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Ê





 
reproduction is the
formation of new individuals of the same
species. |



is the only method of
reproduction in our species. Sexual
reproduction involves the î 
î

  


  . The fusion of
sperm and egg cell is called fertilisation.
Fertilisation



î

î



 from which a new individual
develops.|
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½oth the male and female reproductive
structures have 3 levels of organisation:|
|
1.||||||||||||||||||||||Production of sex cells.|
2.||||||||||||||||||||||Transport tubes.|
3.||||||||||||||||||||||Glands to secrete hormones.|
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The 
is the name for the organ that produces
sex cells in organs. The male gonads are called the
  .|
The testes are contained in the 
.|
|
The testes produce the sperm cells by    . The
 temperature must be lower than body
temperature for this to occur. There are
tubules that are lines with sperm producing
cells. ›  
 , the male sex hormone, is
also produced in the testes. Once the sperm
are produced they mature in the  .
This structure is located outside of the testis. If
they are not released within about 6 weeks
they are broken down and released to the
bloodstream by a process called

.
The sperm are carried to the 

 by the


. The 


carries both sperm
and 
 |

|
The sperm cells are carried within a liquid called
 . The semen is produced by the

  , the|

 
, and „

 . The
semen also contains nourishment for the
sperm cells.|
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Sperm cells are released by . About 50-
300 million sperm cells are released at one
time.|
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Sperm cells, also called 
, are 
containing 

  . Their
production begins at puberty.|
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The   is adapted to place sperm cells into the
female. The tip is called the  . 

occurs when blood rushes into the penis.|
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Male hormones are produced by the pituitary gland
during puberty. They are:|

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|  - 


 : This
causes the production of sperm by meiosis.|

| ! - !   

 #
Stimulates the
testes to produce   
 .|

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› › ›Y"|

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muring the period of pregnancy   
 causes
the development of primary male sex
characteristics. These include the    

î

 










 .|
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Later in life, at puberty, testosterone causes the
enlargement of the reproductive parts as well as
the development of 





  . These are characteristics that
distinguish males from females.|
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Male secondary sexual characteristics included:|

| hair growth on the face, underarm, chest and
pubic region|
2. enlarged larynx producing a deeper voice|
 3. wider shoulders|
4. greater skeletal muscular development|
5. growth in height and weight|
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The most common cause of male infertility is the low
production of sperm. There are many causes of low
sperm production. Stress, alcohol and drug abuse,
high temperature of the testes, and low testosterone
production are all causes. |
THE FEMALE REPROm
TIVE SYSTEM|
|
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produce  and î 

 
At
puberty there are about 40,000  eggs. Each
egg is enclosed in a group of cells called a î 

About 20 
eggs are produced each month.
sually all but one die. The haploid egg cell is called
the 
and is surrounded by the &
î

î which produces the female hormone called
 
 . Ovulation is the release of the egg from
the follicle. This occurs when the î
'
 .|
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The fallopian tubes are about 12 cm long and have
ends that are funnel shaped. These ends collect the
egg after ovulation.
ilia and peristalsis move the
egg along the tube. The egg will die in the tube if it
is not î
 .|

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The uterus, also known as the ', is made of
involuntary muscle. It is lines with the
 
. This lining thickens with cells and
blood every month. This happens in order to nourish
the embryo (if present). The opening of the uterus is
called the 
.|
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The vagina is a muscular tube which allows the
sperm to enter the female as well as the baby to
exit. It is lined with  secreting cells. The



 opens near the vagina. The vagina is
protected by folds of skin called the . The
  partially blocks the entrance of the vagina. It
is broken by 


or with the use of
 |
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The   

 occurs every 28 days from
puberty to  
(the end of the female¶s
reproductive life). It occurs only if fertilisation of the
egg has not taken place.|
The typical events of the   


are:|
m
(


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a.||||The  

breaks down and is shed
from the body. This is called   
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b.||||   occus in the ovary to produce a new

egg surrounded by the &
î
î .|

m
+


(*|

a.|||| 
 
is produced by the &
î

î . Oestrogen also stimulates the
endometrium to thicken again. One Graafian
follicle with one egg develops.|

b.||||Oestrogen stimulates the



î
!

(leuteinising hormone)|
 m
(,*|

a.||||The surge of !
stimulates |

b.||||The egg enters the funnel of the Fallopian tube.

It can be fertilised for the next 48 hours.|

m
()


+*|

a.||||The 

 
(yellow body) develops
from the remains of the Graafian follicle. This
produced 
 




and some
 
 . The progesterone causes the
endometrium to continue to thicken. It also
prevents new eggs from forming.|

b.||||The egg that was released at day 14 will die if it

is not fertilised.|

c.|||||If fertilisation did not take place the corpus

luteum begins to degenerate.|

m
+


-*|

a.||||||Oestrogen and progesterone levels decline.|

b.||||||The endometrium begins to break down.|

c.|||||||m
 of the cycle begins.|

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In summary:|
 

.  
by  
 
in days 1-
14 and by 
 
 in days 15-28.|


 
egg development.|
At '
/
 
 
causes the 


î 




 
of the growth of the sex
organs.|
At '

both  
 


 


cause the 

î 


  . They
include:|
a.||||||||||||||||The enlargement of the breasts|
b.||||||||||||||||Widening of the hips|
c.|||||||||||||||||Increased body fat|
d.||||||||||||||||Growth of public and underarm hair|
e.||||||||||||||||General growth spurt in height|
|
HORMONE| SITE OF TIME OF PROm
TION| F N
PROm
TION| |
FSH-follicle Pituitary Gland| mays 1-5 of menstrual Stim
stimulating cycle| Som
hormone| prod
Graa

Oestrogen| Graafian follicle| mays 5-14 of menstrual mev

cycle| Inhi
Stim
LH- leuteinising Pituitary Gland| may 14 of menstrual
au
hormone| cycle|
au
luteu
Progesterone|
orpus luteum| mays 14-28 of Main
menstrual cycle| Inhi
| Inhi
Prev


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Female infertility is the inability to conceive
either by fertilisation failure or implantation failure.
Egg cell formation or ovulation may not occur due
to a 

' . The egg cell may not be
able pass to the uterus due to '.
î



' . Treatment with 
 may
be successful. $*

î
  and
 is often used to treat female
infertility.|







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Fibroids are benign tumours of the uterus.
They are slow growing and range in size. Small
fibroids produce no symptoms while large ones can
cause heavy and prolonged menstrual bleeding.
They can also cause pain, miscarriage, or infertility.
Some science shows that they may be caused as
an abnormal response to oestrogen. Large fibroids
are removed by surgery. In severe cases where
there are many large fibroids the uterus may have
to be removed. This is called a  
.|
„
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„ is also called 
or 



. muring this process the  
moves
into the  in order to deposit   which
contains 

  . The depositing of the semen
is called  .|
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a.||||After  
the sperm will move
up the 
' .|
b.||||If 
has occurred and an egg is
present the egg will release a chemical
 that attracts the sperm. This is called
 .|
c.|||||The sperm that reaches the egg will use
an  in its 
  to make an
opening in the membrane of the egg.|
d.||||Once 


enters the egg (only
the head enters) the egg forms a
 '
 that prevents other sperm
from entering.|
e.||||The nucleus of the egg fuses with the
nucleus of the egg. A 


forms.|
f.||||||Fertilisation may take place during days
11-16 of the menstrual cycle.|
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About 6-9 days after fertilisation the
fertilised egg becomes '  
into the
lining of the 
 . The zygote has now
become an '
. A membrane called the
 develops around the ebbryo. This
membrane will secrete 
î
which
surrounds and protects the embryo.|
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a.||||||||||After implantation the embryo forms
 another membrane called the 
.
This surrounds the embryo.|
b.||||||||||Projections of the chorion called 



blood vessels in the
 
 to form the placenta.|
c.|||||||||||The placenta become fully functional in
about 3 months.|
d.||||||||||The '

 connects the
embryo (at the navel) with the placenta.|
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1.
 
î

'
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A. It hinders the entry of pathogens from

the mother.|
½. It allows the entry of antibodies from the
mother (passive induced immunity).|

. It keeps the embryo separated from the
mother¶s higher blood pressure.|
m. It prevents exchange of red blood cells
avoiding the deadly possibility of agglutination|
2. &
 :|

a.|||||||||| It supplies O2 from the mother.|

½. It excretes
O2 from the embryo to the
mother¶s blood.|
3. "
 
:|

Glucose, amino acids, lipids, vitamins

and minerals pass to the embryo from the
mother¶s blood.|
4. 
 :|

It secretes a variety of hormones

including oestrogen and progesterone.
The hormones maintain the pregnancy
and prepare the mother¶s body for birth
and lactation.|
e.||||||||||
:|

Metabolic wastes,
O2 and urea, pass

from embryo into the mother¶s blood.|

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1

  2|
1. The zygote divides many times by  

(increase in the number of cells by division but no
overall increase in size) to double its cell number.
A solid clump of about 100 cells called the 


is formed.|

2. About 5 days after fertilisation the morula

develops into a hollow ball called a '  . The
outer cells of the blastocyst form the 
 

This will become the membranes around the
embryo. The inner cells, called the 

 will
become the '
.|

3. The blastocyst is pushed down the fallopian

tube and into the uterus for implantation.|

|
 |

In normal development the sperm

egg. The cortical reaction occurs r
fertilization membrane and cell div
until the blastula stage. When the
|
reaches the blastula stage the em
an enzyme that dissolves the ferti
membrane and the young embryo
to continue development.|
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The & 


 is the length of time from
fertilisation to birth. In humans it is generally 266
days (38 weeks/9months).|

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1. The placenta stops producing 

 
 .
This causes the 
î





.|

2. 
is produced by the pituitary gland.

This 
 causes 

î




  . This is the beginning of
'
.|

3. There are 3 stages of '

#|

a. Stage 1: The contractions push the foetus

down toward the

. The
membrane around the foetus
12 breaks. The amniotic fluid
is released through the .|

b. Stage 2: The 

dilates (widens) and the
foetus is pushed out through the
cervix and vagina. At this
time the umbilical
cord is cut.|

c. Stage 3: The placenta and foetal membrane

(î
'
) are released through the vagina.|
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! is the secretion of milk by the
 

 of the mother. „ 
 is a
thick yellow fluid produced during the first few
days. It is low in fat and sugar but rich in

 ,

 ,

' .|

 is a hormone produced by the pituitary
gland. This hormone 
.



The suckling of a baby at the breast stimulates the
mother¶s pituitary to release prolactin.
When
breast feeding stops the mother stops secreting
prolactin and therefore stops producing milk.
Suckling also stimulates the pituitary to secrete
oxytocin. Oxytocin causes the milk ducts to
contract ejecting the milk from the breast.|
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Human milk has a lot of advantages for the baby¶s
growth and development. Human milk is


'  for a developing human
baby. It also contains a wide variety of '  î

  that include mother¶s ' .
These antibodies protect the child against common
pathogens. Human milk also contains chemicals
favourable for brain 


   .
Human milk also encourages the growth of
 
'
 in the large intestine.|


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ontraception is the deliberate prevention of
fertilisation. There are 4 methods:|
1. "


 #







|
3
















a.





Ê'   : No sexual
intercourse. 0% failure rate.|
b. › 


'   : No
 sexual intercourse during the most
fertile period of the menstrual
cycle. 24% failure rate.|
c. å
: The penis is
removed from the vagina before ejaculation.
25% failure rate.|
2.  

 #|
a. „: This is a thin
impermeable sheath covering the
penis. Semen cannot be deposited
in the vagina. 10% failure rate.|
b. % : The cutting, sealing or
tying off the sperm ducts. Sperm
will not be in the semen. 0.4%
failure.|
c. „




: 
 or
 ± These prevent sperm entering the
uterus. 15% failure rate.|
d. $


m 
1$
m2:
These are plastic or metal loops or
coils that prevent implantation. 5%
failure rate.|
3. „ 

 :|
a. 
 : These chemicals are
placed in the vagina to kill sperm. 20%
failure rate.|
b.








 
:
ontain
hormones such as progesterone
and oestrogen that prevent
ovulation as the follicles do not
mature. 6% failure rate.|
4. 


 :|
a. ›'
: The Fallopian tubes
 are cut and sealed preventing
sperm and egg cells meeting. 0.4%
failure rate.|
b. % : The 
 î


( 

) is cut. Sperm is not present in the
semen. |
The % failure rate is the number of sexually active
females out of a hundred who will become pregnant
within a year
|
|
|