Discrete Mathematics: Discrete Numeric Functions and Generating Functions

Chapter 9 Discrete Numeric Functions and

Generating Functions
9.1 Introduction
» Discrete numeric functions (numeric functions)
„ The class of functions
- whose domain is the set of natural numbers
- whose range is the set of real numbers
„ Exhaustively listing: (a0, a1, a2, …, ar, …), values of the function
a at 0, 1, 2, …, r, …
- Or a(0), a(1), …
„ Concise specification:
- ar = 7r 3 + 1 r≥0
⎧ 2r 0 ≤ r ≤ 11
=
- r ⎨3 r − 1
b
⎩ r ≥ 12
⎧ −4 r = 3, 5, 7
- cr = ⎨
⎩0 otherwise

⎧2 + r 0≤r≤5
⎪
- d r = ⎨2 − r r > 5 r is odd
⎪⎩2 / r r > 5 r is even
» Ex 9.1: Deposit $100 at an interest rate of 7% per year, compounded
annually
„ total amount at the end of each year is a numeric function a
- a = (100, 107, 114.49, 122.50, …), or
- ar = 100(1.07)r r≥0
» Ex 9.2: an aircraft
- spends 10 minutes on the ground before takes off
- climbs up at a uniform speed to 30000 feet in 10 minutes
- flies at the same altitude for 110 minutes
- lands down at a uniform speed in 10 minutes
- altitude of the aircraft, in thousands of feet is a function
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⎧0 0 ≤ r ≤ 10
⎪3(r − 10) 11 ≤ r ≤ 20
⎪⎪
- a r = ⎨30 21 ≤ r ≤ 130
⎪3(130 − r ) 131 ≤ r ≤ 140
⎪
⎪⎩0 r ≥ 141

- Graph: altitude vs time

9.2 Manipulation of Numeric Functions

» Sum of two numeric functions: c = a + b, i.e., cr = ar + br
„ A numeric function whose value at r is equal to the sum of the
two functions at r
» Product of two numeric functions: c = a b, i.e., cr = ar br
„ A numeric function whose value at r is equal to the product of the
two functions at r
» Ex: Consider the two function a and b where
⎧0 0≤r≤2 ⎧3 - 2r 0 ≤ r ≤1
a =
„ r ⎨2 − r + 5 r ≥ 3 b = ⎨
⎩r + 2 r≥2
r
⎩
„ Sum of the two functions a and b
⎧3 − 2 r 0 ≤ r ≤1
⎪
- cr = a r + br = ⎨4 r=2
⎪2 − r + r + 7 r ≥ 3
⎩
„ Product of the two functions a and b
⎧0 0≤r≤2
- d r = a r br = ⎨ −r − r +1 + 5r + 10
⎩r ⋅ 2 + 2 r≥3
» *Ex: a: monthly income of a husband
b: monthly income of his wife
- a + b: joint monthly income
» *Ex: a: balance in a saving account in each month
b: monthly interest rate which fluctuates from month to month
- ab: interest earned in each month

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» Scaled: Let a be a numeric function; α be a real number

„ αa: a scaled version of a with scaling factor α
- a numeric function whose value at r is equal to α times ar
» *Ex: Let a be a numeric function whose value at r is (1.07)r
total amount in an account for an initial deposit of $1
- 100a: a numeric function whose value at r is 100(1.07)r
total amount in the account for an initial deposit of $100
» |a|: a numeric function whose value at r is equal to
- ar if ar is nonnegative
- −ar if ar is negative
⎛ 2 ⎞ 2
» Ex: a r = ( −1) r ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ r ≥ 0 => br = ar = r≥0
2
⎝r ⎠ r2
» *Ex: a: different between the output voltage of an electrical power
supply after r hours of operation and a normal reference voltage
„ |a|: derivation of the output voltage from the reference voltage
» Shifting: let a be a numeric function and i a positive integer
⎧0 0 ≤ r ≤ i −1
„ b = Sia: br = ⎨
⎩ar-i r ≥i
- function a is shifted i positions to the right
⎧1 0 ≤ r ≤ 10
- Ex: a: a r = ⎨
⎩2 r ≥ 11

⎧0 0≤r≤4
⎪
b = S5a: br = ⎨1 5 ≤ r ≤ 15
⎪⎩2 r ≥ 16
- Ex: a: the altitude of an aircraft (e.g. 9.2)
⎧0 0 ≤ r ≤ 10
⎪3( r − 10) 11 ≤ r ≤ 20
⎪
a r = ⎨30 21 ≤ r ≤ 120
⎪3(130 − r ) 121 ≤ r ≤ 130
⎪0 r ≥ 131
⎩
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b = S17a: takes off is delayed by 17 minutes

⎧0 0 ≤ r ≤ 16, 17 ≤ r ≤ 27
⎪3( r − 27) 28 ≤ r ≤ 37
⎪
br = ⎨30 37 ≤ r ≤ 137
⎪3(147 − r ) 138 ≤ r ≤ 147
⎪0 r ≥ 148
⎩
„ b = S-ia: br = ar +i
- function a is shifted i positions to the left
⎧1 0 ≤ r ≤ 10
- Ex: a: a r = ⎨
⎩2 r ≥ 11
⎧1 0≤r≤3
- b = S-7a: br = ⎨
⎩2 r≥4
- *Ex: Let a be a numeric function where
ar: number of applicants whose height is r inches above the
minimum requirement
Ö S-2a: numbers of applicants in the height groups if two
inches have been added to the minimum requirement
» Def: Accumulated sum of a numeric function a:
„ a numeric function whose value at r is equal to ∑ r ai
i =0
- Ex: Let ar = 100(1.07)r
r≥0
z b be the accumulated sum of a
r r i 10,000 ⎡(1.07) r +1 − 1⎤
z br = ∑ ai = ∑100(1.07) =
i =0 i =0 7 ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦

*deposit $100 each year at an annual compounded interest

rate of 7%
Ö br: total amount we have after r year

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» Def: Forward difference of a numeric function a: Δa

„ a numeric function whose value at r is equal to ar+1 − ar
» Def: Backward difference of a numeric function a: ∇a
⎧a at 0
„ a numeric function whose value is equal to ⎨ 0
⎩a r − a r −1 at r ≥ 1
» Ex: a: total income of a company in each month
„ Δa: increase of income from the rth month to the (r+1)st month
„ ∇a: increase of income for the rth month over the (r−1)st month
» Ex: Let a be a numeric function
⎧0 0≤r ≤2
ar = ⎨ − r
⎩2 + 5 r≥3
» b = Δa:
⎧0 0 ≤ r ≤1
⎪⎪ 41
br = ⎨ r=2 ⇐ (2-3 + 5) − 0
⎪8
⎪⎩− 2−(r +1) r ≥ 3 ⇐ (2-(r +1) + 5) − (2-r + 5)
» c = ∇a:

⎧0 0≤r≤2
⎪⎪ 41
cr = ⎨ r =3 ⇐ (2-3 + 5) − 0
⎪8
⎪⎩− 2− r r≥4 ⇐ (2-r + 5) − (2-(r -1) + 5)

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» Def: Convolution of two functions a and b: a∗b

„ a function c such that
cr = a0 br + a1br −1 + a 2 br − 2 + L + ai br −i + L + a r −1b1 + a r b0
» Ex 9.3: Let ar = 3r r ≥ 0 , br = 2r r≥0
„ Convolution c = a∗b
r
cr = ∑ 3i 2r-i r≥0
i =0

- ar: # sequences of length r made up of the letters {x, y, z}

- br: # sequences of length r made up of the letters {α, β}
For sequences made up of the letters {x, y, z, α, β}
- cr: # sequences of length r such that
the first portion made up of the letters {x, y, z}
the second portion made up of the letters {α, β}

» Ex 9.4: a savings account with an annually compounded interest rate

of 7% per year.
„ Suppose we deposit
- $100 at the beginning
- $110 at the end of the first year
- $120 at the end of the second year
- $100(1+0.1r) at the end of the rth year
- total amount in the account at the end of the rth year?
a: yearly deposit ar = 100(1+0.1r) r≥0
b: compounded interest br = (1.07) r
r≥0

if ai was deposited at the end of the ith year

Ö aibr-i dollars r − i years later (or at the end of rth year)
Ö total amount at the end of the rth year
r
cr = ∑ aibr −i
i =0

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9.3 Asymptotic Behavior of Numeric Functions

» Asymptotic Behavior of a Numeric Function
- how the value of the function varies for large r
- Ex: ar = 5, r≥ 0 => constant with increasing r
- Ex: br = 5r2, r≥ 0 => increases w/ r and is proportional to r2
- Ex: cr = 5 log r, r≥ 0 => increases w/ r and is proportional to
log r
- Ex: dr = 5/r, r≥ 0 => decreases w/ r and is proportional to 1/r
and is approaches 0 as a limit
» Asymptotic dominance (asymptotic bound)
„ Let a and b are two numeric functions.
If there exist positive constants k and m such that
|br| ≤ m ar for r ≥ k
- a asymptotically dominates b, or
- b is asymptotically dominated by a
Ö a grows faster than b
Ö For sufficiently large r, the absolute value of br does
not exceed a fixed proportion of ar

1
„ Ex: ar = r + 1 r ≥ 0, br = +7 r≥0
r
- for k = 7 and m = 1, |br| ≤ ar for r ≥ 7
Ö a asymptotically dominates b
1 2 ⎧− 1,000,000 0 ≤ r ≤ 10
„ Ex: ar = r − 1000 br = ⎨
100 ⎩− 100,000r r > 10
- for k = 106 + 1 and m = 10, |br| ≤ 10ar for r ≥ 106 + 1
Ö a asymptotically dominates b
» b does not dominate a asymptotically
„ for any choice of k and m, there exists r0 such that
| ar | > m br for r0 ≥ k
0

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» Ex: deposit $1 in two accounts

„ Account A: total deposit become 1 + 0.2r after r years
„ Account B: total deposit become (1 + 0.03)4r after r years
Let ar = 1 + 0.2r, r ≥ 0; br = (1 + 0.03)4r , r ≥ 0
- b asymptotically dominates a
for k = 9 and m = 1, |1 + 0.2r| ≤ (1 + 0.03)4r for r ≥ 9
- Account B: growth rate is higher
- the total in account B exceeds that in account A in the long run

» O(a): the set of all numeric functions that are asymptotically

dominated by a
„ b is asymptotically dominated by a
„ b ∈ O(a) or b is O(a)
„ Ex: function b is O(r2)
- b is asymptotically dominated by a function a = r2.
„ Ex: function b is O( r log r )
- b is asymptotically dominated by a function a = r log r .
„ Ex: function b is O(a)
- b does not grow faster than a
r
„ “b grows too faster because b is O( 2 )” is not meaningful
- b could grow much slower than 2
r
- asymptotical upper bound could be meaningless
„ Ex:
- a = r2
- b = 10r2 + 25
- c=5−r
1 2
- d= r log r − r 2
2
Ö b is O(a), c is O(a), but d is not O(a)
Ö a is O(d), b is O(d), c is O(d)

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Truth in asymptotic dominance

» 1. |a| asymptotically dominates a
- a is O(|a|)
» 2. If b is asymptotically dominated by a
- for any constant α, αb is also asymptotically dominated by a
- If b is O(a),
for any constant α, αb is also O(a)
» 3. If b is asymptotically dominated by a
- for any integer i, Sib is asymptotically dominated by Sia
- If b is O(a),
for any integer i, Sib is O(Sia)
» 4. If both b and c are asymptotically dominated by a
- for any constant α and β, αb + βc is also asymptotically
dominated by a
- If both b and c are O(a),
for any constant α and β, αb + βc is also O(a)
» 5. If c is asymptotically dominated by b and b is asymptotically
dominated by a
- c is asymptotically dominated by a
- If c is O(b) and b is O(a),
c is O(a)
» 6. It is possible that a asymptotically dominates b and b also
asymptotically dominates a
- It is possible that a is O(b) and b is O(a).
- Ex: ar = r 2 + r + 1 r≥0

br = 0.05r 2 − r1 / 3 − 9 r≥0
» 7. It is possible that a does not asymptotically dominate b nor does
b asymptotically dominate a
- It is possible that a is not O(b) and b is not O(a).
⎧1 r is even
- Ex: ar = ⎨
⎩0 r is odd

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⎧0 r is even
br = ⎨
⎩1 r is odd
» 8. It is possible that both a and b asymptotically dominate c,
- while a does not asymptotically dominate b, nor does b
asymptotically dominate a
- It is possible that c is both O(a) and O(b),
while a is not O(b) and b is not O(a)
⎧1 r = 3i or 3i + 1
- Ex: ar = ⎨
⎩0 r = 3i + 2
⎧1 r = 3i or 3i + 2
br = ⎨
⎩0 r = 3i + 1
⎧1 r = 3i
cr = ⎨
⎩0 otherwise
» Ex 9.6: Show that for i ≤ j, αri is O(rj)
„ for k = 1 and m = 1
|ri| ≤ rj for r ≥1
Ö ri is O(rj)
Ö from truth 2, αri is O(rj)
» Ex 9.7: a = α0 + α1r + α2r2 +L+ αnrn, show that a is O(rn)
„ for i ≤ n, αιri is O(rn)
Ö from truth 4, a is O(rn)

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» O(1)
» O(log n)
» O(n)
» O(n log n)
» O(ni)
» O(αn)
» O(n!)

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9.4 Generating Function

» Generating function of the numeric function
, , ,…, ,…
-
„ An alternative way to represent numeric functions
„ : indicator of
» Ex: 1,1,1,1,1,1,1, …

» Ex: 1,1,1,1,1,1,0,0,0,0,0, …

» Ex: 3 ,3 ,3 ,, ,…, ,…
- 3 3 3 3
Ö (a close form)
» Generating function representation: possibility of expressing infinite
series in closed forms so that they can be manipulated conveniently
„ Let , then
- Ex: 7·3 , 0
Ö
- Ex: 3 , 0
Ö
„ Let , then
- Ex: 2 3 , 0
Ö

„ Ex:

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2, 0
Ö __________, 1
__________, 2
„ Let for some constant
-

Ö
- Ex: 1, 0
Ö
- Ex: , 0
Ö

- Ex:

Ö 2 2 , 0

0, odd
Ö Or
2 , even
„ For , no simple form to express
„ Let , , then
- Ex:
0, 0 3
Ö
2 , 4
„ Let , , then

- Ex: 3 , 0
Ö 1 3

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- Ex: Hourly productivity of a machinist

- Ex: 3 machinists: one comes to work at 6am, another at 8am,

the last one at 9am
Ö Total hourly productivity 1

„ For ∆ , then

„ For , then

„ Convolution function
-
- Namely, the coefficient of of
-

- i.e.,
- Ex: 3 , 2 , 0. Let
Ö ,

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- Ex: Let be an arbitrary numeric function, 1,1,1, … ,

and
Ö ∑ ∑
Ö c is the accumulated sum of a
Ö

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Binomial Coefficients
» Binomial Theorem:
„ Let x, y be variables, and let n be a nonnegative integer. Then
- ∑ ,

,0 ,1 ,2

, 1 ,
„ Ex:
-

„ Ex: coefficient of in the expansion of 2

» Some useful identities

„ Corollary 1:
- Let n be nonnegative integer. Then
Ö ∑ , 2
„ Corollary 2:
- Let n be a positive integer. Then
Ö∑ 1 , 0

» Pascal’s identity (Ex 9.15, p297)

„ Let n and k be positive integers with . Then
Ö , 1, 1, 1

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„ Combinatorial argument
- Select r objects from n objects: C(n, r)
z C(n-1, r) ways to select r objects excluding a particular
one
z C(n-1, r-1) ways when this particular objects is always
included
„ Corollary 3:
- Let n and k be positive integers with . Then
Ö∑ , 2 3

Extended Binomial Coefficient

… …
» Def: ,
! ! !

» Def: 1 ∑ ,

Ö 1

More on Generating Function

» Ex: Let m, k be a positive integer. Let , ,0
„ ,0 ,1 ,2 ,
1
» Ex: 0 1 3 7 15
„ 1
„ 1 2 4 8 16

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» Ex: Find the solutions of 17, where , , are

nonnegative integers with 2 5, 3 6, 4 7.
„ Equivalent to the coefficient of in the following product

» Ex: # ways to distribute 8 identical cookies among 3 distinct children

„ Each child receives at least two cookies and no more than 4
cookies

To find the coefficient of

» Ex (9.17): # r-combinations from a set with n objects when repetition

allowed
„ The selection of one specific object with repetition

„ n objects:

» Ex (9.18): # ways in which 2t+1 marbles can be distributed among 3

distinct boxes
„ No box will contain more than t marbles

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