is what we experience as an earthquake.

16
 Elastic Rebound

Relaxed Stressed Released

When the limit for stress is reached, the rocks along a fault move suddenly and
the stress is released as elastic energy. Imagine a spring, like the one shown below.
When you put your hand down on the spring, you are putting stress on the spring.
When you release your hold on the spring, it bounces up. This is because the energy
stored in the spring is released. This is how the earth’s crust moves during an
earthquake.

Do you recall the activity on page 15? Do you know what your hands represent?
Your hands represent the sides of a fault moving against each other. After a while, it
became difficult for you to keep rubbing your hands against each other. The same
thing happens to two blocks of crust that are sliding past each other—they become
locked against each other. Continuous buildup of pressure leads to more stress along
the fault, causing the fault to break.
When an earthquake occurs, it pumps seismic waves into the surrounding rock.
Seismic waves are the form in which energy released by an earthquake travels. These
waves can travel all around the world and can be measured by an instrument called
seismograph.

17
 wire

support
weight
pen
rotating drum

Horizontal earth motion

The seismograph is used to measure the strength of an earthquake.

There are two basic kinds of seismic waves—body waves and surface waves.
Body waves travel within the earth. They travel outward in all directions from the
focus, the particular spot where the fault began to break. Surface waves, on the other
hand, travel only on the surface of the earth. They travel parallel to the surface, similar
to how ripples travel on the surface of a pond. They are also slower than body waves.
The body waves strike first when an earthquake takes place. The fastest kind are
the primary or P waves. Perhaps you have heard a trainlike sound just before you felt
an earthquake. That was the P wave moving in the air as an acoustic wave. P waves can
travel through gases, liquids or solids. After the P waves, the secondary or S waves
are the next to arrive.

P waves can be likened to the S waves move in a shear motion.

movement of a Slinky toy.

18
 S waves are felt as a powerful jolt. If you are in a building when an earthquake
strikes, the arrival of the S waves would feel as if a giant has pounded his fist down on
the roof.
Afterward, the surface waves strike. These waves cause up-and-down and back-
and-forth motions that make the ground appear to roll and can topple buildings over.

Let’s Review

1. What is the difference between body waves and surface waves?

________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
2. The picture below shows a seismogram which is a record of the shaking of
the ground caused by an earthquake. Identify the P waves and S waves on the
seismogram.

Time

Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on page 40.

19
 Let’s Learn

Locating Earthquakes
Seismology is the study of earthquakes, their causes as well as their effects.
Seismologists are able to locate an earthquake by examining the seismogram, which is
a record of the shaking of the ground made by the seismograph. Through the
seismogram, seismologists are also able to determine the focus and epicenter of the
earthquake. The focus of an earthquake is the specific spot on the fault from which the
earthquake originates, while the epicenter is the spot on the earth’s surface that is
directly above the focus.

epicenter

fault

focus
seismic waves
fault
The focus and epicenter of an earthquake

As we mentioned earlier, the seismogram shows the pattern of seismic waves.

Seismologists locate earthquakes by measuring the difference between the time of
arrival of the P waves and that of the S waves.
P waves travel almost twice as fast as S waves and hence will arrive first at the
seismological station. If you know the speed of the waves through the crust in a
particular area and you have a seismograph that records the arrival of the shocks, you
will be able to compute the distance of the station from the focus of the earthquake.
In order to come up with an accurate reading of the earthquake’s point of origin,
seismograms from at least three stations are needed. The radii of the circles drawn
from the three foci to the stations are measured. The point at which the three circles
intersect is the focus of the earthquake.

20
 Let’s Think About This

Let’s imagine that there are three seismological stations that were able to record
a certain earthquake. One station detected the earthquake at a distance of 4,800 km;
another station recorded the distance of the earthquake as 2,800 km; and the third
station recorded the distance as 3,400 km. Where do you think the focus of the
earthquake is?

4,800 km

focus

3,400 km

2,800 km

In order to determine the epicenter of the earthquake, the seismologists in the

three stations drew circles using the location of their respective stations as the center
(black squares) and their recorded distances as the radii. The point at which the three
circles intersect is the focus of the earthquake, as indicated by the black square
outline in the diagram above.

Let’s Learn

Predicting Earthquakes
Can we predict earthquakes? What do you think? Seismologists have found some
warning signals that help predict earthquakes. Sometimes slight changes in the tilt of
the earth’s surface can be detected by sensitive instruments. Geologists also note that
land near a fault may rise or sink slightly. The water level in wells will often go up or
down when an earthquake is about to occur.
Scientists continue to study earthquakes in the hope of improving their ablity to
predict these accurately. Earthquake prediction must be reliable and complete. The
information must include where, when and how strong the earthquake will be. If a
strong earthquake is predicted, areas in danger can be evacuated.
21
 If strong earthquakes could be predicted years in advance, people could plan their
places of residence and business better. Buildings could be reinforced to better
withstand the shock from an earthquake.
The goal of short-range earthquake prediction is to provide people a means of
knowing the location and magnitude of a large earthquake that will occur within a
short period of time. Substantial efforts to achieve this objective are being made in
the United States, Japan, China and Russia, countries where earthquake risks are high.
Scientists in these countries want to find out what possible precursors or events come
ahead that serve as a warning that an earthquake is coming. In California, for example,
some seismologists are measuring uplift (rising of a portion of the earth’s crust),
subsidence (lowering of a portion of the earth’s crust) and strain in the rocks near
active faults.
Some Japanese scientists are studying peculiar behavior among animals that may
precede an earthquake. Do you recall the incident when about five trucks of jellyfish
were fished out from a river near the Napocor plant in Sual, Pangasinan? A few hours
later, an earthquake was felt in several provinces and cities. Some people living near
Mayon Volcano also claim to have seen snakes coming down from the volcano before
it erupted.
Can you think of examples of anomalous animal behavior?
Some of these include fish “jumping” into a lake, dogs howling, ducks and geese
quacking continuously and animals like snakes going down into volcanoes.

Measuring Earthquakes
Early attempts to establish the intensity of an earthquake relied much on
description of the events. Intensity is an indication of the destructive effects of an
earthquake on a particular place. Intensity is affected by such factors as distance from
the epicenter and the nature of surface materials. This can of course cause confusion
because people’s experiences of one earthquake event will vary depending on their
location and the kind of surface they live on.
In1902, a fairly reliable scale based on the amount of damage on structures was
developed by Guiseppe Mercalli. Later on it was modified by the U.S. Coast and
Geodetic Survey. See the table on the next page.

22
 Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale

I. Not felt except by very few.

II. Felt only by a few persons at rest, especially on upper floors of buildings.

III. Felt quite noticeably indoors especially on upper floors of buildings but
many people do not recognize it as an earthquake.

IV. Felt indoors by many, outdoors by few. Sensation like heavy truck striking
building.

V. Felt by nearly everyone, can rouse many from sleep. Disturbances of trees,
poles and other tall objects sometimes noticed.

VI. Felt by all; many are frightened and run outdoors. Some heavy furniture
moved; few instances of fallen plaster or damaged chimneys. Damage slight.

VII. Everybody runs outdoors. Damage negligible in buildings of good design

and construction; slight to moderate in well-built ordinary structures;
considerable in poorly built or badly designed structures.

VIII. Damage slight in specially designed structures; considerable in ordinary

substantial buildings with partial collapse; great in poorly built structures.

IX. Damage considerable in specially designed structures. Buildings shifted off

their foundations. Ground cracked considerably.

X. Some well-built wooden structures destroyed, most masonry and frame

structures destroyed with foundations. Ground badly cracked.

XI. Few, if any, of the structures remain standing. Bridges destroyed. Broad
fissures in the ground.

XII. Damage total. Waves seen on ground surfaces. Objects thrown upward into
the air.

23
 Another scale for measuring the intensity of an earthquake is the Rossi-Forel
Scale.

Rossi-Forel Scale of Earthquake Intensities

I. Hardly perceptible Felt only by experienced observers and

recorded only by a single seismograph or by
seismographs of the same kind.

II. Extremely feeble shock Felt by a small number of persons at rest.

III. Very feeble shock Felt by several persons at rest; duration

and direction are perceptible;
sometimes dizziness or nausea will be felt.

IV. Feeble shock Felt generally indoors, outdoors by a few;

hanging objects swing slightly; creaking
of frames of houses.

V. Shock of moderate Felt by everyone; hanging objects swing

intensity freely; toppling of tall trees and
unstable objects; light sleepers awaken.

VI. Fairly strong shock General awakening of those asleep; some

frightened persons leave their houses;
swinging of hanging lamps; slight
damages in very old or poorly built
structures.

VII. Strong shock Toppling of movable objects; general

alarm; all run outdoors; damage slight in
well-built structures, old walls, etc.; some
landslides from hills and steep lands;
cracks on road surfaces.

VIII. Very strong shock People panicky; trees shaken strongly;

changes in the flow of springs and wells;
sand and mud ejected from fissures in
soft ground; small landslides.

IX. Extremely strong shock Panic general; partial or total destruction of

some buildings; fissures in the ground;
landslides and rock falls.

24
 However, destruction wrought by earthquakes also depends on the distance of a
locality from the epicenter, the nature of surface materials and building design. Thus,
methods were devised which determine the total amount of energy released during an
earthquake. The measurement is referred to as magnitude. The Richter Scale is
widely used to describe the magnitude of an earthquake. This scale has room for the
maximum motion that can be recorded by seismic instruments, that is, there is no
upper limit to the highest magnitude of an earthquake. So far, no earthquake has ever
been recorded with a magnitude higher than 9. An earthquake with a magnitude greater
than 4.5 can already be destructive.

Earthquake Magnitude and Effects (Richter Scale)

Magnitude Effect

2.5 Generally not felt but

recorded

4.4 Local damage

6.0 Can be destructive in

populated areas

7.0 Major earthquakes; inflict

serious damage

8.0 Great earthquakes; occur

once every 5–10 years;
produce total destruction in
nearby areas

Can you guess what the magnitude of this earthquake is?

25
 Let’s See What You Have Learned

Write the letter of the correct answer in the blank before each number.
_____ 1. An earthquake can either be _________ or _________.
a. tectonic; mountainous
b. tectonic; volcanic
c. volcanic; oceanic
d. volcanic; island
_____ 2. What causes a tectonic earthquake?
a. sudden movement of rocks in the earth’s crust
b. formation of hills and mountains
c. continuous eruption
d. volcanic eruption
_____ 3. Mt. Mayon has been active for several years now. What will people
living near it feel when it erupts?
a. landslide
b. storm surge
c. tectonic earthquake
d. volcanic earthquake
_____ 4. What occurs when there are tectonic and volcanic activities in the
earth’s crust?
a. typhoon
b. earthquake
c. storm surge
d. landslide
_____ 5. Which of the following describes the intensity of an earthquake?
a. duration of the shaking
b. distance from epicenter
c. highest near epicenter
d. lowest near epicenter
_____ 6. Which of the following is not an indication of an earthquake?
a. peculiar movements and behavior of some animals such as
snakes and jellyfish
b. lowering of a portion of the earth’s crust
c. rising of a portion of the earth’s crust
d. drastic changes in the weather

26
 _____ 7. Which of these is likely to happen when an earthquake with a
magnitude of 7 occurs?
a. heavy rainfall
b. changes in temperature
c. roaring of thunder
d. serious damages on structures and other properties
_____ 8. Earthquakes occur frequently in our country because the Philippines
_________.
a. lies in Antarctica
b. is near China Sea
c. lies within the Ring of Fire
d. is part of the Mediterranean Sea
_____ 9. The more destructive earthquakes along the Philippine Fault
are found in __________.
a. Luzon, Masbate and Mindanao
b. Luzon, Samar and Mindanao
c. Luzon, Leyte and Mindanao
d. Luzon, Bicol and Mindanao
_____10. Look at the diagram below. X and Y represent __________.
a. asthenosphere and plate
b. mid-ocean ridge and asthenosphere
c. subduction zone and mid-ocean ridge
d. plate and mid-ocean ridge

Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on pages 40 and 41. Did
you get a perfect score? If you did, that’s very good! You may now move on to Lesson
2. If you did not get everything right, that’s okay. Review the parts of the lesson that
you did not understand well. Afterward, you may proceed to Lesson 2.

27
Let’s Remember

♦ There are two kinds of earthquakes—volcanic and tectonic earthquakes.

♦ Tectonic earthquakes are brought about by the movement of the earth’s
plates. There are three kinds of plate boundaries—divergent, convergent and
transform boundaries.
♦ The earth is made up of three layers—the crust, mantle and core. The crust
and upper mantle make up the earth’s lithosphere. The lithosphere is made up
of plates that move on the soft asthenosphere.
♦ The movements of the plates are caused by convection that occurs in the
magma.
♦ In a divergent plate boundary, two plates move away from each other. This
leads to the formation of mid-ocean ridges.
♦ In a convergent plate boundary, two plates collide with each other. When an
oceanic plate collides with a continental plate, a volcano arc is formed.
When two oceanic plates collide, an island arc is formed. When two
continental plates collide, a mountain range is formed.
♦ The Ring of Fire is a zone of frequent earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
The Philippines is part of this ring.
♦ A transform plate boundary is one where two plates slide past each other.
Earthquakes occur frequently on this type of boundary.
♦ Faults are narrow zones that separate blocks of crust. They absorb the
motion of the plates. When there is too much stress on a fault, the fault
breaks and an earthquake occurs.
♦ Seismology is the study of earthquakes and their effects. The strength and
location of an earthquake can be detected from the seismogram, a graphic
record of the reading taken by the seismograph.
♦ Seismic waves are the form of energy in which an earthquake travels. There
are two types of seismic waves—body waves and surface waves. The P waves
and the S waves are body waves.
♦ The focus of an earthquake is the specific spot on the fault from which the
earthquake originates, while the epicenter is the spot on the earth’s surface
that is directly above the focus.
♦ The intensity of an earthquake is measured by its effects on a particular
location. It is measured on the Mercalli Scale and Rossi-Forel Scale. The
magnitude of an earthquake, on the other hand, is a measure of the amount
of energy released during an earthquake. It is measured on the Richter Scale.

28
 LESSON 2

The Effects of Earthquakes

Have you ever experienced an earthquake? Did you feel the earth move? Did you
get dizzy? Did objects around you fall? Did you get scared? Earthquakes can be very
scary at times.
Would you like to learn more about earthquakes and how they affect us and our
environment? This lesson will help you understand how earthquakes affect people and
the environment. You will also find out what safety measures you could follow in case
an earthquake occurs.

Let’s Try This

Would you like to know about one immediate effect of a strong earthquake?
1. Get a drinking glass half-filled with a soft drink.
2. Shake the glass for one minute. Observe what happens to the soft drink.

Let’s Think About This

The activity you performed shows what happens to a body of water during an
earthquake.
1. What happened to the soft drink in the glass after you shook the glass?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
2. What does your shaking action represent?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
3. If an earthquake were to occur on an ocean floor, what do you think would
happen?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on page 41.

29
 Let’s Learn

An earthquake can be a very frightening experience for anyone. When a strong

earthquake takes place, there can be great losses in lives and property. Trees fall,
electric posts sway, wires snap and so on.

Damage caused by an earthquake Buildings destroyed by a strong earthquake

Earthquakes produce various damaging effects on the areas they act upon. The
worst cases lead to loss of lives and heavy structural damages.
Tsunami
Do you know what a tsunami is? A tsunami is a huge, fast-moving wave that
originates on the ocean floor when an earthquake occurs in that area.

A tsunami can destroy property and lead to loss of lives.

30
 When an earthquake occurs on the ocean floor, waves spread out from the shock
center like ripples from a stone dropped into water. But the waves spread out at speeds
that can reach 720 km per hour. The average distance between these waves is about
300 km. Because of their rapid movements, tsunamis are very deadly and destructive.
Did you know that a tsunami hit Southern Mindanao in the 1970s? In August
1976, an earthquake of magnitude 8 struck Mindanao with its epicenter in the Gulf of
Moro in the Celebes Sea. A large tsunami was generated by the earthquake and hit
several communities in Sulu, Zamboanga, Lanao, North Cotabato and Maguindanao. It
killed around 10,000 people.

Destruction of Buildings
In the late afternoon of July 16, 1990, a tremor registering 7.8 on the Richter
Scale struck Northern Luzon, leaving many parts of the country’s main island in ruins.
It was the second most destructive earthquake to hit the country in the last 45 years,
claiming 1,283 lives and injuring almost 3,000.

The 1990 tremor was felt from Ilocos to Manila. Scenes of destruction in the
cities of Baguio, Cabanatuan and Dagupan and parts of Benguet and Pangasinan
flooded our television screens.

In Cabanatuan City, 134 people, mostly high school students, were killed when
the four-story Christian Colleges of the Philippines (CCP) building collapsed like an
accordion.

Landslides
When an earthquake strikes a hilly or mountainous area, materials such as rocks
and soil are loosened and start to move downhill. This results in what we call a
landslide. Rocks and soil may fall at a very high speed. There can also be slower
movements of rocks and soil as in the case of mudflow.

Because of the 1990 earthquake, more than 10,000 hectares of prime agricultural
land in Nueva Vizcaya was damaged either by landslides or flashfloods. Major roads
and bridges that were destroyed became a perennial problem. When the historic
Dalton Pass was made impassable by the earthquake, Vizcayanos had to travel 24
hours going to Manila. Do you realize how difficult it must have been to transport
people and goods like vegetables and other products from one place to another?

31
Liquefaction
Liquefaction is a phenomenon in which the strength and stiffness of soil is
reduced by the shaking brought on by an earthquake. It occurs in soil that is filled with
water. Normally, the water in the soil pushes against the soil with only a little amount
of force and the soil particles do not move against one another. When an earthquake
occurs, the water starts to exert a greater force on the soil particles. The force is big
enough to enable the soil particles to move readily relative to one another.

Many homes and buildings are destroyed when liquefaction occurs.

When liquefaction occurs, structures on the soil are destroyed as the soil
softens.

Fire
Large earthquakes can also cause fire. An earthquake can shake electric wires and
uproot electrical posts. In some instances, power lines break off, thus starting fires.
Pipelines in some cities may be broken during a strong earthquake. When large
communities have old wooden structures, fire can cause great destruction. In the 1906
San Francisco earthquake, for instance, the fire could not be controlled for three days.
The fire destroyed 500 city blocks.

The earthquake in San Francisco, U.S.A. in 1906 killed hundreds

of people and almost leveled the city to the ground.

32
 Safety Measures
The following are some points for you to remember to avoid undue loss of lives
and property during an earthquake.

Before the Earthquake

Individual
Find out if your office, school or factory has an emergency plan. If it has
one, make sure that you know how the plan goes. If it doesn’t have one, take the
initiative to encourage your companions to make one.

Family
1. Have a battery-powered radio, flashlight and first-aid kit ready at all times.
Make sure everyone knows where they are stored. Keep extra batteries on
hand. Store canned goods, water and other supplies you and your family may
need.
2. Learn how to perform first aid.
3. Know the location of your gas and water valves and electric fuse box. Make
sure all responsible members of your family know how to turn these off.
4. Secure heavy appliances to the floor and anchor heavy furniture such as
cupboards to the wall.
5. Don’t put heavy objects on high shelves.
6. Devise a plan for members of your family to stay together during an
earthquake.
7. Practice an earthquake drill regularly.

Community
Earthquake drills are
necessary for a community,
so that in case of an
earthquake, everyone would
know what to do.

Earthquake drill in a school

33
During an Earthquake
Individual
1. Stay calm and stay where you are, whether you are indoors or outdoors.
Many people are injured as they enter or leave buildings.
2. If you are indoors, stand against the wall nearest the center of the
building. You may also stand against a doorway or stay under a desk or some
other sturdy furniture.
3. If you are in a moving vehicle, stop the vehicle and remain inside until the
tremor stops.

Family
1. Make sure that every member of your family seeks shelter under a heavy or
sturdy furniture.
2. Direct each member of the family to stay calm and stay away from objects
or materials that may fall.

After an Earthquake
Individual
1. Check yourself and other people nearby for injuries. Administer first aid if
needed.
2. Check water, gas and electric lines. If these are damaged, close the valves.
Check for leaking gas by odor only. If gas is leaking, open all windows and
doors, leave immediately and report the damage to authorities.
3. Turn on the radio for news updates. Use the telephone only for relaying
important messages.
4. Do not flush toilets until sewer lines are checked.
5. Stay out of damaged buildings.
6. Wear boots, if you have them, to protect yourself against shattered glass and
debris.

34
 Family
1. Closely examine the members
of your family for possible
injuries.
2. Check for spots that are likely
to catch fire.
3. Do not let the children roam
around. Warn them against
electrocution due to fallen live
wires. A scene after an earthquake

Let’s Try This

Draw an emergency plan that your family can use in case of an earthquake. Show
your plan to your Instructional Manager or Facilitator.

Let’s See What You Have Learned

Write your answers on the lines provided.

1. Explain briefly how an earthquake affects people and the environment.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
2. Earthquakes can take you by surprise. You have to be prepared at all times.
List at least two safety measures that you should observe before, during and
after an earthquake.
Before: a. ______________________________________________
b. ______________________________________________
During: a. ______________________________________________
b. ______________________________________________
After: a. ______________________________________________
b. ______________________________________________

Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on pages 41 and 42.

35
 If you got everything right, that’s very good! It means you understood the lesson
well. If you did not get a perfect score, that’s okay. Just review the parts of the lesson
that you did not understand very well.

Let’s Remember

♦ Earthquakes can bring many destructive effects to the environment. Among

these are the formation of tsunamis, destruction of buildings and other
structures, landslides and liquefaction.
♦ You should always keep in mind the safety measures you need to follow in
preparation for, during and after an earthquake.

You have now reached the end of the module. Congratulations! Did you enjoy
studying this module? Did you learn a lot from it? The following is a summary of its
main points to help you remember them better.

Let’s Sum Up

This module tells us that:

♦ Earthquakes are caused by the movements of the earth’s tectonic plates,
whose motions are powered by convection currents.
♦ An earthquake occurs as a result of the buildup of stress along a fault,
causing the fault to rupture.
♦ The Philippines, having several active faults and being part of the Ring of
Fire, is an earthquake-prone country.
♦ The location and strength of an earthquake can be detected from its
seismogram. Its strength is measured either through its intensity or through
its magnitude.
♦ Earthquakes can have very destructive effects on the environment.
♦ Safety measures must be taken to protect oneself and one’s family from the
possible dangers that come with the occurrence of an earthquake.

36
 What Have You Learned?

A. Identify what is being described in the sentence. Write your answer on the
line before the number.
__________ 1. According to this theory, the earth’s lithosphere is made up of
plates in constant motion.
__________ 2. This is a graphic record of the occurrence of an earthquake.
__________ 3. This is the point on the earth’s crust directly above the focus
of an earthquake.
__________ 4. This is a huge, fast-moving wave that results from the
occurrence of an earthquake.
__________ 5. This is the layer of the earth found underneath the crust.
__________ 6. These are areas where plates meet.
__________ 7. These are rising and sinking movements in the magma, brought
about by the heating up of the mantle.
__________ 8. This is the scale used to describe the magnitude of an
earthquake.
__________ 9. These waves are the first to arrive at the seismological station
when an earthquake takes place.
__________10. This is the highest intensity of an earthquake based on the
Mercalli Scale.

B. Check which of the following items you should bring with you in preparation
for an earthquake.
_____ first-aid kit _____ guns
_____ canned goods _____ battery-powered radio
_____ candies _____ flashlight
_____ toys _____ extra clothes
_____ magazines _____ water
_____ candles _____ charcoal for cooking

37
 C. Encircle the letter of the correct answer.
1. During an earthquake, you should _________.
a. stay wherever you are
b. run into the building nearest you
c. go outdoors
d. stay beside a window
2. Earthquakes can now be predicted with accuracy.
a. True
b. False
3. Intensity is affected by such factors as distance of the location from the
epicenter and __________.
a. energy released by the earthquake
b. presence of bodies of water in the place
c. nature of surface materials
d. animal behavior
4. Earthquakes with a magnitude of ____ occur once every 5 to 10 years.
a. 6.5
b. 4.5
c. 7.0
d. 8.0
5. _________ is a phenomenon that occurs as a result of an earthquake
and which leads to a decrease in the strength and stiffness of the soil.
a. Fire
b. Tsunami
c. Liquefaction
d. Landslide

Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on pages 42 and 43. If you
got a score of:
0–10 You should study the whole module again.
11–18 Good! Just review the items that you missed in order to understood
them better.
19–27 Very good! You learned a lot from this module. Congratulations!

38
 Answer Key

A. Let’s See What You Already Know (pages 2–4)

1. (d)
2. (c)
3. (a)
4. (b)
5. (b)
6. (c)
7. (b)
8. (a)
9. (d)
10. (b)

B. Lesson 1
Let’s Think About This (page 5)
1. The force exerted by the hands on the stick made the stick bend.
2. The stick vibrated right before it broke.

Let’s Review (page14)

1. (b) Going from the outermost to the innermost parts, the layers of
the earth are the crust, mantle and core. The other options
include magma and asthenosphere, which are not among the
earth’s main layers.
2. (d) Convection caused by the heating up of the earth’s mantle
brings rising and sinking movements that lead to plate
movements.
3. (a) When two plates move away from each other, they form a
divergent plate boundary.
4. (a) A mountain range is formed along a convergent plate boundary
between two continental plates.
5. (b) The strongest earthquakes occur in the subduction zone, where
one plate slides underneath another plate.

39
Let’s Review (page 19)
1. Body waves travel within the earth, while surface waves travel only on
the surface of the earth.
2. Time
S wave

P wave

The P waves are always the first to arrive and hence be recorded on the
seismogram. You will be able to identify P waves based on their
appearance. Remember that P waves resemble the movement of a Slinky
toy. The left part of the seismogram shows such a type of wave. Time
also moves from left to right on the seismogram, hence the wave on the
left was the first to arrive. Therefore we can conclude that this is a P
wave and that on the right is an S wave.

Let’s See What You Have Learned (pages 26–27)

1. (b) The two kinds of earthquakes are tectonic and volcanic
earthquakes.
2. (a) A tectonic earthquake occurs when energy is released as a
result of too much stress on a fault caused by movements of
rocks.
3. (d) A volcanic earthquake is felt whenever a volcano erupts.
4. (b) An earthquake occurs as a result of tectonic and volcanic
activities.
5. (c) The intensity of an earthquake is greater the nearer a locality
is to the epicenter.
6. (d) Changes in the weather do not indicate that an earthquake is
about to occur.
7. (d) An earthquake with a magnitude of 7 can cause serious
damages to structures and other properties.
8. (c) The Philippines lies within the Ring of Fire, which explains
the regular occurrence of earthquakes here.

40
 9. (a) The more destructive earthquakes occur in Luzon, Masbate
and Mindanao because these areas lie along the Philippine
Fault.
10. (c) The diagram shows one plate (X) sliding beneath another plate
(Y). Y represents a mid-ocean ridge while X represents a
subduction zone.

C. Lesson 2
Let’s Think About This (pages 29)
1. The soft drink rose to the brim of the glass.
2. The shaking action represents an earthquake.
3. (Answers will depend on learners’ opinions. The following, however, is
the expected answer.) If an earthquake were to occur on an ocean floor,
big waves would form and probably reach the shore.

Let’s See What You Have Learned (page 36)

1. An earthquake can cause destruction of the environment through fires,
tsunamis, landslides and liquefaction. It can cause fear among people
and pose possible dangers to their safety and health.
2. (Answers will vary. The following are all possible answers.)
Before: a. Learn the emergency earthquake plan in your home,
community or workplace.
b. Prepare a battery-powered radio, flashlight, first-aid kit,
food, water and other supplies.
Other possible answers: (a) Learn how to perform first aid; (b) Make
sure that all responsible members of the family know how to close
the water and gas valves and switch off the electric fuse box; (c) Do not
put heavy objects on high shelves; (d) Secure heavy appliances to the
floor and anchor heavy furniture to the wall; (e) Devise a plan so that
members of the family will be able to stay together during the
earthquake; and (f) Practice an earthquake drill for the family and the
community regularly.
During: a. Stay calm and stay where you are.
b. If you are indoors, stand against the wall nearest the
center of the building. You may also stand against a
doorway or stay under a desk or some other heavy
furniture.

41
 Other possible answers: (a) If you are in a moving vehicle, stop the
vehicle and remain inside until the tremor stops; (b) Make sure that
every member of your family seeks shelter under a heavy or sturdy
furniture; and (c) Direct each member of the family to stay calm and
stay away from falling objects.
After: a. Check yourself and other people near you for injuries.
Administer first aid if necessary.
b. Check water, gas and electric lines for damages. Close
the valves immediately if the lines are damaged.
Other possible answers: (a) Listen to the radio for news updates;
(b) Do not flush toilets until sewer lines are checked; (c) Stay out of
damaged buildings; (d) Wear boots to protect yourself from shattered
glass and other debris; (e) Check for spots in your house that are likely
to catch fire; and (f) Do not let the children roam around.

D. What Have You Learned? (pages 37–38)

A. 1. theory of plate tectonics
2. seismogram
3. epicenter
4. tsunami
5. mantle
6. plate boundaries
7. convection currents
8. Richter Scale
9. P waves
10. 12 (XII)

B. The following items should be checked: first-aid kit, canned

goods, water, battery-powered radio, flashlight, extra clothes. Toys,
magazines and candies are not necessities. Guns are very dangerous and
have no use at all. Charcoal and candles, on the other hand, might only
cause fire if used.

42
 C. 1. (a) It is best to stay where you are and seek safety there during
an earthquake. Going from one place to another might only
endanger your life.
2. (b) Up to now, scientists are still looking for ways to
determine when and where an earthquake will occur.
3. (c) The nature of surface materials will also determine how
people in a certain location will experience an earthquake.
4. (d) Earthquakes with a magnitude of 8.0 are, fortunately enough,
quite rare. They wreak heavy destruction when they strike.
5. (c) Liquefaction is what happens when soil becomes less strong
and stiff as a result of the occurrence of an earthquake.

Glossary
Asthenosphere Part of the mantle situated below the lithosphere. This zone of
weak material exists below a depth of about 100 kilometers and in some
regions extends as deep as 700 kilometers.
Earthquake The vibration of the earth’s crust produced by the rapid release of
energy.
Fault A break in a rock mass along which movement has occurred.
Intensity An indication of the destructive effects of an earthquake on a
particular place. Intensity is affected by such factors as distance to the
epicenter and the nature of surface materials.
Liquefaction A phenomenon sometimes associated with earthquakes, in which
soil and other unconsolidated materials containing abundant water are turned
into a fluidlike mass that is not capable of supporting buildings.
Magnitude The total amount of energy released during an earthquake.
Mantle The 2,900-kilometer thick layer of earth located below the crust.
Mercalli Intensity Scale A 12-point scale originally developed to evaluate
earthquake intensity based on the amount of damage to various structures.
Mid-ocean ridge A continuous mountainous ridge on the floor of all the major
ocean basins and varying in width from 500 to 5,000 kilometers (300 to
3,000 miles).
Richter Scale A scale of earthquake magnitude based on the motion of a
seismograph.
Subduction zone A long, narrow zone where one lithospheric plate
descends beneath another.
Tsunami A seismic sea wave.
43
 References
Hurd, Dean, et al. General Science: A Voyage of Discovery. New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall, 1992.
Lianko, Aurora. Introduction to Earth Science. Quezon City: Katha Publishing
House, 2000.
Tarbuck, Edward and Frederick Lutgens. Earth Science. 9th ed. New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall, 2000.
Teacher’s Manual on Natural Hazards. Quezon City: Philippine Atmospheric,
Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA),1994.

44