Map Projections II

Map projections
Author: Dr.-Ing. Norbert Rösch
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT)

Geodetic Institute Karlsruhe
Englerstraße 7
76128 Karlsruhe
Second draft (March 2011)

Contents
1 Introduction 1
1.1 What are map projections good for? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 Fundamentals 2
2.1 The Gaussian curvilinear parameters u and v . . . . . . . . . 2
2.2 The line element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.3 Intersection angles of surface curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.4 The infinitesimal area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3 Theory of Distortions 11
3.1 The scale distortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.2 The distortion of areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.3 The distortion of the azimuth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.4 The infinitesimal angular distortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.5 The maximal distortion of the azimuth . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.6 Ellipse of distortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.7 Projections with specific properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.7.1 Equidistant projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.7.2 Equal area projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.7.3 Conformal projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
i
ii Script ”Map Projections”
4 Oblique map projections 29

4.1 From Gaussian parameters to geographic coordinates . . . . . 29
4.2 The azimuthal coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.3 Specific curves on the datum surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.3.1 The loxodrome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.3.2 The orthodrome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5 Map projections with an orthogonal parameter system 40

5.1 Conic projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
5.1.1 Equal area conic projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.1.2 Conformal conic projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
5.2 Cylinder projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
5.2.1 Equal area cylinder projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5.2.2 Conformal cylinder projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5.3 Azimuthal projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.3.1 Equal area azimuthal projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5.3.2 Conformal azimuthal projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.3.3 The gonomonic projcection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.3.4 The orthographic projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
6 Generalized projections 54
6.1 Pseudoconic projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
6.2 Pseudocylindrical projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
6.2.1 Equal area with equidistant parallels . . . . . . . . . . 61
6.2.2 Equal area with elliptical meridians . . . . . . . . . . . 62
6.2.3 Equal area with elliptical meridians and pole lines . . . 65
6.2.4 With equidistant equator and equidistant central meridian 65
KIT, Geodetic Institute, Dr.-Ing. N. Rösch iii
7 Special projections and quality aspects 69

7.1 Aphylactic small scale maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
7.1.1 The Robinson projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
7.1.2 Chamberlins trimetric projection . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
7.2 Optimal projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
7.2.1 Local distortion quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
7.2.1.1 The image of the finite circle . . . . . . . . . 79
7.2.2 Global distortion quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
7.2.2.1 The concept of Peters . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
7.2.2.2 Canters’ scattered circles . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
7.2.2.3 Capek and the limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
7.2.2.4 Approaches based on the distortion ellipse . . 85
8 Further concepts – isometric coordinates 86

8.1 Isometric surface parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
8.2 Isometric parameters on the sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
8.3 Conformal projection of the sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
8.3.1 Mercator projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
8.3.2 Stereographic projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
8.3.3 Projection of the sphere on a sector . . . . . . . . . . . 91
A Exercises 93
B Mathematical explanations 103

B.1 Trigonometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
B.2 Spherical trigonometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
B.3 Integrals and series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
iv Script ”Map Projections”
C Formulary 107
C.1 Scale distortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
C.2 Area distortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
C.3 Distortion of angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
C.3.1 Distortion of the angle element . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
C.3.2 Distortion of the azimuth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
D Additional explanations 114

D.1 The Sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
D.2 Alignment of the surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
D.3 Projection on a coinciding plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
D.4 Projection on a cone surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
D.5 Projection on a cylinder surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
D.6 Tissot’s ellipse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
D.7 Specific projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Nomenclature
α, δ . . . . . . . . . . azimuthal coordinates
β . . . . . . . . . . . . azimuth or grid bearing (datum surface)
β . . . . . . . . . . . . azimuth or grid bearing (image surface)
Λ . . . . . . . . . . . . geographic longitude (ellipsoid of revolution)
λ, ϕ . . . . . . . . . . geographic longitude/latitude (sphere)
ω . . . . . . . . . . . . distortion of the azimuth
Ωm . . . . . . . . . . . maximum distortion of an angle
ωm . . . . . . . . . . . maximum distortion of the azimuth
τ . . . . . . . . . . . . . angle between the parameter curves
τ . . . . . . . . . . . . . intersection angle of the parameter curves (datum surface)
τ . . . . . . . . . . . . intersection angle of the parameter curves (image surface)
Θ . . . . . . . . . . . . geographic latitude (ellipsoid of revolution)
x . . . . . . . . . . . . . position vector(datum surface)
x . . . . . . . . . . . . position vector(image surface)
a, b . . . . . . . . . . . semi minor and/or semi major axis of the ellipse of distortion
C . . . . . . . . . . . . integration constant
c . . . . . . . . . . . . . scale factor of the y -axis (cylinder projection)
v
vi Script ”Map Projections”
E , F , G . . . . . first Gaussian fundamental quantities (projection surface)

E, F, G . . . . . . . first Gaussian fundamental quantities (datum surface)
H . . . . . . . . . . . . principal point
h . . . . . . . . . . . . . distortion along the parameter curve
J . . . . . . . . . . . . Jacobian matrix
k . . . . . . . . . . . . . distortion along the parameter curve
M . . . . . . . . . . . center of the sphere (used in figures)
m . . . . . . . . . . . . scale distortion
mu , mv . . . . . . . scale distortion along the parametric curves (Gaussian pa-
rameters)
N . . . . . . . . . . . . north pole (only used in figures)
N . . . . . . . . . . . . surface normal (also normal vector; used in formulas)
R . . . . . . . . . . . . radius of the sphere (earth)
r . . . . . . . . . . . . . radius of an arbitrary circle
S . . . . . . . . . . . . south pole
x . . . . . . . . . . . . . first component of the position vector (datum surface)
x . . . . . . . . . . . . first component of the position vector (image surface)
y . . . . . . . . . . . . . second component of the position vector (datum surface)
y . . . . . . . . . . . . second component of the position vector (image surface)
dO . . . . . . . . . . . infinitesimal area
ds . . . . . . . . . . . . infinitesimal line element
O . . . . . . . . . . . . finite area
u,v . . . . . . . . . . . Gaussian parameters
V . . . . . . . . . . . . area distortion
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 What are map projections good for?
1.2 Classification
There are different possibilities to classify the map projections. The criteria
may be: extrinsic or intrinsic. The first aspect encompasses the nature, the
coincidence and the position of the projection surface. The latter refers to
the properties and the generation.
class varieties
extrinsic nature plane conical cylindrical
coincidence tangent secant polysuperficial
position normal transverse oblique
intrinsic properties equidistant eqaual area conformal
generation geometric semi-geometric conventional
Table 1.1: The classification of map projections
Actually the classes are not mutually exclusive (see exercises).
1
Chapter 2
Fundamentals
2.1 The Gaussian curvilinear parameters u

and v
An arbitrary surface defined in IR3 can be de-
z scribed by the position vector x(u, v). Its com-
u = uc ponents are
⎧
⎨ x = (u, v)
x(u, v) = y = (u, v) (2.1)
e3 v = vc ⎩
z = (u, v).
e1 e2 y
The substitution of u = uc = const., delivers
x(uc , v) = x(v). This curve is called a v-line.
x In the other case x(u, vc ), i. e. v = vc = const.,
we get u-lines.
Figure 2.1: The position Any arbitrary point of the surface requires
vector two independent vectors defining a new surface
1
which is the tangent plane . To ensure this precondition the cross product
has to fulfill
xu × xv = N = 0 , (2.2)
i. e. the surface normal N 2 has to be different from zero. All points of a
1
The index indicates the differentiating parameter. E. g. xu denotes the derivation of
vector x with respect to u.
2
Sometimes also called normal vector
2
KIT, Geodetic Institute, Dr.-Ing. N. Rösch 3
surface fulfilling the condition above are called regular . A surface consisting
of regular points is called analytical .
Two analytical surfaces can be mapped to each other, if there exists a rela-
tionship between the the parameters u , v and u, v.
u = u (u, v) und v = v (u, v) . (2.3)
Hence, the Jacobian determinant, derived form the Jacobian matrix J

∂u ∂u

J = ∂v
∂u ∂v
∂v (2.4)
∂u ∂v
is not allowed be zero and thus the equation
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
− = 0 . (2.5)
∂u ∂v ∂v ∂u
2.2 The line element

As shown in the sketch the differential line element can be
expressed by
dx
d x = xu du + xv dv whereas |d x| = ds .
xu du
Thus the square of the line element is

xv dv
ds2 = xu xu du2 + 2 xu xv du dv + xv xv dv 2 . (2.6)

E F G
The quantities E = xu xu and F = xu xv as well as G = xv xv are called

the first Gaussian fundamental quantities 3 . These quantities describe the
metric of a surface.
If we think of two different surfaces, one datum surface and one image surface,
the above Gaussian quantities of the image surface can be expressed in a
similar way as
E = xu xu , F = xu xv and G = xv xv .

3
For convenience further on called Gaussian quantities
4 Script ”Map Projections”
Example: Exercise 1
Before starting with the calculations let’s have a look at formula A.1. This is the
parametric representation of a sphere, where as the parameter u can be treated
as the geographic latitude and the parameter v as the geographic longitude. Thus
the datum surface is the sphere. Hence there are other parametric representation
of the sphere possible.
This is obvious if we analyze the adjacent example. The in-
N terpretation of u̇ as an angle between the z-axis and position
P
vector to point P leads us to another parametric representa-
u. tion of the sphere:
Equator ⎧
⎨ x = R sin u̇ cos v
x(u̇, v) = y = R sin u̇ sin v (2.7)
⎩
z = R cos u̇
This kind of parametrization is equivalent to the latter. The
substitution of u = 2 − u̇ and the relationship (B.8) again delivers (A.1).
π
item a):
We notice in the problem definition that the two position vectors describe two
different surfaces. We already analyzed one surface and know that it is a sphere,
which is given as x(u, v). The second position vector is x (u , v ). Hence referring
to (2.3) a projection assumes a position vector like x (u, v). Exercise 1 already
encompasses the according relationship by (A.3). Applying this we get
⎧
⎨ x = R cos v
x (u, v) = y = R sin v .
⎩
z = R tan u
Further we have to test if equation (A.3) is fulfilled. This leads us to the below
Jacobian determinant:
∂u
∂u
∂u = cos2 u ∂v = 0 = R = 0 .
R
∂v = 0 ∂v cos2 u
∂u ∂v = 1
The determinant is different from zero. Hence if u = 90◦ than the fraction is not
defined. If we have a look at the third component of x(u, v) we recognize, that the
north pole can not be mapped. Still we get an unique solution for all other points.
item b):
The question about the geometric interpretation is equivalent to the question
about the image surface. As we already know the position vector of the image
surface we only need to analyze it. Therefore we simply took the projection in the
different planes.
The projection on the x − y − plane (z = 0) +z

delivers a circle with radius R and it depends
only on the parameter v. The projections on
the x − z − plane and on the y − z − plane
delivers a straight line which is parallel to z +y
+R
in both cases. Hence the third component
only depends on u ∈ [−∞, +∞].
Summing up all facts shows that the projec- +x
tion surface is a cylinder. I. e. the point of
the sphere are projected on a cylinder, coin-
ciding with the sphere at the equator.
Figure 2.2 depicts the resulting image sur- Figure 2.2: The image surface
face in the three planes. The coinciding circle of the cylinder has the same radius
as the sphere.
item c):
In this case we get u = ϕ and v = λ thus x(u, v) = x(ϕ, λ). The three-dimensional
coordinates of K are:
⎧
⎨ x = 4138.425 km
xK (8◦ , 49◦ ) = y = 581.618 km (2.8)
⎩
z = 4807.500 km .
In the same way one gets the Cartesian coordinates of point M :

⎧
⎨ x = 2806.941 km
◦ ◦
xM (38 , 56 ) = y = 2193.022 km (2.9)
⎩
z = 5280.969 km .
On the image surface the according coordinates for K are given by

⎧
⎨ x = 6308.008 km
◦ ◦
xK (8 , 49 ) = y = 886.533 km
⎩
z = 7327.847 km
and ⎧
⎨ x = 5019.629 km
◦ ◦
xM (38 , 56 ) = y = 3921.764 km
⎩
z = 9443.913 km .
item c):
The shortest distance between the two

points K and M on the surface of the sphere 90−φK 90−φ
is the great circle. It can be calculated based
Δλ M
on the spherical law of cosine (see B.12):

K M
cos s = cos 90◦ − ϕK cos 90◦ − ϕM s

+ sin 90◦ − ϕK sin 90◦ − ϕM cos Δλ
= sin ϕK sin ϕM + cos ϕK cos ϕM cos Δλ
s = 2153.521 km ¯
Figure 2.3: The distance KM
The Euclidean distance is deliverd by (2.8)
and (2.9) to se ≈ 2143 km. As expected the
Euclidean distance is shorter than the great
circle.
item d):
If we develop the surface of the cylinder into the plane, the length of s is given
+y
M’
+x K’
Figure 2.4: The mapped curve in ground- and lateral view
by
s = (R · Δλ)2 + Δz 2 = 3949.952 km
as the scetch depicts.
Thus the shortest distance between datum and image surface is distorted by m =
s /s = 1.834 4
4
Note: The shortest distance on the image plane is not identical with the mapped
image of the great circle. Insofar the comparison between the two curves on the different
surfaces is not exact. We discuss this later on.
item e):
The directional derivatives are:
⎧
⎨ xϕ = −R sin ϕ cos λ
xϕ = yϕ = −R sin ϕ sin λ (2.10)
⎩
zϕ = R cos ϕ
and ⎧
⎨ xλ = −R cos ϕ sin λ
xλ = y = R cos ϕ cos λ (2.11)
⎩ λ
zλ = 0 .
Being regular (2.2) requires that the normal vector N of a point is not equal to
zero. N is ⎧
⎨ x = −R2 cos2 ϕ cos λ
N = xϕ × xλ = y = −R2 cos2 ϕ sin λ .
⎩ 2
z = −R sin ϕ cos ϕ
factoring out R2 we get
⎛ ⎞
cos2 ϕ cos λ
N = −R2 ⎝ cos2 ϕ sin λ ⎠ .
sin ϕ cos ϕ
Thus N (45◦ , 50◦ ) = 0 and P is regular.

item f):
With (2.10) and (2.11) we already know the directional derivative. Calculating
the dot product based on this derivatives we obtain the Gaussian quantities for
the sphere:
xϕ xϕ = R2 sin2 ϕ cos2 λ + R2 sin2 ϕ sin2 λ + R2 cos2 ϕ or

E = R2 as well as (2.12)
2 2
xϕ xλ = R sin ϕ cos ϕ sin λ cos λ − R sin ϕ cos ϕ sin λ cos λ or
F = 0 and (2.13)
2 2 2 2 2 2
xλ xλ = R cos ϕ sin λ + R cos ϕ cos λ with
2 2
G = R cos ϕ . (2.14)
Because
F = xϕ xλ = |xϕ | |xλ | cos τ = 0

=0 =0
the directional derivatives (which are vectors as well) are intersecting with τ = 90◦ ,
i. e. the parameter curves are orthogonal.
2.3 Intersection angles of surface curves

As shown by figure (2.5) the line element of
two different curves can be depicted as follows
T β ds δ |d x| = ds
δs |δ x| = δs .
Based on the directional derivative we get

Figure 2.5: Intersection of
curves d x = xu du + xv dv and
δ x = xu δu + xv δv
and thus the intersection angle γ of the two

surface curves is given by
d xδ x ( xu du + xv dv)( xu δu + xv δv)
cos γ = =
|d x||δ x| ds δs
xu xu duδu + xu xv duδv + xv xu dvδu + xv xv dvδv
=
dsδs
Eduδu + F (duδv + dvδu) + Gdvδv
= . (2.15)
dsδs
In the same way the azimuth β of an surface curve can be found. As depicted
in figure (2.5) the relationship between the azimuth β and the two directional
derivatives along the parametric lines (tangent vectors) in point P is given
by
d x xu
cos β =
|dx| | xu |
and can be simplified by replacing |dx| with
( xu du + xv dv) xu E du + F dv
cos β = √ = √ . (2.16)
ds E ds E
The intersection angle τ between the two parametric lines can be calculated
based on the inner product too. One gets (see figure (2.5))
xu xv F
cos τ = =√ √ . (2.17)
|xu | |xv | E G
In addition to the above derived equations also the sine and the cosine of the
relating intersection angles are shown:
√
EG − F 2 (duδv − dvδu)
sin γ = (arbitrary surface curves)(2.18)
√ ds δs
EG − F 2 dv
sin β = √ (azimuth (bearing)) (2.19)
Eds
√
EG − F 2
sin τ = √ √ (parameter curves) (2.20)
E G
2.4 The infinitesimal area

The infinitesimal area dO, which is represented by a differential parallelo-
gram, can be computed by the cross product
dO = | xu du × xv dv| .
Or based on (2.1) the small area could be expressed as
dO = | xu du × xv dv| = | xu × xv |du dv = |N| du dv .
In combination with Lagrange’s formula we get
( xu × xv )2 = x2u x2v − ( xu xv )2 = EG − F 2
and thus expressed by the Gaussian quantities the infinitesimal parallelogram

becomes √
dO = EG − F 2 du dv .
The integration of the over the entire surface O delivers
√
O= EG − F 2 du dv .
u v
Expecting the same for the projection surface yields

√

O = E G − F 2 du dv .
u v
The above result could be applied to an easily understandable example. The

Gaussian quantities E, F and G for the sphere (see (2.12) - (2.14)) deliver
for the surface
O= R2 cos ϕ dϕ dλ .
ϕ λ
The integration for ϕ ∈ [0, π/2] and λ ∈ [0, π], should yield the area of the
hemisphere.
Since the order of the integration could be swapped, it is of no importance,
which of the parameters is the first. Taking the latitude we get
π/2
2
cos ϕ = R2 [sin ϕ]0 = R2
π/2
R
0
and next 2π
2
O=R dλ = R2 [λ]2π
0 = 2πR
2
,
0
which is in fact the surface of the hemisphere.
Chapter 3
Theory of Distortions
3.1 The scale distortion

The scale distortion
ds
m=
ds
is the distortion of the line element. It depends on the direction and thus
on dv/du. A more detailed description of the scale distortion regarding the
results in section (2.2) is given by
ds2 E du2 + 2F dudv + G dv 2

m2 = = . (3.1)
ds2 Edu2 + 2F dudv + Gdv 2
Thus the scale distortions along the parameter curves are
E G
m2u = h2 = and m2v = k 2 = .
E G
The distortions are abbreviated as follows: mu = h (distortion along the u
curve) and mv = k (distortion along the v curve).
Example: Exercise 1
First the Gaussian quantities of the projection surface have to be calculated
1
. Therefore the tangent vectors along the parameter curves are derived.
1
Note: Instead of the parameters u and v the geographic latitude ϕ and the geographic
longitude λ are used
11
After the derivation we get:

x = R
xϕ = (3.2)
y = −R λ sin ϕ
and
x = 0
xλ = , (3.3)
y = R cos ϕ
based on this result the Gaussian quantities are
E = xϕ xϕ = R2 + R2 λ2 sin2 ϕ = R2 (1 + λ2 sin2 ϕ)

F = xϕ xλ = −R2 λ sin ϕ cos ϕ and
G = xλ xλ = R2 cos2 ϕ .
The scale distortion along the parametric curves can be written as

√
E R2 (1 + λ2 sin2 ϕ)
mϕ = h = √ = √ = 1 + λ2 sin2 ϕ
E R2
√
G R2 cos2 ϕ
mλ = k = √ = =1
G R2 cos2 ϕ
and the scale distortion along the meridian in point P(30◦ north, 45◦ east) is
mϕ (30◦ , 45◦ ) = h = 1.07434 .
Whereas the circle of latitude is projected in its original length (mλ = 1).
Next the scale distortion is examined, whereas mainly the relation with the
azimuth is of interest. The scale distortion can be written as
ds2 2 2
du du dv dv
m2 = = E + 2F + G .
ds2 ds ds ds ds
If we further regard the formulas found in section (2.3), in addition to (2.19)
and (2.16) we get
√ √
EG − F 2 dv dv E
sin β = √ ⇒ =√ sin β
E ds ds EG − F 2
as well as
Edu + F dv
cos β = √ combined with the relationship above
ds E
du cos β F sin β
= √ −√ √ ,
ds E E EG − F 2
which leads us to
E EF − F E
m2 = cos2 β + 2 √ sin β cos β
E E EG − F 2
EG − 2F F + GE E
+ − sin2 β . (3.4)
EG − F 2 E
Based on the above formula the following simplifications are introduced
E
A =
E
EF − F E
B = √
E EG − F 2
EG − 2F F + GE E
C = − ,
EG − F 2 E
leading to
m2 = A cos2 β + 2B sin β cos β + C sin2 β . (3.5)
This equation delivers, that the scale distortion depends not only on the
Gaussian quantities and thus on the parameters u and v but also on the
azimuth denoted as β.
m = f (u, v, β) . (3.6)
This leads us to the question if there exists a maximal and a minimal distor-
tion respectively. Therefore we set the differential quotient to zero.
dm
=0 . (3.7)
dβ
Thus we derivate the implicit function of equation (3.5) which yields
2mdm = −2A cos β sin βdβ + 2B cos2 βdβ − 2B sin2 βdβ + 2C sin β cos βdβ
and in combination with (B.4) as well as (B.5)) we get
dm
2m = −A sin 2β + 2B cos 2β + C sin 2β .
dβ
Based on this formula we calculate the extreme values.

− A sin 2β + 2B cos 2β + C sin 2β = 0 (3.8)
and after some basic derivations
(A − C) sin 2β = 2B cos 2β
which yields finally for β
2B
tan 2β = .
A−C
Thus we got the extreme distortion of the azimuth β. As the tangent is
ambiguous, the formula delivers
2βh2 = 2βh1 ± π ,
or
π
βh2 = βh1 ±
.
2
This equation reveals that the directions of the maximum/minimum dis-
tortion are perpendicular. These two directions are called the principal di-
rections2 and the according distortions are the principal distortions. The
re-substitution of A, B and C by the Gaussian quantities delivers after some
deductions √
2(EF − F E ) EG − F 2
tan 2βh = (3.9)
2F (EF − F E ) + E(GE − EG )
In exact the same way we get the principal directions of the projection sur-
face. We start with
1 du 2 du dv dv 2
2
μ = 2 =E + 2F +G etc.
m ds ds ds ds
In the end we get for the projection surface
π
βh 2 = βh 1 ±
2
and in detail for tan 2βh
√
2(F E − EF ) E G − F 2
tan 2βh = . (3.10)
2F (F E − EF ) + E (EG − GE )
2
Also called base directions
The result of formula (3.9) and formula (3.10) comprises, that the principal
directions on the datum surface as well as on the projection surface are
perpendicular. Hence the principal directions are normally the only mutual
perpendicular directions.
In our next step we assume F ≡ F ≡= 0 which means, that the parameter
system of the datum surface as well as that of the image surface are per-
pendicular. In this case, the parameter system is also the system with the
principal directions.
The above mentioned aspects lead us to the question, which are the absolute
values of these distortions. Therefore we modify the two formulas (3.5) and
(3.8) which delivers
(A cos β + B sin β) cos β + (B cos β + C sin β) sin β = m2 as well as
−(A cos β + B sin β) sin β + (B cos β + C sin β) cos β = 0 .
If we multiply the first with cos β and the second with sin β and afterwards
subtract the second from the first we get
(A cos β + B sin β) cos2 β + (A cos β + B sin β) sin2 β = m2 cos β
or
A cos β + B sin β = m2 cos β . (3.11)
In our next step we multiply equation (3.5) and (3.8) with sin β and cos β
respectively. The result is
(A cos β + B sin β) sin β cos β + (B cos β + C sin β) sin2 β = m2 sin β
−(A cos β + B sin β) sin β cos β + (B cos β + C sin β) cos2 β = 0 .
Then we add the equations and obtain
B cos β + C sin β = m2 sin β . (3.12)
We transpose the formulas (3.11) and (3.12) and get
(m2 − A) cos β = B sin β and
(m2 − C) sin β = B cos β .
The multiplication of the equations delivers a quadratic expression of m.
This term does not depend on β. Is is
(m2 − A)(m2 − C) = B 2
or
m4 − (A + C)m2 + AC − B 2 = 0 ,
from which we get the two solutions

A + C A + C 2
m21 = + − AC + B 2 und (3.13)
2 2
2 A+C A + C 2
m2 = − − AC + B 2 . (3.14)
2 2
The first solution is the square of the first principal direction and is abbre-
viated by a2 , whereas the square of the second principal direction is denoted
by b2 . This means that
m21 = a2 und m22 = b2 .
From this we derive further quantities. The first is called medial distortion
U 2 and is defined as follows
2U 2 = a2 + b2 = A + C . (3.15)
The second is the area distortion V , which is defined as

A + C 2 A + C 2
V 2 = a2 b2 = − + AC − B 2 = AC − B 2 . (3.16)
2 2
Re-substituting the quantities A, B and C by the Gaussian quantities delivers
E EG − 2F F + GE E
2U 2 = a2 + b2 = A + C = + −
E EG − F 2 E
EG − 2F F + GE
=
EG − F 2
and
V 2 = a2 b2 = AC − B 2
E EG − 2F F + GE E EF − F E 2
= − − √ ,
E EG − F 2 E E EG − F 2
for the area distortion respectively, which can be simplified to
E G − F 2
V2 = . (3.17)
EG − F 2
In the special case of F ≡ 0, e. g. the parameter system of the datum surface

is orthogonal, both quantities can be written as
EG + GE E G
2U 2 = = + = h2 + k 2 and (3.18)
EG E G
E G F 2 F 2
V2 = − = h2 k 2 − = a2 b2 . (3.19)
EG EG EG
If further the parameter system of the projection surface is also orthogonal
(F ≡ 0) we get
V 2 = h2 k 2 = a2 b2 (3.20)
as well as
E G
a2 = h2 = and b2 = k 2 = . (3.21)
E G
Formula (3.4) can then be simplified to
m2 = a2 cos2 β + b2 sin2 β . (3.22)
3.2 The distortion of areas

According to the definition of the scale distortion, the area distortion V is
given by
d O
V = . (3.23)
dO
E. g. the area distortion is the ratio of the infinitesimal area of the datum
surface and the infinitesimal area of the image surface. Both quantities are
already introduced in section 2.4. Applying to the terms of this section we
get
E G − F 2
V2 = (3.24)
EG − F 2
combined wiht (3.17) delivers V = a b .
Thus the area distortion can be derived by simply multiplying the principal
distortions. This was already shown in the section above.
But there is still another method to determine the distortion of areas based
on the tangent vectors and the enclosed angle. It is
√ √ √ √
d O = E G sin τ du dv and d O = E G sin τ du dv
considering that the distortion along the parameter curves is abbreviated by

h and k we obtain
sin τ
V = hk .
sin τ
If the parameter system of the datum surface as well as of the projection
surface is orthogonal the angle of intersection of the parameter lines is 90◦
and thus τ = τ = π/2 which means that the principal directions coincide
with the parameter lines. By applying (3.24) we get
V = hk = ab .
3.3 The distortion of the azimuth

The distortion of the azimuth ω is the difference between the azimuth β on
the image surface and the according azimuth β on the datum plane. Hence
we get
ω = β − β .
During the next steps the relationship between the azimuth and the distortion
of the azimuth are examined. We assume further F ≡ F ≡ 0.
From equation (2.16) and (2.19) we get, considering the precondition F = 0
√ du ds √ dv ds
cos β = E and sin β = G ,
ds ds ds ds
regarding
ds du cos β dv sin β
m= as well as = √ and = √
ds ds E ds G
we derive
b
sin β = sin β and (3.25)
m
a
cos β = cos β . (3.26)
m
The division of the above formulas leads us to a rather simple equation for
the relation between the azimuth of the datum and the image surface
b
tan β = tan β . (3.27)
a
Equation
sin ω = sin(β − β) and cos ω = cos(β − β)
in combination with the addition theorem for the sine and the cosine (see
(B.1) as well as (B.2)) leads us to
sin ω = sin β cos β − cos β sin β and

cos ω = cos β cos β + sin β sin β .
The substitution of cos β and sin β with the term (3.25) and (3.26) delivers
an equation for the distortion of the azimuth the two formulas
b a b−a
sin ω = sin β cos β − sin β cos β = sin β cos β and
m m m
a b 1
cos ω = cos2 β + sin2 β = (a cos2 β + b sin2 β) .
m m m
For the tangent of the azimuth the same deductions can be performed. We
get tan(β − β) = tan ω in combination with (B.3)
tan β − tan β
tan ω =
1 + tan β tan β
and by applying (3.27) the term can be simplified as follows

b
a
tan β − tan β (b − a) tan β
tan ω = = . (3.28)
b 2
1 + a tan β a + b tan2 β
3.4 The infinitesimal angular distortion

The infinitesimal distortion can be expressed as follows
dβ
=?
dβ
Equation (3.27) already denotes the relation between β and β. Thus it is

sufficient to derivate the formula. Doing this we get
1 b 1
dβ = dβ
cos2 β a cos2 β
in combination with (3.26) we find

1 b 1
a2
dβ = dβ ,
m2
2
cos β a cos2 β
by reducing the fraction by cos2 β and further simplifications we can derive

dβ 2
m = ab . (3.29)
dβ
Thus we found a relation between the distortion of the infinitesimal angular
distortion, the scale distortion and the principal distortions.
Based on the above formula we may be interested in the question: In which
direction the infinitesimal angle is not distorted. Thus formula
dβ
=1
dβ
has to be fulfilled. With (3.22) we get for (3.29) the term
a2 cos2 βm + b2 sin2 βm = a b ,
which yields by substitution of the sine and the cosine and factoring out
cos2 βm (a2 − b2 ) = a b − b2
or
a b − b2 b a
cos2 βm = = ⇒ sin2 βm =
a2 − b2 a+b a+b
and thus
a
tan2 βm = . (3.30)
b
Based on
b
tan β = tan β
a
one gets
b
tan2 βm

= ⇒
tan βm tan βm =1
a
e. g.
π
βm + βm = .
2
3.5 The maximal distortion of the azimuth

Based on the definition for the distortion of the azimuth ω = β − β we
try to find out, if there are directions where the distortion is maximal. By
differentiation we get
dω dβ
= −1 =0 .
dβ dβ

Obviously this is the direction with dβ
dβ
= 1, which is βm , e. g. the direction

where the infinitesimal angle is not distorded. Based on ωm = βm − βm
together with formula (3.28) the amount of the maximum distortion of the
azimuth can be expessed by
(b − a) tan βm
tan ωm = .
a + b tan2 βm
By applying the specific equation for the direction with the maximum dis-
tortion for the infinitesimal angle (see 3.30) we get

(b − a) ab b−a
tan ωm = = √ . (3.31)
2a 2 ab
It is possible to deduce similar equations for the sine and the cosine of ωm
These are √
b−a 2 ab
sin ωm = and cos ωm = .
b+a b+a
The maximal distorted angle Ωm is due to symmetry
Ωm = 2 |ωm| ,
because the maximal distorted azimuth can be found in the first and in the
fourth quadrant.
3.6 Ellipse of distortion

Basic work in the field of map projections was done by Nicolas Auguste Tissot
(1824 - 1890). This is the reason why in many textbooks and other related
literature the ellipse of distortion is also calledTissot’s Indikatrix.
Starting point for the next examinations is the question how the infinitesimal
circle with the radius ds is mapped on the image surface. Further F ≡ F ≡ 0
is assumed
The infinitesimal line element can be described on both the datum and the
image surface as
ds2 = Edu2 + Gdv 2 = dξ 2 + dη 2 and (3.32)

ds2 = E du2 + G dv 2 = dξ 2 + dη 2 , (3.33)
whereas for the datum surface

√ ds cos β
dξ = ds cos β = E du ⇒ du = √ as well as (3.34)
E
√ ds sin β
dη = ds sin β = G dv ⇒ dv = √ (3.35)
G
and for the image surface by applying (3.34) and (3.35)
√
dξ = ds cos β = E du = ds a cos β (3.36)
√
dη = ds sin β = G dv = ds b sin β (3.37)
After the division by ds, which delivers the radius of the unit circle we get
for the image plane
dξ
ξ = = m cos β = a cos β as well as (3.38)
ds
dη
η = = m sin β = b sin β (3.39)
ds
and thus
ξ 2 + η 2 = m2
in combination with
ξ 2 η 2
+ 2 =1 .
a2 b
This is the equation of the so called distortion ellipse or Tissot’s Indika-
trix. The above formula delivers further, that the infinitesimal unit circle is
mapped in its affine image e. g. the ellipse.
At this point we can draw some conclusions. The three most important are
stated below.
1. The scale distortion m is the length of the radius vector of the distortion
ellipse. For two arbitrary direction which are perpendicular β and
β = β + π/2 the scale distortion m is

ξ = a cos β ; ξ = a cos(β + π/2) = −a sin β (3.40)
η = b sin β ; η = b sin(β + π/2) = b cos β (3.41)
(3.42)
squared and added delivers
ξ 2 + η 2 = m2 = a2 cos2 β + b2 sin2 β (3.43)
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
ξ +η = m = a sin β + b cos β (3.44)
and thus
m2 + m2 = a2 + b2 .
2. For the distortion of areas the distortion ellipse delivers a geometrically

based interpretation which is as follows
d O Area of the Indikatrix abπ
V = = = = ab .
dO Area of the unit circle π
3. As far as the distortion of the angles is concerned Tissot’s Indikatrix
depicts (the principal distortions: m1 ¡ m2 ) for a ray rotating clockwise
d β
>1
dβ
starting at ξ = ξ = 0 until
d β
=1
dβ
is reached and thus the maximum distortion of the azimuth ωm . Sub-
sequently we get
d β
<1
dβ
and afterwards reaches the η and the η - axis respectively, getting the
minimum to increase in the 2. quadrant again to
d β
=1 .
dβ
The distortion ellipse is a very important issue in map projections. Based on

the geometric interpretation essential coherences can be depicted in a rather
easy manner.
3.7 Projections with specific properties
3.7.1 Equidistant projections

The term equidistant denotes simply that the scale distortion in a certain
direction dv/du is one.
Based on formula
ds2 E du2 + 2 F dudv + G dv 2
m2 = = =1 .
ds2 Edu2 + 2 F dudv + Gdv 2
The Gaussian quantities can be written as follows
(E − E)du2 + 2(F − F )du dv + (G − G)dv 2 = 0 .

dv
With m = du
one gets
2 F − F E − E
m +2 m+ =0
G −G G −G
and the solution of the mixed quadratic equation delivers

F − F F − F 2 E − E
m1,2 = − ± − . (3.45)
G −G G − G G −G
In our next step we will have a look on the root, which can be rearranged by
finding the common denominator

F 2 − 2F F + F 2 (E − E)(G − G)
− =
(G − G)2 (G − G)2
and further transformations

F 2 − 2F F + F 2 − E G + G E + E G − E G
= =
(G − G)2
expanded with EG − F 2 and some simplifications lead us to

E G − F 2 E G − 2F F + G E E G − F 2
= − − 1 .
(G − G)2 E G − F2 E G − F2
Regarding that we can furthermore substitute the first term inside the radical
for 2U 2 = a2 + b2 and the second for V 2 = a2 b2 (see 3.15 as well as 3.16).
Applying these simplifications we get
√
F − F E G − F2√ 2
m1,2 = − ± 2U −V2 − 1 .
G −G G − G
E. g. there are two real solutions, if
a2 + b2 − a2 b2 − 1 > 0 or
(a2 − 1)(1 − b2 ) > 0
are fulfilled. This is the case if either
1. a2 > 1 und b2 < 1 or

2. a2 < 1 und b2 > 1.
If a2 = 1 or b2 = 1 the two directions diminuish to one.

Denoting the equidistant curves with βl and βl and assuming F ≡ F ≡ 0,
we get
dv 2 E − E E a2 − 1
= m2 = − = .
du G −G G 1 − b2
Together with the two equations
du cos β dv sin β
= √ and = √
ds E ds G
one obtains
sin2 βl
G E a2 − 1 2 a2 − 1
cos2 βl
= = tan βl =
E
G 1 − b2 1 − b2
and for the image plane
b2 b2 a2 − 1
tan2 βl = tan2
βl = .
a2 a2 1 − b2
Example (Exercise 9 d)):
H u’ P’ The term equidistant, which is in use for

a certain class of projections, characterizes
P
R the property, that an array of curves crossing
90−u
u
the central point or its image respectively are
M
mapped equidistant.
Based on the general formula for azimuthal
projections , which can be characterized by

x = u cos v
x (u , v ) =
Figure 3.1: The equidistant y = u sin v
azimuthal projection it is necessary to find the relation between u’,u
as well as v’ and v. From sketch (see fig. 3.1)
we can deduce
π
u = R −u and v = v .
2
Thus we obtain the coordinates of the image by

x = R( π2 − u) cos v
x (u, v) = .
y = R( π2 − u) sin v
The derivative with respect to u and v delivers

xu = −R cos v
xu =
yu = −R sin v
or
xv = −R( π2 − u) sin v
xv = .
yv = R( π2 − u) cos v
The Gaussian quantities are therefore: E = xu · xu = R2 und F = xu · xv = 0
and G = xv · xv = R2 ( π2 − u)2. In combination with the quantities of the
sphere the principal distortions a and b are

E R2 G R2 ( π2 − u)2 π
2
−u
a= = = 1 und b = = = .
E R2 G R2 cos2 u cos u
Assuming, that the principal point of the projection coincides with the north
pole, the parameters u and v can be treated as the geographic latitude and
the geographic longitude. The principal distortion for u = 60◦ is given by
1
a = 1 und b = π = 1.0472 .
3
As expected the meridians passing the principal point are all equidistant.
3.7.2 Equal area projections

A projection can be called equal area, if
d O = d O ,
is fulfilled, e. g. the infinitesimal area of the datum and the image surface
are equal. Further we can deduce
d O
= 1 = ab = V . (3.46)
dO
Combined with (3.19) we get
V 2 = 1 ⇒ E G − F 2 = E G − F 2
and
√ √

O= EG − F 2 du dv and O = E G − F 2 du dv ,
u v u v
which depicts the property equal area is not only fulfilled in an infinitesimal
environment but also in a finite.
Because of a b = 1 one of the principal distortions is always less than 1
whereas the other is greater than 1. As a consequence dealing with equal
area projections there always exists a direction with a scale distortion of 1.
This direction is given by (datum surface)
a2 − 1 a2 − 1
tan2 βl = = = a2
1 − b2 1 − a12
or
tan βl = ±a
and
b2 a2 − 1 b2 1 − b2
tan2 βl = = 1 = b2 ⇒ tan βl = ±b
a 1−b
2 2 b2
b2 1−b2
which is the according direction to the image plane.

Due to
a b 1 1
tan2 βm = und tan2 βm

= a = bzw. b =
b a b a
these directions βl and βl indicate also the maximal distortion of the azimuth.
Thus it is

tan βm = tan βl = ±a and tan βm = tan βl = ±b .
The absolute value of the maximal distorted azimuth ωm is given by

π ω
m a
tan − = = a and (3.47)
4 2 b
π ω
m b
tan + = =b. (3.48)
4 2 a
3.7.3 Conformal projections

According to Carl Friedrich Gauß a projection can be called conformal if the
image is similar to the original figure. This means that e. g. the unit circle
on the datum surface delivers a circle on the image surface. In general the
latter is actually no longer a unit circle.
Thus the scale distortion is
a=b=m (3.49)
or
E G
= (assuming F ≡ F ≡ 0). .
E G
It is an intrinsic property of conformal projections, that the scale distortion
depends not on the azimuth.
Chapter 4
Oblique map projections
4.1 From Gaussian parameters to geographic

coordinates
Till this section the parameters u and v could be treated as ϕ and λ which
denote the geographical latitude and longitude respectively as long as we
stick to the normal alignment of the two surfaces. Thus u = ϕ and v = λ
and furthermore we can derive the position vector x = (u, v) and x = (ϕ, λ)
in a rather easy way. Hence things change if the north pole remains no longer
the central point of the projection (see fig. below).
H P’ N
90 − φH 90 − φ P
P Δλ
90−u N
u P
H v
M
90 − u
(a) Central point and north (b) The polar triangle

pole
Figure 4.1: The oblique alignment of the two surfaces
Normally the position on the sphere of an arbitrary point P are given in geo-
29
graphic coordinates ϕ and λ, whereas the projection formulas use the Gaus-
sian parameters u and v. This makes sense because as already mentioned
the latter formulas depend not on the attitude of the central point however
they refer to it. This means that we have to find a relationship between the
Gaussian parameters and the geographic coordinates. This relationship is
not linear as figure 4.1 depicts.
As figure 4.1 depicts we need a polar triangle to find the above mentioned re-
lationship. To explain this in detail, we take a azimuthal projection as an ex-
ample. It is further assumed, that the central point is located at H(ϕH , λH ).
Furthermore we take an arbitrary point P (ϕP , λP ). Our next step leads us
to the spherical law of cosines
cos(90◦ −u) = cos(90◦ −ϕH ) cos(90◦ −ϕP )+sin(90◦ −ϕH ) sin(90◦ −ϕP ) cos(Δλ)
which delivers the relationship between u and the geographical coordinates.

The above equation can be simplified to
sin(u) = sin(ϕH ) sin(ϕP ) + cos(ϕH ) cos(ϕP ) cos(Δλ) .
The second parameter v can be determined by the spherical law of sines –

with respect to the central point H – as shown by
sin(v) sin(Δλ)
= bzw.
cos(ϕP ) cos(u)
sin(Δλ)
sin(v) = cos(ϕP ) .
cos(u)
4.2 The azimuthal coordinates

Dealing with oblique projections it makes sense to change the parameter
system once again. Although this step isn’t carried out by all authors it
makes map projections much easier as shown below.
Looking at the spherical triangle with its edges in N, H and P and the
appropriate great circles between the points we introduce a local azimuth α
(counted clockwise) which is defined by the meridian through H and the great
circle through H and P . The second parameter is the polar distance δ. This
parameter is defined as the distance of the great circle (or the orthodrome)
counting from the central point H to P . Henceforth the new parameters

α and δ replace the Gaussian parameters u and v. The central point H
– with arbitrary attitude – to which both parameters refer is like a pole
to the new coordinate system. Thus the circles δ = const. and the lines
α = const. can be seen as a generalization of the parallel circles and the
meridians respectively.
The new parameters deliver considering the sphere the below equations for
the position vector
⎧
⎨ x = R sin δ cos α
x(δ, α) = y = R sin δ sin α (4.1)
⎩
z = R cos δ.
The related Gaussian quantities are
E = R2 sowie F = 0 und G = R2 sin2 δ .
As already outlined the central point is like a pole for the newly introduce
parameter system. Thus the definition of this point is crucial. Naturally
the central point depends on the projection surface which can be a cone a
cylinder or a plane. The latter is the easiest because the central point is the
coincidence of the plane and the sphere (if the plane is tangent). In the case
of the cylinder surface the central point is defined as the intersection of the
axis of the cylinder and the surface of the sphere. In almost the same way
we get the central point considering a conical projection. In this context it
is the intersection of the line between the apex of the cone and the center of
the sphere.
4.3 Specific curves on the datum surface
4.3.1 The loxodrome

The curve intersecting each meridian between two points P1 and P2 at a
constant azimuth is called loxodrome1 . This curve was of great importance
in ancient navigation. Based on conformal maps the course angle could
be determined by geometric means, because the loxodrome is the shortest
1
Sometimes also called rhumb line
distance between two points in such a map. Thus the course angle e. g. for
navigation on a ship could be easily derived by a rule.
cBased on figure 4.2 we can conclude
dλ
tan β = cos ϕ
dϕ
or
R db
tan β
ds
dλ = dϕ
β cos ϕ
and by integration between P1 (ϕ1 , λ1 ) and
R cos b dl P2 (ϕ2 , λ2 ) and solving for tan β
λ2 − λ1
Figure 4.2: The differential tan β =
triangle ln tan π
4
+ ϕ22 − ln tan π4 + ϕ1
2
(4.2)
we get the course angle between the two points.
The distance along the loxodrome can be deduced (see fig. 4.2) from
Rdϕ Rdϕ
cos β = and thus ds =
ds cos β
or ϕ2
R R
s= dϕ = (ϕ2 − ϕ1 ) . (4.3)
ϕ1 cos β cos β
Exercise 11
Based on a map which is the result of a conformal projection of the ellipsoid of
revolution to the plane a captain derives the course angle of his passage from
San Juan (Puerto Rico) (ϕJ = 18.28◦ , λJ = 66.07◦) to Lisbon (ϕL = 38.43◦ ,
λL = 9.08◦ ). The course angle shall be the same for the whole journey.
a) Calculate the difference of the course angle, if the map is not derived
from a ellipsoid of revolution but from a sphere (radius = 6 370 km)
b) How is the difference of the length of the loxodrome between the ellip-
soid of revolution and the sphere? What is the length of the loxodrome
if we calculate with the course angle of the sphere?
c) And finally, what is the difference in the distance between the loxo-
drome and the shortest distance on the sphere?
General information:
a = 6377.4 km; e2 = 0.0066744

e
dx x π M(Φ) π Φ 1 − e sin Φ 2
= ln tan + , dΦ = ln tan + ·
cos x 2 4 N(Φ) cos Φ 4 2 1 + e sin Φ
Item a)
Referring to (4.2) one gets the course angle from San Juan to Lisbon on the
sphere
βK = 67◦ 9471.
The loxodrome on the surface of the ellipsoid of revolution:
In combination with the Gaussian quantities (E = M 2 (Φ); F = 0; G =
N 2 (Φ) cos2 (Φ)) we get for the course angle on the ellipsoid of revolution
in analogy to figure 4.2
N(Φ) cos(Φ)dΛ
tan βE = .
M(Φ)dΦ
This ordinary differential equation can be solved by seperation of the vari-
ables
M(Φ)
tan βE dΦ = dΛ
N(Φ) cos(Φ)
and integrated afterwards (limits J: San Juan L: Lisbon)
L L
M(Φ)
tan βE dΦ = dΛ
J N(Φ) cos(Φ) J
or
π
ΦL 1 − e sin ΦL e2 π Φ 1 − e sin Φ 2e
J J
ΛL −ΛJ = tan βE ln tan + −ln tan +
4 2 1 + e sin ΦL 4 2 1 + e sin ΦJ
solved to tan βE delivers the course angle on the ellipsoid of revolution βE
ΛL − ΛJ
tan βE = e e2 .
ΦL 1−e sin ΦL 2 ΦJ 1−e sin ΦJ
ln tan π
4
+ 2 1+e sin ΦL
− ln tan π
4
+ 2 1+e sin ΦJ
(4.4)
If we apply the appropriate figures we get
βE = 68◦0490 .
Thus the difference between the two solutions equals
Δβ = βE − βK = 0◦ 1019 .
Item b)
The length of the loxodrome on the surface of the sphere can be solved
immediately by formula (4.3). The equation yields
sK = 5 992.894 km .
The differential triangle on the ellipsoid of revolution delivers the course angle
or azimuth respectively based on the Gaussian quantities
M(Φ)dΦ
cos β = .
ds
Paralleled to the sphere, we get an ordinary differential equation which leads
after the separation of the variables to
M(Φ)dΦ
ds =
cos β
which can be integrated in the next step. One gets
ΦL
1 a(1 − e2 ) ΦL 1
s= M(Φ) dΦ = 3 dΦ . (4.5)
cos β ΦJ cos β 2
ΦJ 1 − e sin Φ
2
This equation comprises an elliptic integral of the first kind and cannot be
expressed in terms of elementary functions. Thus we need another approach.
The first is the solution by numerical integration. One of this approaches is
Romberg’s method. Doing so we get the results depicted in table 4.1.2 .
Below a rough description of the algorithm:
• General principle: Subdivide the integral into trapezoids

• Start with one trapezoid
• Calculate the area (bounds: [α, β])
(α − β) ∗ (f (α) + f (β))/2
2
Note: These results are only a first approximation!
Figure 4.3: The function to be integrated
• Halve the interval(s) and calculate another/other support point(s) in

the middle of each sub-area
• As a result the areas are doubled
• Calculate the sum and put it in a table (see below)
• Derive from the first column a linear combination as follows:

1
Lki (f ) = (22k Li+1
k−1
(f ) − Lik−1 (f ))
22k − 1
• Stop the iteration if the difference of the last two linear combinations
is less than a threshold ε otherwise continue with the third step
4L0i+1 −L0i 16L1i+1 −L1i 64L1i+1 −L1i

L1i = 3
L2i = 15
L3i = 63
L00 =5974.3145
L01 =5973.8062 L10 =5973.6368
L02 =5973.6802 L11 =5973.6381 L21 =5973.6382
L03 =5973.6487 L12 =5973.6382 L22 =5973.6382 L32 =5973.6382
Table 4.1: Romberg’s-Method applied to 4.5

The result for the length of the loxodrome sE from point J to point L com-
puted up to the fourth decimal place is
sE = 5 973.6382 km .
There are still other approaches to solve 4.5. One of these is the series
expansion. The mathematical textbooks dealing with integration and series
3
expansion delivers for (1 − x)− 2 the expression
3 3 15 2
(1 − x)− 2 = 1 + x+ x . . . (|x| < 1) .
2 8
In the above expansion the series was aborted after the third term. We will
see that three terms are enough to get a good approximation for the solution
of 4.5.
The substitution of
x = e2 sin2 Φ
yields for 4.5

a(1 − e2 ) ΦL 3 15
s= (1 + e2 sin2 Φ + e4 sin4 Φ + . . . ) dΦ or
cos β ΦJ 2 8

ΦL
a(1 − e2 ) 3 2 ΦL 2 15 4 ΦL 4
s= dΦ+ e sin Φ dΦ+ e sin Φ dΦ +. . . .
cos β ΦJ 2 ΦJ 8 ΦJ
Considering (B.19) and (B.21) we thus are able compute the length sE of the
loxodrome on the surface of the ellipsoid of revolution
!
a(1 − e2 ) 3 2 1 1
sE = · (ΦL − ΦJ ) + e (ΦL − ΦJ ) − (sin 2ΦL − sin 2ΦJ )
cos βE 2 2 4
15 4 3 1
+ e (ΦL − ΦJ ) − (sin 2ΦL − sin 2ΦJ ) (4.6)
8 8 4
!
1
+ (sin 4ΦL − sin 4ΦJ ) + . . . .
32
If we insert the appropriate quantities the length of the loxodrome is
sE = 5 973.6382 km .
Compared with the reference the difference is less than some centimeters.
Furthermore the result reveals that the length of the loxodrome on the sphere
is almost the same as the length on the ellipsoid.
If we compute the length of the loxodrome applying the course angle of the
sphere, we get
sE = 5 947.396 km .
4.3.2 The orthodrome

The orthodrome is the shortest connection be-
N tween two points P1 (ϕ1 , λ1 ) and P2 (ϕ2 , λ2 ) on
the surface of the sphere. Thus the orthodrome
λ2 − λ1 is is identical with the great circle and this
φ1
90°
−
90°
is why the length can be calculated with the

−
φ2
spherical cosine theorem.

Pl A With the formula below we get the distance s
1 P2 on the unit sphere
s
cos s = cos(90◦ − ϕ1 ) cos(90◦ − ϕ2 ) +
Figure 4.4: The orthodrome + sin(90◦ − ϕ1 ) sin(90◦ − ϕ2 ) cos(λ2 − λ1 )
with the relationship cos(90◦ − x) = sin x the
equation can be simplified to
cos s = sin ϕ1 sin ϕ2 + cos ϕ1 cos ϕ2 cos(λ2 − λ1 ) .
With
so = R · s
the length so of the orthodrome on the sphere with radius R is derived.
The azimuth A1 from point P1 to P2 can also be deduced based from the
spherical cosine theorem
sin ϕ2 − sin ϕ1 cos s
cos A1 = .
cos ϕ1 sin s
As an alternative this could also be done with the sine theorem as follows
sin A1 sin(λ2 − λ1 ) sin(λ2 − λ1 )
= or sin A1 = cos ϕ2 .
sin(90 − ϕ2 )
◦ sin s sin s
Hence there is a problem with this approach because the sin is not unique
in the interval [0, π]. Thus the mutual location of P1 and P2 has to be
considered.
For the projection of the orthodrome O further support points are needed.
Thus we need another theorem of the spherical trigonometry the cotangent
theorem. Considering the polar triangle NP1 P the cotangent theorem yields
sin(λ − λ1 ) cot A1 + cos(λ − λ1 ) sin ϕ1
tan b = (P (ϕ, λ) ∈ O). (4.7)
cos ϕ1
The unknown azimuth A1 can be replaced by applying the theorem once

again
cos ϕ1 tan ϕ2 − sin ϕ1 cos(λ2 − λ1 )
cot A1 = . (4.8)
sin(λ2 − λ1 )
Putting (4.8) in (4.7) delivers after some basic transformations
tan ϕ1 (cos(λ − λ1 ) sin(λ2 − λ1 ) − cos(λ2 − λ1 ) sin(λ − λ1 )) + tan ϕ2 sin(l − λ1 )

tan b =
sin(λ2 − λ1 )
Applying the addition theorem for the sine and the cosine yields
sin(λ2 − λ) = cos(λ − λ1 ) sin(λ2 − λ1 ) − cos(λ2 − λ1 ) sin(λ − λ1 )
which finally leads us to
tan ϕ1 sin(λ2 − λ) + tan ϕ2 sin(λ − λ1 )

tan b = .
sin(λ2 − λ1 )
After all we found a functional relationship between the geographic longitude

λ and the geographic latitude ϕ. We now can take any λ with λ ∈ [λ1 , λ2 ] to
determine intermediate points and thus can map the result on the plane.
Exercise 11:
Item c): The length s of the orthodrome on the surface of the unit circle
between San Juan and Lisbon equals
cos s = cos(90◦ −ϕJ ) cos(90◦ −ϕL )+sin(90◦ −ϕJ ) sin(90◦ −ϕL ) cos(λL −λJ ) .
Thus the length of the orthodrome so on the surface of the sphere with the
radius R = 6371 km equals
so = R arccos s = 5 905.364 km .
Finally the orthodrome is 88 km longer than the loxodrome connecting the

two points.
Chapter 5
Map projections with an

orthogonal parameter system
In this chapter only projections with orthogonal parameter systems are con-
sidered. That is to say that both systems – the system of the datum and
that of the image – have to be orthogonal. As a consequence the Gaussian
quantities F and F need to be zero. We first start with the analysis of the
cone as projection surface.
5.1 Conic projections

Based on geometric considerations we get for the special case for a cone with
one standard parallel the below relationships
s = rg ε = α sin θ rg ,
and thus π
ε = α sin θ = α sin − δg = α cos δg ,
2
which reveals the functional relationship between α and ε.
Expressed in polar coordinates the above formula delivers (see appendix D.4
and D.5)
r = r(δ) and
ε = n α with n = cos δg = sin θ .
40
Converted to rectangular Cartesian coordinates we get

x = rg − r cos ε
x (δ, α) = (5.1)
y = r sin ε.
with rg = R tan δg = R cot θ.

The derivation of (5.1) with respect to the two parameters yields the Gaussian
quantities for the image surface
d r 2
E = , F = 0 and G = n2 r 2 .
dδ
Combined with the quantities of the sphere (E = R2 , F = 0, G = R2 sin2 δ)
the principal distortions can be expressed as

E 1 dr G nr
a= = and b = = . (5.2)
E R dδ G R sin δ
As the principal distortions depend only on δ, the distortions on the parallel
circles are constant.
5.1.1 Equal area conic projections

Based on the equations expressing the relationships of principal distortions
(see (5.2)) the distortion of area can be derived as follows
1 dr nr
V = ab = 1 = .
R d δ R sin δ
The separation of the variables delivers
R2
r dr = sin δ dδ
n
which after integration leads to

R2 2R2
r dr = sin δ dδ or r 2 = − cos δ + C . (5.3)
n n
The above formula reveals the radius as a function of δ or more rigorous
r = r(δ). Thus we found a relationship between the parameter system of
the sphere and the cone. But there are still two more variables or degrees of
freedom to define the properties of the projection. Below some examples.
Example 1:
Imposing one (coinciding) standard parallel yields n = cos δg and further
cos δg r(δg )
b(δg ) = 1 = .
R sin δg
At this point it is advantageous to square the above equation and afterwards

inserting the result in (5.3). One gets
cos2 δg (−2R2 + C)
=1 ,
R2 sin2 δg
resolved to C yields
R2 sin2 δg + 2R2 cos2 δg

C=
cos2 δg
or
1 + cos2 δg 2 1+n
2
C = R2 = R .
cos2 δg n2
Thus finally we found
2R2 1 + n2
r2 = − cos δ + R2
n n2
or
R√
r= 1 + n2 − 2n cos δ (5.4)
n
respectively. This formula shows , that with respect to r(δ = 0) = R 1−n
n
= 0
the principal point is not mapped as a single point.
By inserting (5.4) in (5.2) the principal directions which are the main axis of
the distortion ellipse are
√
nr 1 + n2 − 2n cos δ sin δ
b= = and (because of a = 1/b) a = √ .
R sin δ sin δ 1 + n2 − 2n cos δ
Example 2:
If we want to map the central point as a single point we impose (based on
formula (5.3)) r(δ = 0) = 0. Thus one gets
2R2
C=
n
for the integration constant. Introducing C in (5.3) delivers
2R2
r2 = (1 − cos δ) . (5.5)
n
The relationship 1 − cos δ = 2 sin2 ( 2δ ) (see (B.9)) yields together with (5.5)
2R δ
r = √ sin .
n 2
And the related principal distortions are (with respect to (B.4))

√
cos 2δ n
a= √ and b =
δ .
n cos 2
This case actually delivers no coinciding standard parallel because of

cos δg
b(δg ) = = 1 .
cos δ2g
Hence the variable n can be chosen in such a way that another parallel circle
δ = δl is coinciding. Therefore we need
√ δ
l 2 δl
n = cos or n = cos .
2 2
Example 3 (Albers equal area conic projection):

There is a third way to determine the two constants in (5.3). If we define
two coinciding parallels we get two equations with conditions for the both
variables n and C. Thus we get
n r(δl1 ) n r(δl2 )
b(δl1 ) = 1 = and b(δl2 ) = 1 =
R sin δl1 R sin δl2
which leads to
R sin δl1 R sin δl2
r(δl1 ) = as well as r(δl2 ) = .
n n
Inserting 5.4 into the above equation and squaring the result yields
2 R2 R2 sin2 δl1
− cos δl1 + C = and (5.6)
n n2
2 R2 R2 sin2 δl2
− cos δl2 + C = . (5.7)
n n2
Subtraction (5.7) from (5.6) delivers
2 R2 2 R2 R2 sin2 δl1 R2 sin2 δl2

cos δl2 − cos δl1 = −
n n n2 n2
and after some simplifications
1
2 (cos δl2 − cos δl1 ) = (sin2 δl1 − sin2 δl2 ) .
n
Resolved to n one obtains
" #
1 sin2 δl1 − sin2 δl2
n=
2 cos δl2 − cos δl1
and with sin2 δ = 1 − cos2 δ in combination with the third binomial theorem
the equation can be modified to
1
n = (cos δl2 + cos δl1 ) . (5.8)
2
Hence, the integration constant C has to be resolved. Therefore we insert n

in equation (5.6) or (5.7). If we take (5.6) we get after some deductions
R2 sin2 δl1 2 R2
C= + cos δl1
n2 n
and further obtain based on a common denominator
" #
2
sin δ 2n cos δ R2
C = R2 (sin2 δl1 + 2n cos δl1 ) .
l1 l1
+ = (5.9)
n2 n2 n2
Inserting (5.9) in (5.3) we finally get
R2
r2 = (sin2 δl1 + 2n cos δl1 − 2n cos δ) or explicitly
n2
R
r = sin2 δl1 + 2n(cos δl1 − cos δ) (5.10)
n
whereas the varialbe n refers to (5.8).
5.1.2 Conformal conic projections

The scale distortion of conformal projections does not depend on the azimuth
but only on the location and thus on the Gaussian parameters. Expressed
by azimuthal coordinates α and δ the scale distortion m is
m = f (δ, α) .
Hence, the infinitesimal unit circle is mapped as a circle again, but as as a

circle with a different radius of course. To get a conformal projection
m=a=b
has to be fulfilled. Taking the principal distortion of equation (5.2) one gets
after some deductions
1 dδ
dr = n .
r sin δ
In this equation the variables are already separated and thus could be inte-
grated. The integration delivers
δ
ln r = n ln tan + ln C ,
2
or
δ
ln r = ln C tann
2
which leads us to
δ
r = C tann . (5.11)
2
This formula encompasses the relationship of the radius and the according
parameter δ and thus r = r(δ) is solved. From this formula we can conclude
that the principal point is in fact a point, because r(δ = 0) = 0. Furthermore

the integration constant is like a scale factor. In addition this formula com-
prises the two parameters n and C based on which we are able to introduce
further constraints. This is explained by the following examples.
Example 1:
The first possibility to introduce a constraint with a geometrical interpreta-
tion is to postulate that the coinciding parallel should not be distorted. The
mathematical constraint is
b(δg ) = 1 .
Applying this in (5.2) than we obtain together with (5.11)
R sin δg
C= δg
.
n tann 2
By geometrical interpretation we see n = cos δg and thus the relationship is

simplified to
R tan δg
C= .
tann δ2g
Finally the radius r of a conformal conic projection with one coinciding
standard parallel is
R tan δg n δ
r= δ
tan .
tann 2g
2
Example 2:
The alternative is to impose two coinciding standard parallels. If we do so,
we get for C the constraint (in combination with b(δ1 ) = b(δ2 ) = 1):
R sin δ1 R sin δ2
C= n δ1
= . (5.12)
n tan 2 n tann δ22
The second parameter n is obtained by

sin δ1 sin δ2
n δ1
=
tan 2 tann δ22
and
δ1 δ2
n ln tan + ln sin δ2 = n ln tan + ln sin δ1
2 2
which leads to
ln sin δ1 − ln sin δ2 ln sin δ1
sin δ2
n= = . (5.13)
ln tan δ21 − ln tan δ22
δ
tan 21
ln δ2
tan 2
The two variables C (see (5.12)) and n (see (5.13)) deliver in combination
with (5.11) the radius for a conformal conic projection with two coinciding
standard parallels
R sin δ1 δ
r= n δ1
tann .
n tan 2 2
5.2 Cylinder projections

Dealing with conic projections it ı́s appropriate to use polar coordinates like
(r, ε), hence in this section we will use a Cartesian coordinate system. This
system is introduced as

x = x (δ)
x (δ, α) = (5.14)
y = c · R · α
The parameter c denotes the scale factor of the y -axis. If there is only one
coinciding standard parallel, than c = 1 for δ = π2 . In the case of c ≤ 1, i. e.
the sphere and the cylinder are intersecting, we get two coinciding standard
parallels δli . These are δl1 and by means of symmetry δl2 = 180◦ − δl1 .
Based on (5.14) the Gaussian quantities are
dx 2
E = , F = 0, G = c2 R 2 .
dδ
Thus we can derive the principal distortions

E 1 dx G c
a=± =− and b = = . (5.15)
E R dδ G sin δ
The minus before the first principal distortion a is crucial. It indicates that
x and δ are reciprocally proportional. I. e. dx /dδ < 0, or the greater x
the less δ and vice versa. Since a has to be positive the differential quotient
needs to be multiplied with -1.
In geodesy the cylinder projections are very important. E. g. the Universal
Transverse Mercator Grid-system (UTM) is based on a (transverse) cylinder
projection. Also the German Gauß-Krüger coordinate system is derived from
a cylinder projection. We will refer to this later.
5.2.1 Equal area cylinder projections

The constraint V = a b = 1, standing for equal area, leads us in combination
with the principal distortions to
1 dx c
ab = − =1 .
R dδ sin δ
After the separation of the variables and the integration
R
x = cos δ + C
c
is obtained. Whereas the integration constant C fixes the position of the y -
axis. If the parallel δ = π/2 is designed to be the coinciding standard parallel,
i. e. x (δ = π/2) = 0 shall be the position of the y’-axis, than the integration
constant C has to be zero. If we further take into account c = sin δl , which
means coinciding standard parallels for δ1 = δl and δ2 = 180◦ − δl or as a
consequence b(δl ) = c/ sin δl = 1. The resulting position vector is
cos δ
x = R sin δl
x = . (5.16)
y = sin δl Rα
This is a rather good example to prove, that this projection is equal area. Of
course its already shown by the principal distortions a and b, hence it could
also be explained by pure geometry. Looking at figure 5.1 (a) in combination
with equation (5.16) we realize that the result for x is within the interval
of −R/ sin δl ≤ x ≤ +R/ sin δl . On the other hand y (see fig. 5.1 (b)) and
equation (5.16)) is for all α ∈ [−π, π] → −Rπ sin δl ≤ y ≤ Rπ sin δl . The
area of this rectangle is 2 R / sin δl · 2 R π sin δl = 4 R2 π and thus the surface
of a sphere with radius R. So the equal area criterion is fulfilled for the
infinitesimal surrounding of an arbitrary point as well as for the finite area.
5.2.2 Conformal cylinder projections

As already shown in section 3.7.3 a projection is conformal if a = b. In
combination with the principal distortions for cylinder projections (5.15) we
get
1 dx c
− =
R dδ sin δ
+x
X’
δ
+y
(a) The cylinder surface (b) x’= Rcos δ
Figure 5.1: The calculation of the cylinder area
which leads to
dδ
dx = −c · R · .
sin δ
The integration delivers
δ
x = −cR ln tan +C and simplified
2
δ
x = cR ln cot +C .
2
As already explained the integration constant C fixes the y -axis. If we chose
C = 0 the parallel with b(δl ) = c/ sin δl = 1 coincides with the y -axis. Hence
there are also other definitions possible.
Finally the position vector x of a conformal cylinder projection is

x = cR ln cot 2δ
x = .
y = cRα
If c = 1 (i. e. one coinciding standard parallel) the position vector is

x = R ln cot 2δ
x = .
y = Rα
5.3 Azimuthal projections

Generally the formulas based on polar coordinates
ε = α and r = r(δ)
are applied for all for all azimuthal coordinates. Converted in Cartesian
coorinates
x = r(δ) cos α
x = (5.17)
y = r(δ) sin α
are derived. The derivative with respect to the parameters δ and α and the
dot product deliver the Gaussian quantities
dr 2
E = , F = 0 and G = r 2
dδ
form which the principal distortions
1 dr r(δ)
a= as well as b = . (5.18)
R dδ R sin δ
are obtained.
As shown by 5.17 the knowledge of only one parameter is sufficient. Thus
knowing the radius in 5.17 means knowing the equation of the projection.
This is deepened in the next sections.
5.3.1 Equal area azimuthal projection

Referring to section 3.7.3 and equation (3.49) we get in combination with
(5.18)
1 dr r(δ)
=1 .
R dδ R sin δ
This is an ordinary differential equation. By separation of the variables we
get
r dr = R2 sin δ dδ
and after integration
1 2 C
r = −R2 cos δ + or
2 2
r 2 = −2R2 cos δ + C . (5.19)
As the radius r for δ = 0 has to be zero we further get
r 2 (δ) = 0 , i. e.
C = 2R2 .
Referring to (5.19) the radius for an azimuthal equal area projection is
r 2 = 2R2 (1 − cos δ) regarding

δ
1 − cos δ = 2 sin2 (see B.9) yields
2
δ
r = 2R sin . (5.20)
2
5.3.2 Conformal azimuthal projection

By identifying the principal distortions given in (5.18) one obtains the con-
straints of a conformal azimuthal projection
1 dr r(δ)
=
R dδ R sin δ
1 1
dr = dδ and after integration
r sin δ
δ
ln r = ln tan + ln C
2
δ
r = C tan .
2
In this equation the integration constant C has to be determined. This

constant can be treated as a scale factor. It is reasonable to set the scale
factor for the principal point (δ = 0) to m = 1. In combination with
r
b = = m = 1 one gets
R sin δ
δ δ δ
C tan = R sin δ = R 2 sin cos
2 2 2
δ
C = 2R cos2 (with δ = 0)
2
C = 2R .
The radius of a conformal azimuthal projection thus is

δ
r = 2R tan (5.21)
2
(see also exercise 9c in section 3.2).
5.3.3 The gonomonic projcection

With this projection the center of projection is
H r P’ located in the center of the sphere. The radius
of the polar coordinates can be derived easily
R P to r = R tan δ and in combination with (5.18)
δ
M the principal distortions are
1 dr
a = and with
R dδ
dr R
Figure 5.2: Gnomonic pro- = whereas
dδ cos2 δ
jection 1 1
a= 2
as well as b= is derived.
cos δ cos δ
The special property of the projection is, that
the great circle on the sphere is mapped as a
straight line and thus it the shortest distance between two points in the plane
as well.
5.3.4 The orthographic projection

Observing the moon or other celestial bodies the view delivers a orthographic
projection. This is the reason why celestial bodies in general are mapped with
this projection.
H r P’
R P
δ
Figure 5.3: Orthografic projection

As figure 5.3 depicts the radius r is given by r = R sin δ. The derivative with
respect to δ is dr/dδ = R cos δ and thus the first principal distortion
a = cos δ
and the second principal distortion

r
b= =1 .
R sin δ
From this we get the area distortion V to
V = a b = cos δ
and the maximal distortion of the azimuth is

b−a 1 − cos δ
sin ωm = = ,
b+a 1 + cos δ
which leads us in combination with (B.11) to
δ
2
sin ωm = tan .
2
Chapter 6
Generalized projections
For this group of projections the condition F ≡ 0 is omitted. We still

distinguish the classes conic-, cylinder- and azimuthal projection, although
the classification is sometimes difficult. Omitting F ≡ 0 further means that
conformal projections are no longer possible.
6.1 Pseudoconic projections

The generalized equations in polar coordinates are:
r = r(δ) and
ε = ε(α, δ) .
The above formulas show that the parallels are concentric. The verticals
however are mapped curvilinear. According to 5.1 the Cartesian coordinates
are obtained with

x = rg − r(δ) cos ε(α, δ) (mit rg = R tan δg )
x(δ, α) = . (6.1)
y = r(δ) sin ε(α, δ) .
Thus the Gaussian quantities can be derived with

xδ = − dr dδ
∂ε
cos ε(α, δ) + r(δ) sin ε(α, δ) ∂δ
xδ = (6.2)
yδ = dr dδ
∂ε
sin ε(α, δ) + r(δ) cos ε(α, δ) ∂δ
54
and

xα ∂ε
= r(δ) sin ε(α, δ) ∂α
xα = (6.3)
yα ∂ε
= r(δ) cos ε(α, δ) ∂α
to
dr 2 dr ∂ε

E = xδ xδ = cos2 ε(α, δ) − 2 cos ε(α, δ)r(δ) sin ε(α, δ) +
dδ dδ ∂δ
∂ε 2
+r 2 (δ) sin2 ε(α, δ) +
∂δ
dr 2 dr ∂ε
+ sin2 ε(α, δ) + 2 cos ε(α, δ)r(δ) sin ε(α, δ) +
dδ dδ ∂δ
∂ε 2
+r 2 (δ) cos2 ε(α, δ)
∂δ
dr 2 ∂ε 2
= + r 2 (δ) (6.4)
dδ ∂δ
as well as
dr ∂ε ∂ε

F = xδ · xα = − cos ε(α, δ) + r(δ) sin ε(α, δ) r(δ) sin ε(α, δ)
dδ ∂δ ∂α
dr ∂ε ∂ε
+ sin ε(α, δ) + r(δ) cos ε(α, δ) r(δ) cos ε(α, δ)
dδ ∂α ∂α
∂ε ∂ε ∂ε ∂ε
= r 2 (δ) sin2 ε(α, δ) + r 2 (δ) cos2 ε(α, δ)
∂δ ∂α ∂δ ∂α
∂ε ∂ε
= r 2 (δ) (6.5)
∂δ ∂α
together with
∂ε 2 ∂ε 2
G = xα · xα = r 2 (δ) sin2 ε(α, δ) + r 2 (δ) cos2 ε(α, δ)
∂α ∂α
∂ε 2
= r 2 (δ) . (6.6)
∂α
The intersection angle of the parameter curves according to 2.3 is

√
E G − F 2
sin τ = √ √
E G
2 2 2 2
2
dr
dδ
+ r 2 ∂ε
∂δ
r 2 ∂ε
∂α
− r 4 ∂ε
∂δ
∂ε
∂α
=
2 2 2
dr
dδ
+ r2 ∂ε
∂δ
r2 ∂ε
∂α
dr
= dδ
2 (6.7)
2
dr
dδ
+ r2 ∂ε
∂δ
Thus the scale distortions h and k along the parameter curves are
$
%
√ % dr + r 2 ∂ε 2
E & dδ ∂δ 1 dr
h = √ = 2
= dδ
as well as (6.8)
E R R sin τ
$
% 2
√ % r 2 ∂ε
G & ∂α
∂ε
1 r ∂α
k = √ = = . (6.9)
G R2 sin2 δ R sin δ
The distorion of area V is derived as
sin τ dr ∂ε
r
V =a·b=h·k = dδ2 ∂α (6.10)
sin τ R sin δ
and the principal distortions are
√
a±b= h2 + k 2 ± 2V .
If we want to fulfill the equal area criterion based on the above formulas we
get
dr ∂ε
r
V = dδ2 ∂α = 1 (6.11)
R sin δ
and this expression can be simplified to
∂ε R2 sin δ
= dr
. (6.12)
∂α r dδ
Separating the variables of this differential equation combined with the inte-
gration yields
R2 sin δ
ε= dr
α+C . (6.13)
r dδ
A quite obvious choice for the integration constant is C = 0. As a conse-
quence for α = 0 also ε = 0 and thus the according vertical is a straight
line.
Figure 6.1: Bonne projection
As a further condition we postulate equal area and no scale distortion along

the parallels. The latter means k = 1 which leads us to
∂ε
r ∂α
=1 (6.14)
R sin δ
and together with the relationship 6.12 we get
2
r R r sin
dr
δ
dr
dδ
=1⇒ =R . (6.15)
R sin δ dδ
The integration yields the radius to
r =R·δ+C . (6.16)
It is r(δ = 0) = C. This shows that C determines the pol of the projection.

Hence the pole depends on the standard parallel because rg = R tan δg . Thus
C + Rδg = rg ⇒ C = rg − Rδg = R(tan δg − δg )
and furthermore
r = Rδ + R(tan δg − δg ) .
Now ε can also be determined explicitly. It is
R2 sin δ sin δ
ε= α= α . (6.17)
R · R(δ + tan δg − δg ) δ + tan δg − δg
This projection (see figure 6.1) is named after Rigobert Bonne (1727 - 1795)
who devellopped it. Sometimes it is also called Bonne equal area pseudoconic
projection.
Figure 6.2: Stab-Werner projection
In the specific case for δg = 0 we get from 6.17 the relationship

sin δ
ε= α and r = R · δ .
δ
This projection is called Stab-Werner projection or Stab-Werner heart-shaped

pseudoconic projection. Because the standard parallel coincides with the pole
this projection can also be seen as a pseudoazimuthal projection.
6.2 Pseudocylindrical projections
The general equation for these projections are

x = x (δ)
x (δ, α) = (6.18)
y = y (α, δ)
Thus on pseudocylindrical projections the shape of the parallels are straight

lines and the meridians (verticals) are curves. The symmetry axis is the
central meridian.
The directional derivatives are
dx
xδ =
xδ = dδ
∂y
yδ = ∂δ
and

xα = 0
xα = .
yα = ∂y
∂α
From the above equations the Gaussian quantities are derived. These are
dx 2 ∂y 2
E = xδ · xδ = + (6.19)
dδ ∂δ
∂y ∂y
F = xδ · xα = · (6.20)
∂δ ∂α
∂y 2
G = xα · xα = (6.21)
∂α
As already discussed in section 5.2 the differential quotient dx /dδ < 0 is
also negative. Thus we need a negative sign. The intersection angle of the
parameter curves therefore is

√
E G − F 2
sin τ = √ √
E G
2 2 2 2
2
dx ∂y
dδ
+ ∂δ
· ∂y ∂α
− ∂y
∂δ
∂y
∂α
=
2 2 2
dx ∂y ∂y
dδ
+ ∂δ
· ∂α
dx
= − dδ
2 2 . (6.22)
dx ∂y
dδ
+ ∂δ
The distortions along the parametric curves h and k are given by

$
% 2 2
% dx ∂y
E & dδ + ∂δ
h= = ,
E R2
which leads us together with 6.22 to
dx
1
h = − · dδ
R sin τ
and thus we obtain the first distortion parameter. The other is given by
$
% 2
% ∂y ∂y
G & ∂α
k= = = ∂α
G R2 sin2 δ R sin δ
and the distortion of area can be written as
∂y
sin τ 1 dx
V =a·b = h·k· =− dδ ∂α
sin τ
sin τ R sin τ R · sin δ
1 dx ∂y
= − 2 · · . (6.23)
R · sin δ dδ ∂α
Thus the principal distortions are
√
a±b = h2 + k 2 ± 2V

1 dx 2 1 ∂y 2 1 1 dx ∂y
= · + · ∓ 2 (6.24)
.
R dδ sin2 τ ∂α sin2 δ sinδ dδ ∂α
Replacing sin τ by 6.22 delivers after some deductions the formulas for the
principal distortions

1 dx ∂y 1 2 ∂y 2
a±b = ∓ + . (6.25)
R dδ ∂α sin δ ∂δ
6.2.1 Equal area with equidistant parallels

The condition for equidistant parallels is
∂y 1
k=1= · .
∂α R · sin δ
The separation of the variables and integration deliver for the second com-
ponent of the position vector y
y = R sin δ · α + C .
The only reasonable solution for the integration constant is C = 0. Because

only this definition delivers equidistant parallels based on a radius of R · sin δ
which already corresponds with the radius of the parallels.
Therefore we obtain
y = R · sin δ · α
and thus
∂y
= R · sin δ . (6.26)
∂α
We impose the equal area condition
dx R · sin δ
V =1=− · 2
dδ R · sin δ
from which we get after some deductions
x = −R · δ + C . (6.27)
Presuming that the y -axis coincides with the equator, i. e. x (δ = π/2) = 0,

we get as a result for the integration constant
π
C =R·
2
and together with 6.27

π π
x = −R · δ + R · =R· −δ
2 2
is obtained. The resulting position vector is

x = R · π
− δ
x = 2 . (6.28)

y = R · sin δ · α
In the literature this projection is called Mercator-Sanson projection (see

exercise 2 and figure D.20), Sanson-Flamsteed projection or sinusoidal pro-
jection.
6.2.2 Equal area with elliptical meridians

Deducing this projection we first impose that the surface of the unit hemi-
sphere is mapped on a circle with radius r. I. g.
√
OHK = 2π und FK = r 2 π from which we derive r = 2 .
This is the radius of the circle depicted in figure 6.3 and according to the
sketch at the same time the semi minor axis of the ellipsoid denoted further
with b.
Imposing the equal area condition the area of the surface of the unit sphere
must be the same as the area of the ellipse. Thus
√
a · b · π = 4 · π and in combination with b = 2
the semi major axis of the ellipse is

√
a = 2· 2 .
From figure 6.3 the relationship

√
x (ψ) = 2 · R · cos ψ (6.29)
can be derived. However we have to take into account, that no longer the
unit sphere, but the sphere with the radius R has to be mapped. Considering
B C
ψ
A D y
Figure 6.3: The derivation of the projection of Mollweide
6.18 the first component of the position vector x = f (δ) is not yet solved,
because it depends on δ and not on ψ.
From geometry we derive
√
y = 2 2R · sin ψ .
The above expression in combination with the equation 6.29 obviously de-
scribe the shape of the ellipse. Considering α and the fact that α ∈ [−π, π]
we get √
2 2
y (ψ, α) = · R · α · sin ψ .
π
Thus we got the components of the position vector:
√
x = 2 · R · cos ψ
x (ψ, α) =
√
2 2 (6.30)
y = π
· R · α · sin ψ
As already mentioned the above formula delivers x (ψ, α), however this not
what we want. Hence we need a relationship between ψ and δ.
This is emphasized by 6.18. If we take the equal area criterion 6.23 into
account we get
1 dx ∂y
V = h · k sin τ = − · · =1 . (6.31)
R2 · sin δ dδ ∂α
From 6.30 can be derived

√
dx √ dψ ∂y 2 2R
= − 2 · R · sin ψ and = · sin ψ ,
dδ dδ ∂α π
which leads us together with 6.31 to equation
√ √
2 2
2 · R · sin ψ dψ
dδ
· π
· sin ψ · R
=1 .
R · sin δ
2
This equation encompasses the differential relationship between the two pa-
rameters ψ und δ. Separation of the variables leads to
π
sin2 ψdψ = · sin δdδ ,
4
and after integration we get
ψ 1 π
− sin(2ψ) + C = − cos δ . (6.32)
2 2 4
Imposing ψ = 0 if δ = 0 yields for the integration constant
π
C=− .
4
In combination with 6.32 one obtains after some transformations
π ψ 1
(1 − cos δ) = − sin(2ψ)
4 2 4
and together with
δ 1
sin2 = (1 − cos(δ)) (see (B.9))
2 2
finally after the multiplication with 4
δ
2ψ − sin(2ψ) = 2π sin2 (6.33)
2
is yielded. This equation is transcendent and can only be solved in an itera-
tive way. One of the best approaches to so is the Newton-method 1 .
Equation 6.33 delivers a relationship between ψ and δ. Thus the azimuthal
coordinates can be calculated and finally also the position vector on the image
plane. Further 6.18 is fulfilled.
1
Sometimes also called Newton-Raphson method
6.2.3 Equal area with elliptical meridians and pole lines

The position vector of this projection is given by
⎧
⎨ x = √ 2Rπ · cos ψ
π(4+π)
x = √2R·α (6.34)
⎩ y = · (1 + sin ψ)
π(4+π)
in combination with the transcendent equation for ψ
π − (4 + π) cos δ = 2ψ − 4 cos ψ − sin 2ψ .
6.2.4 With equidistant equator and equidistant central

meridian
The images of the circles of latitude
N have to be equidistant parallels to the
y -axis and further the image of the
P(x’,y’)
central meridian has to be equidistant
r(α) p as well. This delivers for x = f (δ) the
relationship
φ
π
e(α)
x = R −δ . (6.35)
2
In addition the images of the meridi-
ans should be circles through the pole.
The centers of the circles thus have
S
all the coordinate xM = 0 and yM
=
Figure 6.4: Sketch to explain the −ē(α). The equation of the circles are
projection of Apian thus
x2 + (y + ē)2 = r̄ 2 .
For the equator it is

q =R·α . (6.36)
Further on we can deduce
π
x (0) = p = R (6.37)
2
and
r̄ = ē + q .
It is
ē2 + p2 = r 2 = (ē + q)2 = ē2 + 2ēq + q 2 ,
from which we get the relationship
p2 = 2ēq + q 2 or p2 − q 2 = 2ēq .
Resolved to ē finally yields

p2 − q 2
ē =
2q
and after insertion of (6.37) and (6.36) one obtains
R(π 2 − 4α2 )
ē = . (6.38)
8α
Thus it is
R(π 2 − 4α2 )
r̄ = ē + q = +R·α
8α
and summarized
R(π 2 + 4α2 )
r̄ = .
8α
With |α| = π/2 we get for the image of the meridian bordering the hemi-
sphere the realtionship
π π π
ē = 0 und r̄ =R· .
2 2 2
The angle φ is
p
tan φ =
ē
and applying the relationship 6.37 as well as 6.38 we get the equation
4 · πα
tan φ = . (6.39)
π2 − 4 · α2
In combination with (B.11) we get for tan φ/2
φ p
p 2·α
r̄
tan = ē = = . (6.40)
2 1+ r
r̄ + ē π
The quantities ē and r̄ can be transformed regarding (6.38) as well as (6.39)

to
R · cot φ · 4 · π · α R · cot φ · π
ē = = (6.41)
8·α 2
and subsequently with (6.40) can be written as

2 φ 2 φ
R φ R φ R cos 2 + sin 2
r̄ = · π · cot + · tan ·π = ·π .
4 2 4 2 4 sin φ · cos φ
2 2
We simplify the relationship for r̄ by applying (B.4). Finally one obtains

R·π
r̄ = . (6.42)
2 · sin φ
According to Pythagoras it is for an arbitrary point P
(y + ē)2 + x2 = r̄ 2
or resolved for the first term
(y + ē)2 = r̄ 2 − x2 (6.43)
2
R ·π 2 2 2
R ·π 2 2
2 π 2 π 2
= − R − δ = − R − πδ + δ
4 · sin2 φ 2 4 · sin2 φ 4
2
R ·π 2
2δ 2
= 2 · 1 − sin2 φ 1 − . (6.44)
4 · sin φ π
Regarding (6.41) we get for the root

R·π Rπ 2δ 2
y + ē = y + cot φ = 1 − sin2 φ · 1 − . (6.45)
2 2 · sin φ π
Differentiating the relationships for x and y with respect to δ we get regard-
ing the aspects discussed in section 6.2 for the first parameter
dx
= −R .
dδ
The second derivative is based on the implicit relationship given by equation
(6.43). One obtains
∂ y 2 · R2 · π 2 2 · δ 2
2(y + ē) = − 1− ·−
∂δ 4 π π
further reduction of the fraction delivers

2 π
∂ y R 2 −δ
= (6.46)
∂δ y + ē
a simplified formula. Inserting the above results in (6.22) delivers

1
sin τ = 2
1+ R2 π
2
−δ (y + ē)2
which leads to 2δ 2
sin τ =
1 − sin2 φ 1 − (6.47)
π
after some transformations. Inserted in equation (6.45) yields
R · π sin τ
y + ē =
2 · sin φ
and resolved to y , considering for ē the relationship (6.41), one finally obtains
R · π(sin τ − cos φ)
y = .
2 · sin φ
Thus we found the position vector for the image plane. Collecting all we get

x = R π
− δ
x = 2
R·π(sin τ −cos φ)
(6.48)

y = 2·sin φ
in combination with the relationship for φ and τ

4·π·α 2 2 · δ 2
tan φ = 2 und sin τ = 1 − sin φ 1 − .
π − 4 · α2 π
Chapter 7
Special projections and quality

aspects
In this chapter different aspects of world maps are discussed. The first section
is dealing with projections encompassing specific properties. In the ensuing
sections quality aspects are emphasized. The term quality is meant in a nar-
rower sense of the lifelike representation of the globe. This actually presumes
mathematical tools for the decision-making process. Different approaches are
introduced and discussed.
According to a proposal introduced by Lee projections which are neither
conformal nor equal area are called aphylactic – some of them were already
presented before although the term ”‘aphylactic”’ was not mentioned. In
this script only two of this category are presented. Actually there are much
more such projections, e. g.:
• Trapezoidal
• van der Grinten
• Gnomonic (see fig. 5.2)
• Orthographic (see fig. 5.3)
• Airy
• ...
69
The Robinson projection is used to explain different evaluation tools to sum-

marize the quality or the result of a projection. Therefor the different imple-
mentation suggestions are compared with each other to decide which of the
solutions delivers the best results according to the quality criteria.
7.1 Aphylactic small scale maps
7.1.1 The Robinson projection

In the past the Robinson-Projection was chosen by seven different carto-
graphic or geographic organizations amongst three others for the represen-
tation of world maps. This kind of projection however is not comparable to
the above mentioned - e. g. the projections of chapter 5 - because it lacks a
rigorous mathematical concept.
Figure 7.1: Robinson projection
As already mentioned Arthur H. Robinson published in his paper in 1974

only a few instructions for the construction of this projection. Evolving the
projection he started with some fundamental issues:
Table 7.1: Distances/Lengths between/of the parallels

Latitude Distance between the parallels Length of the parallels
90◦ 1.0000 0.5322
◦
85 0.9761 0.5722
◦
80 0.9394 0.6213
75◦ 0.8936 0.6732
◦
70 0.8435 0.7186
65◦ 0.7903 0.7597
◦
60 0.7346 0.7986
◦
55 0.6769 0.8350
50◦ 0.6176 0.8679
◦
45 0.5571 0.8962
◦
40 0.4958 0.9216
35◦ 0.4340 0.9427
◦
30 0.3720 0.9600
25◦ 0.3100 0.9730
◦
20 0.2480 0.9822
◦
15 0.1860 0.9900
10◦ 0.1240 0.9954
◦
5 0.0620 0.9986
0◦ 0.0000 1.0000
• The projection should fit wall maps and other representation of the

whole surface of the earth.
• The result of the mapping should be continuous.
• Angle as well as the distortion of the area has to be minimal.
Robinson’s conclusion were as follows:
• The projection cannot be equal area.
• Cylinder projections are not fitting the problem.
• It is impossible to map the poles as points.
• ...
Summarizing the above topics Robinson concluded further that the projec-
tion he was looking for can only be found by systematic “trial and error”.
Based on this idea he deduced a set of rather simple construction principles:
• The length of the equator is 0.8487 times as long as the circumference

of the sphere sharing the same surface as the earth.
• The prime meridian is 0.5072 time as long as the equator of the pro-
jection.
• On all parallels the meridians are equidistant.
• The parallels are straight lines and parallel to the equator.
Robinson compiled a table — by “trial and error” as already explained —

encompassing the distances between the parallels. The numerical result of
this trial is shown in table 7.1 whereas the visual result is depicted in figure
7.1.
Several mathematical cartographers tried to approximate the Robinson Pro-
jection by different ways. Predominantly four solutions are discussed:
• Canters and Decleir presented their solution in 1989
• Snyder published his approach one year later
• Beineke followed again one year later with his approach
• In 1994 Bretterbauer presented a new algorithm
A visual comparison between the approach of Bretterbauer and Canters &

Decleir is depicted in figure 7.2
All authors tried to find an optimal solution. Whereas some stick very close
to the proposals of Robinson others calculated algorithms fitting (e. g. least
squares) the support points. Examples:
The general transformation formulas are:
x = f (ϕ)
y = f (ϕ, λ)
Figure 7.2: Bretterbauer (black) and Canters & Decleir (red)
1. Approach (Beineke)
x = a · ϕ + b · s· | ϕ |c (7.1)
λ
y = (d + e · ϕ2 + f · ϕ4 + g · ϕ6 ) · (7.2)
π
with

1 for ϕ ≥ 0
s := sig (ϕ) =
−1 for ϕ < 0
and
a =0.96047 b = − 0.00857 c =6.41

d =2.6666 e = − 0.367 f = − 0.150 g =0.0379
2. Approach (Bretterbauer)
Bretterbauer suggested a solution using splines to approximate the images
of the meridians. For convenience a new parameter set with modified coeffi-
cients A∗ and B ∗ is introduced. The transformation formulas are then

y = R · A∗ · λ
x = R · B∗
The new coefficients A∗ and B ∗ are depicted in table 7.1.1.
Table 7.2: The coefficients computed by Bretterbauer

i ϕ(i) [◦ ] A∗ B∗
0 0 0.84870000 0.00000000
1 5 0.84751182 0.08384260
2 10 0.84479598 0.16768520
3 15 0.84021300 0.25152780
4 20 0.83359314 0.33537040
5 25 0.82578510 0.41921300
6 30 0.81475200 0.50305560
7 35 0.80006949 0.58689820
8 40 0.78216192 0.67047034
9 45 0.76060494 0.75336633
10 50 0.73658673 0.83518048
11 55 0.70866450 0.91537187
12 60 0.67777182 0.99339958
13 65 0.64475739 1.06872269
14 70 0.60987582 1.14066505
15 75 0.57134484 1.20841528
16 80 0.52729731 1.27035062
17 85 0.48562614 1.31998003
18 90 0.45167814 1.35230000
3. Approach (Canters & Decleir)

This approach is based on a polynomial approximation. The coefficients of
the polynomial are derived by the least squares method. As a consequence
the polynomials don’t exactly fit teh support points. Hence Canters & Decleir
claim that the results are sufficient for wall maps.
The formulas are as follows

y =R · Λ A0 + A2 ϕ2 + A4 ϕ4 (7.3)

x =R A1 ϕ + A3 ϕ3 + A5 ϕ5 (7.4)
in combination with coefficients
A0 = 0.8507 A2 = −0.1450 A4 = −0.0104

A1 = 0.9642 A3 = −0.0013 A5 = −0.0129
4. Approach (Ipbuker)
Table 7.3: The coefficients pj and qj according to the approach of Ipbuker

i ϕ(i) [◦ ] p q
0 0 0.40711579454 0.91083562255
1 5 -0.00875326537 0.00000589975
2 10 0.01069796348 0.00000564852
3 15 -0.01167039606 0.00000557909
4 20 -0.00680782592 0.00000555879
5 25 0.01847822803 -0.00000001291
6 30 -0.02090931959 0.00000546138
7 35 -0.01847842619 -0.00154708482
8 40 0.02090971277 -0.00387351841
9 45 -0.01410147990 0.00619324913
10 50 -0.02236858853 0.00930492848
11 55 0.01701955610 -0.01239340212
12 60 0.01215649454 0.01549814705
13 65 -0.01069792545 0.01937169560
14 70 -0.02090967766 -0.02401844414
15 75 0.03160740722 0.03331171624
16 80 0.01361549135 0.07051393824
17 85 0.04425022432 -0.09917388904
18 90 0.60843116534 0.24527101656
The bi-cubic interpolation method of Ipuker should be presented as a third

example. The formulas are given by
'
18
yi =R · Λi pj |5j − ϕi | (7.5)
j=0
'
18
xi =R qj |5j − ϕi | (7.6)
j=0
with the coefficients for the parameters pj and qj as depicted in table 7.3
Table 7.4: Comparison of three points

Pi (ϕ, λ) Beinecke Canters & Decleir
P1 (30◦, 30◦) y = 0.42592 x = 0.50277 y = 0.42420 x = 0.50416
P1 (30◦, 60◦) y = 0.71125 x = 0.99428 y = 0.71124 x = 0.99197
P1 (30◦, 180◦) y = 1.41718 x = 1.35378 y = 1.34966 x = 1.38616
A numerical comparison between Beinecke and Canters & Decleir is given

in table 7.4. There the coordinates of three points are depicted to explain
numerically the difference between the two solutions.
7.1.2 Chamberlins trimetric projection

This is an easy to understand projection developed by Wellman Chamberlin
in 1946. The projection is based on only a few principles depicted below:
• The area of the datum surface to be mapped has to be enclosed by a

spherical triangle.
• Thus we get the three legs each representing a part of a great circle.
These legs now are taken as – with respect to the mapping scale – the
legs of a plane triangle.
• All other points on the datum surface are mapped to the plane in a
similar way. First the great circles of the datum surface connecting each
vertex of the triangle with the point to be mapped are determined.
• Afterwards the edge defined by the point and the vertex of the triangle
is mapped to the image surface too (also with respect to the scale).
As a result we don’t get a point but an area representing the mapped
point.
• The centroid of the above mentioned are could be treated as the rep-
resentation of the point on the datum surface. However, Chamberlin
didn’t define the algorithm for the final point determination.
Chamberlin’s projection has two disadvantages being crucial. First

• it is not possible to generate a world map based on the above principles.

Because of the excess of the spherical triangles, their plane images are
not continuous.
• And second as already indicated afore Chamberlin didn’t define a rigor-

ous transformation algorithm. Thus up to a certain level the mapping
of the points of the datum surface is arbitrary which means not clearly
determined. Hence some scientists derived interpolation algorithms to
fix this disadvantage.
Although this projection didn’t encompass a strict mathematical concept the

National Geographic Society (NGS) used it for several mapping projects.
Figure 7.3: Graticule of the trimetric projection of W. Chamberlin
7.2 Optimal projections

In this chapter we try to define and find so called optimal projections by
applying restrictions concerning the distortions. Thus we get optimized pro-
jections with respect to specific parameters. First we will limit our view on
local distortion quantities such as the principal distortions.
7.2.1 Local distortion quantities

In this context the following quantities are of interest:
1. Airy
1
2A = ((a − 1)2 + (b − 1)2 )
2
2. Airy-Kavrajski
1
2AK = (ln2 a + ln2 b)
2
3. Löbell a2 − b2 2
2L =
2ab
4. Fiorini a 2
2F = (a b − 1) + 2
−1
b
5. Jordan 2π
1
2J = (m − 1)2 dβ
2π 0
6. Jordan-Kavrajski 2π
1
2JK = ln m2 dβ
2π 0
7. Klingatsch
Pω ab − 1 + PV (a · b − 1)2
2Kl =
Pω + PV
Where Pω is the weight for the maximal distortion of the angle and PV
is the weight depending on the area distortion.
Most of the above local distortion criteria could be explained geometrically.

This should be deduced exemplary by the criterion of Airy which is based on
the ellipse of distortion treated as the affine projection of the circle. The dif-
ferences of the circle and the ellipse points form the basis for the optimization
procedure. These difference is shown in figure 7.4.
Figure 7.4: Geometric explanation of the criterion of Airy
The local distortion quantities are all based on the ellipsoid of distortion.
Thus they simply represent the immediate vicinity of a specific point. Which
means they could be used to derive optimal projections with respect to spe-
cific points. This is what should be demonstrated in exercise 10.
7.2.1.1 The image of the finite circle
If we consider the Robinson projection – in its pure definition – we got no

mapping functions to calculate the indicatrix and it is the same with the
trimetric projection. In some other cases (e. g. Eckert II, see figure D.18
together with formula A.4) the mapping functions are so complicated that
it is very difficult or almost impossible to get the elements – which means
extreme values – of the indicatrix.
In all these cases we can use

a finite circle on the surface
of the sphere and project a fi-
nite number of points of the
circumference to the plane an-
alyzing the distortions now
by comparison the small cir-
cle and its affine image. So
we have zu find the extrem
values of the radius vectors
on the image plane to get
the elements of the indicatrix.
There is actually a difference
between the result derived by
the differential calculus and
Figure 7.5: The small circle
the outcome outlined afore,
hence the deviation can be ignored. Thus we use the image of the finite
circle as a substitute for the indicatrix. Further we will use the term indi-
catrix for both images of the circles, the one we got by differential calculus
and the one we got point by point.
7.2.2 Global distortion quantities

Unlike the local distortion quantities, the global distortion quantities are
suitable to compare map projections. The overall distortion is taken into
account, not only a specific surrounding.
As a consequence we are able to decide, if a specific projection fits the pur-
poses or if its better than another. This is why these quantities are mentioned
in this section entitled with ”‘Optimal projections”’. Thus the term optimal
is treated in a more general way so the projection need not be the result
of an optimization process in the strict sense. The widely known distortion
quantities are discussed below.
7.2.2.1 The concept of Peters
In this context the suggestion of Peters has to be mentioned. He refined

an idea of Tobler who suggested to analyze the distortion of a large set of
randomly placed triangles on the datum surface.
Figure 7.6: Peters’ approach
Peters implemented this approach into a computer program and thus com-
pared the difference in length between 30 000 lines. Therefor he calculated
60 000 points randomly placed on the sphere connected each two points with
a Orthodrome and compared the length of the 30 000 great circles with their
projected images. From this comparison he derived a new quantity called Ep
which is defined as follows
1 ' |Si − Si |
n
EP = (7.7)
n i=1 |Si + Si |

Si
1'
n 1 − Si
= (7.8)
n i=1 1 + Si
Si
with
Si : length of the orthodrome (sphere)
Si : length of the straight line (image)
n : number of the lines .
EP can be used to rank maps or to compare maps regarding especially the

distortion of length. Peters however never initiated such a comparison.
7.2.2.2 Canters’ scattered circles
A very interesting method to describe the quality of a projection is presented

by Canters. According to his proposal a map can be analyzed by comparing
the randomly scattered circles on the datum surface with their images of the
plane. Thereby the maximum radius of such a circle can be 30◦ .
The resulting deformation of the finite circles EA is derived form 16 radius
vectors thus enclosing 22,5 degrees between each other. Based on the trans-
formation of these 16 radius vectors – which are great circles on the datum
surface – the area distortion is computed. Canters offers the following for-
mula
1 ' |Ai − Ai |
n
EA = .
n i=1 |Ai + Ai |
The quantities Ai and Ai denote the areas of the datum surface and the plane
respectively.
However, the shape of the projected circle has to be taken into account too.
Therefore the shape index according to Boyce & Clark has to be calculated
(see B.2). This is done by
n

'
r 100
ES = (16i · 100 −
j=1 rj n
i=1
In the above formula the quantity ri denotes the radius vector of the projected
circle on the plane. The result is called the shape index of the circle and
denotes the derivation of the resulting plane figure from an ideal circle. The
shape index for a circle is 0, whereas the shape index of all other geometric
forms are greater than 0.
The next step conforms to a normalization. To get rid of the unequal units
the quantities EA and ES are mapped on the interval [0,1]. This is expressed
Figure 7.7: Canters’ scattered circles
by
1
EA,c = (KA − KAmin ) and
KAmax − KAmin
1
ES,c = (ES − ESmin ) in combination with
ESmax − ESmin
1 + EA
KA =
1 − EA
The above formulas however require minimal and maximal values for the
quantities KA and ES standing for the upper and the lower bound of the
interval. For the area distortion this can be achieved quite easy because
the minimal value is 1. Hence, the maximum distortion is difficult to find,
because there is no theoretical limit.
Canters’ analysis of different projections delivered the following upper and

lower bounds:
ESm in = 0.0356
ESm ax = 0.1760
KAm in = 1
KAm ax = 1.8211
The pure addition of the two values ES,c and EA,c for any arbitrary projection
delivers its characteristic total distortion value E. Expressed as a formula
we get
E = EA,c + ES,c .
As depicted in figure 7.7 the placement of the circles is predominantly limited

to the landmasses. Nonetheless some of the circles also cover parts of the
worlds water areas. This is due to the preconditions of the randomly placed
circles. These conditions are:
• The center of a circle has to be placed on a continental area.
• At least twelve out of sixteen endpoints of the above mentioned radius

vectors have to be situated on the landmasses. Conversely four of them
can be situated on water areas.
7.2.2.3 Capek and the limits
Capec also presented a method to describe the quality of small scale maps.
Unlike the hitherto mentioned approaches the ellipse of distortion is focused.
Based on this ellipse from which we easily can derive the angular as well as
the areal distortion (see section 3.3 and 3.2) Capek simply defined maximum
values for both. He called the combination of the two quantities the distortion
characterization Q. The limits for the deviations are more or less arbitrary,
however, Capek found out, that a maximum angular distortion of 40◦ and a
maximum distortion of the area of 1.5 are fairly good limits for the assessment
of cartographic projections.
In his analysis of different projections, Capek used the afore mentioned limits
as extreme values and evaluated the percentage of the projection surface
which is in compliance with Q. In other words he calculated the percentage

of the area where the angular and areal distortion are less than the prescribed
limits. Table 7.5 gives an overview about the ranking of several small scale
maps.
Table 7.5: The ranking of different projections based on Q

Projection Q [%]
Robinson 82.6
Eckert IV 82.5
Kavraiskii VII 82
Wagner VI 79.5
Mollweide 70.4
Aitoff 66.6
Some of the above mentioned projections can be found in appendix D.7.
7.2.2.4 Approaches based on the distortion ellipse
First the proposal of Tschebyscheff should be outlined in this section. The

principle is based on the mean value theorem and can be expressed by

1
εm = ε2 dF.
F F i
Whereas F is a specific area and εi is one of the local distortion quantities
mentioned in section 7.2.1. For practical purposes we replace the integral by
the sum and thus we we get
1' 2
k
εm = ε dF.
k i=1 i
Thus we sum up the local distortions of small areas which are treated as a
representative of the point and its vicinity.
Chapter 8
Further concepts – isometric

coordinates
8.1 Isometric surface parameters

In this section the parameters forming a quadratic net are focused. Hence
the Gaussian quantities are
F (u, v) = 0, E(u, v) = G(u, v) = μ2 (u, v) ,
and the line element becomes
ds2 = μ2 (u, v)(d u2 + d v2 ) .
Assuming the same for the projection surface we get
ds2 = μ2 (u, v)(d u2 + d v2 ) .
representing the line element. Thus the line scale

ds2 μ2 (u, v)
λ2 = =
ds2 μ2 (u, v)
only depends on the parameters u and v. Supposing the plane as the projec-
tion surface we obtain (E = G = 1)
ds2 = dx2 + dy 2 (x = u and y = v) .
86
Together with μ2 = 1 we get as a result for the square of the line element
1
λ2 = .
μ2 (u, v)
Now λ depends only on the both parameters u and v).

To get plane conformal projections (F = 0 and E = G = 0) the following
equations have to be fulfilled
xu xv + yu yv = 0 und (8.1)

x2u + yu
2
= x2 2
v + yv . (8.2)
Solving (8.1) for xv and put it in (8.2) we obtain
xu = ±yv und

xv = ±yu .
These equations are identical withe the Cauchy-Riemann differential equa-

tions, denoting the relationship of partial derivatives and the real and imag-
inary part of complex functions. This can be expressed by
x + iy = f (u + iv) .
Thereby the the function f (u + iv) is regular and analytic which means it is
continuous, can be differentiated and further the function fulfills the Cauchy-
Riemann differential equations.
For practical purposes these functions can be used to derive conformal pro-
jections. Therefore we only need to create complex quantities out of the
isometric parameters. This can be done by
w = u + iv on the datum surface
and
z = x + iy (plane) or
z = u + iv (general surface) as well
z = f (w)
respectively.
8.2 Isometric parameters on the sphere

The line element can be expressed in geographic coordinates by
ds2 = R2 db2 + R2 cos2 b dl2 .
Factoring out the term R2 cot cos2 b delivers
db2
2 2 2 2
ds = R cos b + dl
cos2 b
and the substitution of
db2
dq 2 =
cos2 b
leads to the isometric form
ds2 = R2 cos2 b(dq 2 + dl2 ) .
(a) Geographic Coord. (b) Isometric Coord.
Figure 8.1: The different graticules
The isometric latitude can be derived by integration of

db
q = which delivers
cos b
π b
= ln tan + .
4 2
The isometric longitude remains unchanged. Figure 8.1 depicts the geo-
graphic as well as the isometric parameter system on the sphere. It clearly
shows that the isometric parameter system gets closer towards the poles.
8.3 Conformal projection of the sphere
8.3.1 Mercator projection
Based on the isometric parameter system for the sphere derived in the section
above given by
w = q + il
and the isometric coordinates of the plane
z = x + iy .
The regular analytical function z = w maps the sphere to the plane. The
−180 −120 −60 +60 +120 +180

+80
+60
+40
+20
−20
−40
−60
−80
Figure 8.2: The Mercator projection
separation of the real and the imaginary part delivers

π b
x = q = ln tan + and
4 2

y = l .
Assuming an unit sphere (R = 1) the line scale λ can be deduced from

1
λ= .
cos b
Due to
lim λ = +∞ und lim λ = −∞
b→ π2 b→− π2
the poles can not be mapped by this projection.
8.3.2 Stereographic projection

Relating to the regular analystical function z = −ke−z (representation ac-
cording to Euler) the substitution of z = w delvivers
z̄ = −ke−w = −ke−(q+il) = −ke−ln tan( 4 + 2 ) e−il

π b
. (8.3)
In combination with
eiπ = cos π + i sin π = −1
we get
b π π b
r = k cot + = k tan − and
4 2 4 2
Φ = π−l .
Based on these formulas we conclude
1. A variation concerning the latitude affects only the radius. As a con-

sequence the parallels are concentric circles.
2. If the latitude l remains unchanged the quantity Φ remains unchanged
too. Thus the meridians are straight lines.
3. The line scale equals

π b
cot 4
+ 2 k
λ=k =
cos b 2 sin2 π
+ b
4 2
and further b = π/2 ⇒ r = 0. Postulating λ(π/2) = 1 which means no

distortion at the north pole we get k = 2.
Finally we derive
π b i(π−l)
z = 2 tan − e (again in accordance with the notation of Euler).
4 2
The transformation to Cartesian coordinates delivers
⎧
⎨ x = 2 tan π − b cos(π − l) = −2 tan π − b cos(l)
x = 4 2 4 2
⎩ y = 2 tan π − b sin(π − l) = 2 tan π4 − 2b sin(l)
4 2
(8.4)
Figure 8.3 depicts the graticule of the Stereographic projection.
x’
−135° 135°
y’
30°
−45° 45°
0°
Figure 8.3: Stereographic projection
8.3.3 Projection of the sphere on a sector

In this section the plane z̄ is mapped conformal on the sector z̃ or expressed
by a formula
z̃ = z̄ n ,
where as the factor n is an arbitrary real number within the interval
n ∈ [0, 1] .
Further we need a rotation in oder to get the prime meridian to the south.
Thus it is
z = z̄ n eiπ(1−n) .
In combination with 8.3 the equation changes to

π b i(π−nl)
z̃ = r̃eiΦ̃ = k n cotn + e .
4 2
The substitution of k̄ = k n leads to the transformation formulas
x’
−180° 180°
y’
30°
−60° 60°
0°
Figure 8.4: Projection on a sector
π b π b
r̃ = k̄ cotn + = k̄ tann −
4 2 4 2
and
Φ̃ = π − nl.
Based on k and n further restrictions can be determined. The graticule in
figure 8.4 is depicted for n = 0.75 and b = 50◦ as a standard parallel.
Appendix A
Exercises
Exercise 1
The datum surface
⎧
⎨ x = R cos u cos v
x(u, v) = y = R cos u sin v (A.1)
⎩
z = R sin u
is mapped on the image surface

⎧
⎨ x = r cos v
x (u , v ) = y = r sin v (A.2)
⎩
z = u
based on the below formulas
v = v
u = R tan u (A.3)
r = R
(R = 6370 km). Further two points are given: K (λK = 8◦ east, ϕK = 49◦
north) and M (λM = 38◦ east, ϕM = 56◦ north).
a) Calculate the position vector x (u, v)?
b) How can this mapping be interpreted geometrically?
93
c) Calculate the Cartesian coordinates of K and M as well as the position

on the image surface K’ and M’.
d) Calculate the ratio of the shortest distance of MK between the datum

and the projection surface.
e) Compute the directional derivatives for the parameter curves. Is point

P (ϕ = 45◦ , λ = 50◦ ) regular?
f) Find the Gaussian quantities of the datum surface.
g) Deduce the square of the line element ds2 an.
Exercise 2
The formulas of the Mercator-Sanson projection are:

x = Rϕ
x(φ, λ) =
y = R λ cos ϕ .
Calculate for point P (ϕP = 30◦ north, λP = 45◦ east)
a) the distortion in the direction of the parametric curves and
b) the principal distortions.
Exercise 3
Find the mapping equations (in azimuthal coordinates) of an equal area conic
projection with one coinciding equidistant parallel.
a) Derive the relationship between the radius and the parameter δ.
b) Calculate for A (λ = 0◦ , ϕ = 40◦ and B (λ = 30◦ east, ϕ = 60◦ north)
– the principal distortions,

– the direction of the equidistant line element,
– and the direction of the maximal distorted azimuth
– as well as the maximal distortion of the angle
assuming normal alignment and a pol distance of δg = 50◦ (R = 6370

km).
c) Calculate the Euclidean distance A B between the two points (on the
image surface). Compare the shortest distance of the datum surface
with the shortest distance on the image surface.
Exercise 4
a) Determine the mapping equations of an equal area conic projection in

normal alignment with two equidistant parallels (Projection of Albers).
b) Show the graticule for the two equidistant parallels ϕ1 = 40◦ north and
ϕ2 = 70◦ north, assuming the origin of the coordinate system λKN = 0◦ .
0◦ ≤ ϕ ≤ 90◦
−180◦ ≤ λ ≤ 180◦
Interval: 30◦ , Map-scale: 1 : 100 000 000, Radius of the sphere: R

= 6371 km
c) Calculate the principal distortions for the two point P1 (ϕ1 = 40◦ north,
λ1 = 120◦ east) and P2 (ϕ2 = 60◦ north, λ2 = 120◦ west). Where are
the loci sharing the same properties?
Exercise 5
A conformal oblique conic projection with one coinciding parallel is pre-
sumed. The area between the parallels δ1 = 30◦ and δ2 = 70◦ has to be
mapped in such a way, that the distortions for δ1 and for δ2 are equal.
a) Search the mapping equations (in polar coordinates). Compute the

polar distance of the coinciding parallel?
b) Calculate the principal distortions for P (bP = 40◦ north, lP = 100◦

east) if the origin of the cartographic coordinate system KN is given
by the geographic coordinates ϕKN = 50◦ north and λKN = 130◦ west.
c) Calculate the intersection angle between the azimuth A = 50◦ and the
vertical in P on the image plane.
Exercise 6
a) The general mapping equations for an azimuthal projection with an

orthogonal parameter system has to be computed (based on a sketch).
Determine the general principal distortions.
b) Find the specific equations for a equal area azimuthal projection.

c) Calculate for point P (ϕP = 40◦ north,λP = 80◦ east)
– the specific principal distortions

– the direction of the equidistant line element on the datum and the
projection surface
– the direction where the angle is not distorted (datum and image
surface)
– the maximal distortion of the azimuth
– the angle with the maximal distortion and the amount
– the intersection of the graticule on the projection surface.
Geographic coordinates of the principal point H: ϕH = 30◦ north, λH = 50◦

west.
Exercise 7
a) Deduce the mapping equations of an oblique conformal azimuthal pro-

jection with one coinciding point (hint: no distortion for the principal
point).
b) Derive the position vector x (ϕ, λ) in geographical coordinates, if the

coordinates for the principal point are: ϕH = 0◦ and λH = 0◦ (transver-
sal alignment).
Hint:

x 1 − cos x sin x dx x d tan x 1
tan = = , = ln tan , =
2 1 + cos x 1 + cos x sin x 2 dx cos2 x
Exercise 8
a) Derive the mapping equations of an azimuthal projection, projecting

the sphere from its center on a coinciding plane. What is the name of
this projection and what are the specific properties?
b) Compute for P (ϕP = 60◦ north, λP = 60◦ east)
– the principal distortion

– the distortion of the area

– the maximal distortion of the azimuth
presuming a principal point with the geographical coordinates ϕH =

30◦ north and λH = 40◦ east.
c) Calculate the intersection angle of the graticule on the image plane.
d) Compute the azimuth (datum surface) of the maximal distorted bear-

ing?
Exercise 9
Deduce the properties (equal area, conformal, equidistant, . . . ) of the below
depicted azimuthal projections:
H P’ H P’
P P
M M
(a) Orthographic projection (b) Stereographic projection
H P’ H P’
P P
M M
(c) Projection of Lambert (d) Equidistant azimuthal pro-

jection
Exercise 10
a) Derive the mapping equations of an equal area cylinder projection with

two coinciding parallels.
b) Determine the equidistant parallel ϕl in such a way that the below

equation is fulfilled:
'2
(an − 1)2 → min.
n=1
Mapped area: −20 ≤ u ≤ 20◦

◦
c) Calculate the rectangular coordinates x and y on the image surface of

P (ϕP = 20◦ north, λP = 80◦ west).
– The origin of the image surface KN has the geographic coordi-

nates ϕKN = 20◦ north and λKN = 60◦ east.
– The parallels u1 = 20◦ and u2 = −20◦ are mapped equidistant.
d) – Determine the mapping equations in geographic coordinates for

normal attitude.
– Which areas are depicted advantageous or disadvantageous respec-
tively?
– Which size has the map representing the whole world (scale 1 : 150 000 000)?
Exercise 11
Based on a map which is the result of a conformal projection of the ellipsoid of
revolution to the plane a captain derives the course angle of his passage from
San Juan (Puerto Rico) (ϕJ = 18.28◦ , λJ = 66.07◦) to Lisbon (ϕL = 38.43◦ ,
λL = 9.08◦ ). The course angle shall be the same for the whole journey.
a) Calculate the difference of the course angle, if the map is not derived
from a ellipsoid of revolution but from a sphere (radius = 6 370 km)
b) How is the difference of the length of the loxodrome between the ellip-
soid of revolution and the sphere? What is the length of the loxodrome
if we calculate with the course angle of the sphere?
c) And finally, what is the difference in the distance between the loxo-
drome and the shortest distance on the sphere?
General information:
a = 6377.4 km; e2 = 0.0066744

e
dx x π M(Φ) π Φ 1 − e sin Φ 2
= ln tan + , dΦ = ln tan + ·
cos x 2 4 N(Φ) cos Φ 4 2 1 + e sin Φ
Exercise 12
Deduce:
The product of the distortion of the azimuth and the square of the scale
distortion is constant and equals the product of the principal distortions and
thus the distortion of area.
dβ 2
λ =V
dβ
Hint: Use the following equations:
b a
sin β = sin β cos β = cos β
λ λ
Exercise 13
Given is a map from South America in a transversal cylinder projection with
one coinciding equidistant parallel (see supplemantal sheet). Further on the
projection comprises the below properties:
• The cylinder coincides with the sphere at λ = 60◦ west.
• The origin is defined by the intersection of the coinciding curve with

the equator.
• The geographical latitude of the principal point is λ = 30◦ east.
• The mapping equations relating to the origin (αKN ) are:

x = R(αKN − α)
x(α, δ) =
y = R( π2 − δ) (R = 6371 km)
a) Outline (in correct position) the polar triangle of point P (marked in

the map).
b) Find the coordinates on the projection surface of P .
c) Calculate the below distoritons:
• Principal distortions (elements of the distortion ellipse)

• Distortion of the area
• The maximal distorted azimuth and the amount (on the datum
and the image surface)
• The angle with the maximum distortion and the amount of the
distortion.
d) Compute the intersection angle of the images of the (geographic) gratic-

ule in P .
e) What is the azimuth of the maximal distorted bearing in P ?
f) Depict the distortion ellipses for the origin of the coordinate system
and for point P .
Exercise 14
has been omitted
Exercise 15
Given is the trapezoidal projection of Eckert (known as Eckert II; see page
126):

2π
x = sign(φ) 2 − 4 − 3 sin |φ|
x (φ, λ) = 3 . (A.4)
y = √26π
λ
4 − 3 sin |φ|
• Outline the meridian for λ = ±45◦ . (Hint: The slope of the image of the
meridian is constant within the interval φ ∈ [0, π/2] and φ ∈ [0, −π/2]
respectively.)
• Show: It is an equal area projection.

Appendix B
Mathematical explanations
B.1 Trigonometry
Relationships for the sum and difference of arguments
sin(x ± y) = sin x cos y ± cos x sin y (B.1)

cos(x ± y) = cos x cos y ∓ sin x sin y (B.2)
tan x ± tan y
tan(x ± y) = (B.3)
1 ∓ tan x tan y
Relationships for multiple arguments
2 tan x
sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x = (B.4)
1 + tan2 x
cos 2x = cos2 x − sin2 x (B.5)
Further general relationships

π π π π
sin − x = cos +x ; cos − x = sin +x (B.6)
4 4 4 4

π π
sin + x = cos x ; cos + x = − sin x (B.7)
2 2

π π
sin − x = cos x ; cos − x = sin x (B.8)
2 2
103
Figure B.1: sin(x) and cos(x)
Relationships for the half of the argument

x
1 − cos x
sin = ± (B.9)
2 2
x
1 + cos x
cos = ± (B.10)
2 2
x
1 − cos x sin x 1 − cos x
tan = ± = = (B.11)
2 1 + cos x 1 + cos x sin x
B.2 Spherical trigonometry
Spherical law of cosines : cos c = cos a cos b + sin a sin b cos (γB.12)
sin a sin b sin c
Spherical law of sines : = = (B.13)
sin α sin β sin γ
Spherical law of cotangents : cos b cos γ = sin b cot a − sin γ cot(B.14)
α
B.3 Integrals and series
3 3 3·5 2 3·5·7 3
(1 − x)− 2 = 1 + x+ x + x . . . (|x| < 1) (B.15)
2 2·4 2·4·6
x3 x5
sin(x) = x − + −... (B.16)
3! 5!
x2 x4 x6
cos(x) = 1 − + − + ... (B.17)
2! 4! 6!
x x2 x3
ex = 1 + + + + ... (B.18)
1! 2! 3!

1 1
sin2 ax = x − sin 2ax (B.19)
2 4a

1 1
cos2 ax = x + sin 2ax (B.20)
2 4a

3 1 1
sin4 ax = x − sin 2ax + sin 4ax (B.21)
8 4a 32a
Figure B.2: The concept of shape (Boyce & Clark)

Appendix C
Formulary
C.1 Scale distortion

The infinitesimal line element
v + dv = const.
v + dv = const.
v = const.
v = const.
u + du = const. u + du = const.
E du
E’ du
’
ds
ds
β β’
u = const. u = const.
G dv G’dv
(a) datum surface (b) image surface
Definition:
ds line element on datum surface
m= =
ds line element on image surface
or
ds2 E du2 + 2 F dudv + G dv 2
m2 = =
ds2 Edu2 + 2 F dudv + Gdv 2
107
Distortion along the parameter curves
u-Linie: v = const. ⇒ dv = 0

m2u = EE = h2
v-Linie: u = const. ⇒ du = 0

m2v = GG = k 2
Scale distortion and azimuth

" #2 " #2
du du dv dv
m2 = E + 2F + G
ds ds ds ds
!

E EF − F E EG − 2F F + GE E
⇒ m2 = cos2 β+2 √ sin β cos β+ − sin2 β
E E EG − F 2 EG − F 2 E
⇒ m2 = A cos2 β + 2B sin β cos β + C sin2 β

E EF − F E EG − 2F F + GE E
mit A = , B= √ and C = −
E E EG − F 2 EG − F 2 E
i. e. the units A, B and C depend on E, F and G.
⇒ m = m(u, v, β)
Directions with extreme scale distortion (principal distortion)

Datum surface: m = m(u, v, β)
dm
Condition: dβ
=0
√
2(EF −F E ) EG−F 2
⇒ tan 2βh = 2F (EF −F E )+E(E −EG )
⇒ tan 2βh2 = tan(2βh1 ± π)

⇒ 2βh2 = 2βh1 ± π
⇒ βh2 = βh1 ± π
2
Image surface: m = m(u, v, β )

dm
Condition: dβ
=0
√
2(F E −EF ) E G −F 2
⇒ tan 2βh = 2F (F E −EF )+E (EG −GE )
⇒ βh 2 = βh 1 ± π
2
Theorem 1 The principal directions are orthogonal on the datum surface

as well as on the image surface. In general these are the only according
orthogonal directions of the projection.
Assumption: F ≡ F ≡ 0
⇒ tan 2βh = 0 → βh1 = 0◦ and βh2 = 90◦
⇒ tan 2βh = 0 → βh 1 = 0◦ and βh 2 = 90◦
Theorem 2 Are F ≡ 0 and F ≡ 0, then the parameter curves are coinci-

dent with the directions of the principal directions.
Amount of extreme scale distortion (principal directions a and b)

Assumption: F ≡ F ≡ 0
Scale distortion along the parameter curves:

E
u-Linie (v = const.): a = h = E

G
v-Linie (u = const.): b = k = G
Scale distortion in an arbitrary direction:
m2 = a2 · cos2 β + b2 · sin2 β
C.2 Area distortion

The infinitesimal area
v + dv = const.
v + dv = const.
v = const.
v = const.
u + du = const. u + du = const.
E du
E’ du
dO dO’
τ τ’
G dv G’dv
(a) Datum surface (b) Image surface
Definition:
dO infinitesimal area on image surface

V = =
dO infinitesimal area on datum surface
Area distortion as a function of h and k (or mu and mv ):
sin τ
V =h·k·
sin τ
Area distortion as a function of a and b:
V =a·b
Theorem 3 The area distortion equals the product of the principal direc-
tions.
C.3 Distortion of angles

Precondition: F ≡ F ≡ 0
v = const.
v = const.
1. HVR
1. HVR
E du
E’ du
’
ds
ds
β dβ β’ dβ ’
F 0 F’ 0
P(u,v) G dv 2. HVR P’(u,v) G’dv 2. HVR
(a) im Original (b) im Bild
C.3.1 Distortion of the angle element

Definition:
dβ
Infinitesimal angular distortion = dβ

tan β = ab tan β ⇒ dβ
dβ
· m2 = a · b
Theorem 4 The product of the distortion of the azimuth and the square
of the scale distortion is constant and equals the product of the principal
distortions and thus the distortion of area.
Direction of extreme distortion of the angle

dβ Maximum 2 Minimum
= ⇐⇒ m =
dβ Minimum Maximum
F ≡ F ≡ 0 ⇒ direction of extreme scale distortion = parameter curves
Theorem 5 The directions of extreme distortion of the angle coincide with

the principal direction.
Amount of extreme distortion of the angle

u-Linie: m = a → dβ = b
< 1 für a > b
dβ u−Linie a
v-Linie: m = b → dβ dβ
= a
b
>1
v−Linie
dβ
dβ
=1⇒ m2 = a·b
datum surface : tan2 βm = ab
image surface : tan2 βm

= ab

conclusion : βm + βm = 90◦
d β’ d β’
=1 <1
u−Linie
dβ dβ
−βm βm
v−Linie
d β’
>1
dβ
Figure C.1: The correlation of scale distortion and direction assuming F ≡

F ≡ 0 und a > b
C.3.2 Distortion of the azimuth

Definition:
ω = β − β
Maximum distortion of the azimuth:
dω dβ
Condition: =0⇒ =1
dβ dβ
Theorem 6 The distortion of the azimuth has its maximum where the angle
element is not distorted.
Maximum distortion of the azimuth:
b−a
ωm = βm − βm oder sin ωm =
b+a
Maximal distorted angle (2 · |βm |):
The amount of the maximal distorted angle:
Ωm = 2 · ωm u−Linie
−βm βm
v−Linie
P(u,v)
Appendix D
Additional explanations
D.1 The Sphere
Figure D.1: The sphere (Gaussian parameters)
114
D.2 Alignment of the surfaces
Figure D.2: Alignment of the surfaces (cone, cylinder, plane → normal,

transversal, oblique)
D.3 Projection on a coinciding plane
Figure D.3: Sphere and coinciding plane surface

D.4 Projection on a cone surface
Figure D.4: Sphere and cone

Figure D.5: Cone surface and plane

D.5 Projection on a cylinder surface
Figure D.6: Sphere and coinciding cylinder

D.6 Tissot’s ellipse
Figure D.7: Tissot’s ellipse

D.7 Specific projections
Figure D.8: Aitoff

Figure D.9: Aitoff (Indicatrix)
Figure D.10: Hammer-Aitoff

Figure D.11: Kavraiskii VII
Figure D.12: Mollweide

Figure D.13: Mollweide (Indicatrix)
80
60
40
80 80
60
5
40
10
60
20 20
40
10
20 20
20 20
10
40
5 20
20
60
10
40
60
80 80
40
60
80
Figure D.14: Mollweide (angular distortion)

Figure D.15: Winkel Tripel
Figure D.16: Ginsburg V

Figure D.17: Miller I
Figure D.18: Eckerts projection (known as Eckert II)

Figure D.19: Eckert IV
Figure D.20: Mercator-Sanson projection

Figure D.21: Conic projection (two standard parallels)

Index
Airy, 78 Albers eqal area, 43

Airy-Kavrajski, 78 basics, 40
Albers’ projection, 96 conformal, 45
area one standard parallel, 46
distortion two standard parallels, 47
definition, 17 equal area, 41, 54
area distortion, 16, 17, 110 principal distortions, 41
area element, 109 pseudoconic, 54
azimuth coordinates
distortion, 112 azimuthal, 30
surface curve, 8 cross product, 2, 7, 9
azimuthal projection, 49 cylinder projection
conformal, 51 scale factor, 47
equal area, 50 cylindrical projection, 47
gnomonic projection, 52 conformal, 48
Lambert, 50 equal area, 48
orthographic projection, 52
derivative
stereographic projection, 51
directional, 7
base direction differential equation, 50
principal direction, 14 disstortion ellipse, 21
Bonne, Rigobert (1727 - 1795), 58 distortion
angle, 110, 111
Cartesian coordinates extreme, 111
azimuthal, 50 area, 16, 109, 111
central point azimuth, 18, 19, 98, 108
definition, 31 direction, 112
Chamberlin, Wellman, 76 infinitesimal angle, 20
conformal infinitesimal parallelogram, 17
criterion, 48 infinitesimal triangle, 17
conic projection maximum, 14
129
minimum, 14 Lagrange, Joseph Louis (1736 - 1813),

of the area, 98 9
scale, 11, 111 law of cosine
dot product, see inner product spherical, 6
line element, 94, 107
Eckert projection, 65 line scale, 86
elliptic integral, 34 loxodrome, 31
equal area direction, 32
criterion, 48 length, 32
cylinder, 65
equidistant, 24 medial Distortion, 16
Mercator projection, 89
Fiorini, 78 Mercator-Sanson projection, 62
first Gaussian fundamental quantities
see Gaussian quantities, 3 Newton method, 64
First Gaussian quantities, see Gaus- Newton-Raphson method, see New-
sian quantities ton method
normal vector
Gaussian quantities, 3, 94 see surface normal, 2
Gaussian quantity
sphere, 7 orthodrome, 38
azimuth, 38
inner product, 7, 8 computation of support points, 39
integral length, 38
elliptic, 34 orthogonal parameter system, 40
specific, 104
intersection parallelogram
angle infinitesimal, 9
parameter curve, 8 point
surface curve, 8 regular, 3
porjection
Jacobian determinant, 3 conic
Jacobian matrix, 3 equal area, 96
Jordan, 78
position vector
Jordan-Kavrajski, 78 cylinder coordinates, 47
Klingatsch, 78 principal
distortion, 26
Löbell, 78 principal direction, 14, 109
Lagrange’s formula, 9 principal distortion, 97
projection azimuthal
pseudoazimuthal, 59 conformal, 51
azimuthal, 26 equal area, 51
conformal, 98 conformal azimuthal proj., 51
equal area, 98 gnomonic projection, 52
equidistant, 26, 98 Robinson projection, 70
geometric interpretation, 98 Robinson, Arthur H. (1915–2004), 70
Bonne, 58 Romberg’s method, 34
conformal, 45
conic, 94 scalar product, see inner product
equal area, 94 scale distortion, 11, 111
oblique, 96 along the parameter curves, 109
one parallel, 96 arbitrary direction, 109
two parallels, 96 as as function of the azimuth, 13
azimuth, 108
cylinder, 93
extremes, 109
equal area, 65
parameter curve, 108
exercise, 4
series expansion, 36, 104
generalized, 62, 65
spherical trigonometry, 104
cylindrical
Stab-Werner-projection, 59
conformal, 48
Stereographic projection, 90
equal area, 27, 41, 61
surface
equidistant, 24, 26
analytical, 3
equator, 65
surface normal, 2, 7
meridians, 65
generalized, 54 Tissot’s Indikatrix, 21
Mercator, 89 Tissot, Nicolas Auguste (1824 - 1890),
Mollweide, 62 21
oblique, 29 triangle
orthogonal parameter system, 40 infinitesimal, 9
pseudocylindrical, 59 trigonometric funcions
equal area and elliptical merid- half argument, 104
ians, 62 trigonometric functions
equal area and equidistant par- for sum and difference, 103
allels, 61 general relationships, 103
Stab-Werner, 59 multiple arguments, 103
projection of Apian, 65 trimetric projection, 76
radius vector product, see coss product7

see cross product, 2

Map Projections II

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Map Projections II

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Map projections

Author: Dr.-Ing. Norbert Rösch

Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT)

Second draft (March 2011)

4 Oblique map projections 29

5 Map projections with an orthogonal parameter system 40

7 Special projections and quality aspects 69

8 Further concepts – isometric coordinates 86

B Mathematical explanations 103

D Additional explanations 114

β . . . . . . . . . . . . azimuth or grid bearing (datum surface)

β . . . . . . . . . . . . azimuth or grid bearing (image surface)

Λ . . . . . . . . . . . . geographic longitude (ellipsoid of revolution)

λ, ϕ . . . . . . . . . . geographic longitude/latitude (sphere)

ω . . . . . . . . . . . . distortion of the azimuth

Ωm . . . . . . . . . . . maximum distortion of an angle

ωm . . . . . . . . . . . maximum distortion of the azimuth

τ . . . . . . . . . . . . . angle between the parameter curves

τ . . . . . . . . . . . . . intersection angle of the parameter curves (datum surface)

τ . . . . . . . . . . . . intersection angle of the parameter curves (image surface)

Θ . . . . . . . . . . . . geographic latitude (ellipsoid of revolution)

x . . . . . . . . . . . . . position vector(datum surface)

x . . . . . . . . . . . . position vector(image surface)

a, b . . . . . . . . . . . semi minor and/or semi major axis of the ellipse of distortion

c . . . . . . . . . . . . . scale factor of the y -axis (cylinder projection)

E , F , G . . . . . ﬁrst Gaussian fundamental quantities (projection surface)

1.1 What are map projections good for?

Actually the classes are not mutually exclusive (see exercises).

2.1 The Gaussian curvilinear parameters u

u = u (u, v) und v = v (u, v) . (2.3)

Hence, the Jacobian determinant, derived form the Jacobian matrix J

is not allowed be zero and thus the equation

2.2 The line element

Thus the square of the line element is

The quantities E = xu xu and F = xu xv as well as G = xv xv are called

E = xu xu , F = xu xv and G = xv xv .

The projection on the x − y − plane (z = 0) +z

In the same way one gets the Cartesian coordinates of point M :

On the image surface the according coordinates for K are given by

The shortest distance between the two

on the spherical law of cosine (see B.12):

Thus N (45◦ , 50◦ ) = 0 and P is regular.

xϕ xϕ = R2 sin2 ϕ cos2 λ + R2 sin2 ϕ sin2 λ + R2 cos2 ϕ or

2.3 Intersection angles of surface curves

Based on the directional derivative we get

and thus the intersection angle γ of the two

2.4 The inﬁnitesimal area

Or based on (2.1) the small area could be expressed as

dO = | xu du × xv dv| = | xu × xv |du dv = |N| du dv .

In combination with Lagrange’s formula we get

and thus expressed by the Gaussian quantities the inﬁnitesimal parallelogram

Expecting the same for the projection surface yields

The above result could be applied to an easily understandable example. The

3.1 The scale distortion

ds2 E du2 + 2F dudv + G dv 2

After the derivation we get:

E = xϕ xϕ = R2 + R2 λ2 sin2 ϕ = R2 (1 + λ2 sin2 ϕ)

The scale distortion along the parametric curves can be written as

mϕ (30◦ , 45◦ ) = h = 1.07434 .

Based on this formula we calculate the extreme values.

m21 = a2 und m22 = b2 .

The second is the area distortion V , which is deﬁned as

In the special case of F ≡ 0, e. g. the parameter system of the datum surface