SYLLABUS LINK

    *69,
7H[[LYUZHUK7YVJLZZLZ
PU[OL7O`ZPJHS,U]PYVUTLU[
Chapter Chapter
1 The Tectonic Cycle ................................ 2 10 Mass Movement ................................... 86
2 Plate Tectonics ....................................... 5 11 Fluvial Processes, Patterns and
Landforms, and Human Interaction ...... 98
3 The Geography of Volcanoes ...........17
12 Coastal Processes, Patterns and
4 The Geography of Earthquakes .......34
Associated Landforms, and
5 The Rock Cycle ....................................50 Human Interaction .............................121

6 Folding and Faulting ...........................63 13 Glacial Processes, Patterns

and Associated Landforms ................144
7 Slope Development .............................70
14 Isostasy ................................................162
8 Weathering ............................................71

9 Karst Landscape ..................................78

1
 SYLLABUS LINK

1 The Tectonic Cycle The mobility of the Earth’s crust

produces endogenic forces, which
give rise to geological structures
within it. Crustal structures are
created, modified and destroyed
as part of the tectonic cycle.

By the end of this chapter students will have studied:

z The internal structure of the Earth
z The Earth’s crust

i GEOTERMS The internal structure

s 4HElithosphereISTHETERMUSEDTODESCRIBETHE%ARTHS of the Earth
CRUSTANDTHESOLIDUPPERMANTLE4OlithifyMEANS@TOTURN
7SHUL[,HY[OPZ[OV\NO[[VILHYV\UK
TOROCK
IPSSPVU`LHYZVSK;OL,HY[OJVUZPZ[ZVMH
s 4HEROCKSOFTHEasthenosphereLAYERAREPARTIALLY
U\TILYVMSH`LYZ!
MELTED4HELITHOSPHEREmOATSONTOPOFTHISLAYER
z;OLJY\Z[ z;OLV\[LYJVYL
s 4HEasthenosphereCARRIESTHELITHOSPHEREOFTHE%ARTH
INCLUDINGTHECONTINENTS4HEROCKSOFTHEASTHENOSPHEREmOW z;OLTHU[SL z;OLPUULYJVYL

INRESPONSETOPRESSUREEXERTEDONTHEMFROMTHEMOVEMENT (Z[OL,HY[OJVVSLK[OLOLH]`TH[LYPHSZ
OFTHEINTERIOROFTHE%ARTH4HEASTHENOSPHEREISLOCATEDIN TV]LKKV^U[V^HYKZ[OLJVYLHUK[OL
THEUPPERMANTLEOFTHE%ARTHATDEPTHSOFnKM SPNO[LYTH[LYPHSZTV]LK[V[OLZ\YMHJL

CRUST
Made up of solid rock
Two main types, oceanic crust and continental crust

MANTLE
Made up of rock
Molten or semi-molten state

OUTER CORE
Made up mainly of iron
Molten/liquid state

INNER CORE
Made up mainly of iron and nickel
Solid state
Very high temperatures (up to 5000 oC)

Continental crust. Composed of

light rocks made from silica and Oceanic crust. Composed of
alumina (SIAL). 30–70 km thick. heavy rocks made from silica and
magnesium (SIMA). 3–10 km thick.
Ocean
The moho. The
boundary between the ! NOTE
Earth’s crust and the %NDOGENICFORCESARE
mantle.
Fig 1.1 The structure of the Earth PROCESSESTHATTAKE
PLACEINSIDETHE%ARTH
2
 The Tectonic Cycle Chapter 1

The Earth’s crust

;OL,HY[O»ZJY\Z[JVUZPZ[ZVM[^VWHY[Z!
z*VU[PULU[HSJY\Z[

z6JLHUPJJY\Z[

Fig 1.2 The Earth’s crust

Continental crust Oceanic crust

Rigid upper mantle
Continental shelf
Volcano

Lithosphere
Ocean Ocean ridge

Light rocks – SIAL

e.g. granite Heavy rocks – SIMA
e.g. basalt

Mantle
Mantle consists of semi-molten rock that moves in convection
currents, fuelling the movement of the plates of the Earth’s crust

;OLJVU[PULU[HSJY\Z[PZ
[OPJRH]LYHNPUNIL[^LLU i GEOTERMS ? QUICK QUESTIONS

RTHUKRTPU[OPJRULZZ The moho is the boundary 1. Name the four layers

of Planet Earth.
[OPJRLY\UKLYTV\U[HPUZ;OL located between the Earth’s crust
JVU[PULU[HSJY\Z[PZTHKL\W and the mantle. This boundary 2. Which layer do we live
VMSPNO[YVJRZYPJOPUZPSPJHHUK is located approximately 5–10 on?
HS\TPUHZ\JOHZNYHUP[L;OPZ km below the ocean floor and 3. Which is the hottest
SH`LYPZYLMLYYLK[VHZ:0(3 on average 35 km beneath the layer?
continents. The moho separates 4. Which crust is referred
;OLVJLHUPJJY\Z[PZ[OPUULY
oceanic crust and continental to as having (a) SIMA
[OHU[OLJVU[PULU[HSJY\Z[
crust from underlying mantle. and (b) SIAL content?
H]LYHNPUNIL[^LLURTHUK
RTPU[OPJRULZZ;OLVJLHUPJ
JY\Z[PZTHKL\WVMOLH]`YVJRZZ\JOHZIHZHS[;OPZSH`LYPZVM[LUYLMLYYLK
[VHZ:04(ILJH\ZL[OLZLOLH]`YVJRZHYLYPJOPUZPSPJHHUKTHNULZP\T

Questions
Ordinary Level Short Questions
|

Cross-section of the Earth E

1. Examine the diagram on the right and match A
each of the letters in the diagram with one
of the descriptions below. C
Outer core
Mantle, convection current
B
Inner core
Mid-ocean ridge
Ocean trench D
2010, Part 1, Q1, 10 marks

3
Core
Ordinary Level Long Questions
Physical Environment |
Higher Level Short Questions
|

0LATETECTONICS 3TRUCTUREOFTHE%ARTH
2. Examine the cut away diagram of the Earth. 3. Examine the diagram of the structure of the
Match each of the following names with a Earth. Match each of the following terms with
letter from the diagram. its correct letter in the diagram.

#ONTINENTALCRUST )NNERCORE
/UTERCORE -ANTLE
-ANTLE /CEANICCRUST
/CEANCRUST #ONTINENTALCRUST
)NNERCORE

B
E
D A
B
A
C D
C

2008, Part 2, Q2A, 30 marks 2007, Part 1, Q1, 8 marks

The marking scheme for a question like this

on an Ordinary Level paper is as follows:
&IVECORRECTLYIDENTIlED MARKSEACH
Total 30 marks

M IN D M A P
z Lithosphere: the
Earth's crust and
the solid upper

t e r nal mantle
i n
The ure of
z Asthenosphere:
partially melted
ct
stru arth
layer, the

the E
lithosphere floats
on top of it
Structure of the Earth:
z Crust

z Mantle

z Outer core The Earth’s crust:

z Inner z Continental Crust – thick,
core
30–70 km
– light rocks – SIAL
z Oceanic Crust – thinner
continental crust, 3–10 km
– heavy rocks – SIMA

44
 SYLLABUS LINK

2 Plate Tectonics The mobility of the Earth’s crust

produces endogenic forces, which
give rise to geological structures
within it. Crustal structures are
created, modified and destroyed
as part of the tectonic cycle.

By the end of this chapter students will have studied:

z The theory of continental drift zIreland’s position now and in the past
z The theory of sea-floor spreading zGlobal distribution of plates
z Continental drift and plate movement zPlate boundaries

Plate tectonics
7SH[L[LJ[VUPJZPZH[OLVY`L_WSHPUPUN[OLTV[PVUZVM[OL,HY[O»Z
SP[OVZWOLYL0[I\PSKZVUVSKLYJVUJLW[ZVMJVU[PULU[HSKYPM[;OL i GEOTERMS

[OLVY`VMJVU[PULU[HSKYPM[^HZKL]LSVWLKI`(SMYLK>LNLULYPU s Diverging means moving

 HUKÄUHSS`HJJLW[LKPU ;OPZ[OLVY`Z\NNLZ[Z[OH[[OL in different directions from
,HY[O»ZJY\Z[JVUZPZ[ZVMWSH[LZ;OLZLWSH[LZTV]LVYMSVH[VU[OL one point.
THU[SL;OPZTV]LTLU[PZM\LSSLKI`JVU]LJ[PVUJ\YYLU[ZHUKSLHKZ s Converging means
[V[OLWSH[LZKP]LYNPUNJVU]LYNPUNVYZPTWS`ZSPKPUNWHZ[LHJOV[OLY coming together from
;OPZPU[\YUYLZ\S[ZPU]VSJHUPJHJ[P]P[`HUKVYLHY[OX\HRLZLPZTPJ different directions to meet
HJ[P]P[`MVSKPUNHUKMH\S[PUN>OLUJVUZPKLYPUN[OLZ[\K`VMWSH[L at a point.
[LJ[VUPJZ^L^PSSL_HTPUL[^V[OLVYPLZ!
  :LHÅVVYZWYLHKPUN
  *VU[PULU[HSKYPM[

Convection currents Fig 2.2 Convection currents in a saucepan of

boiling water
How do convection currents fuel the movement Convection currents
of plates?
;OL,HY[O»ZJY\Z[PZKP]PKLK\WPU[VZL]LUTHQVYWSH[LZHUK
ZL]LYHSTPUVYVULZ*VU]LJ[PVUJ\YYLU[ZHYLYLZWVUZPISLMVY
[OLTV]LTLU[VMWSH[LZ>OLUTHNTHPU[OLJVYLPZOLH[LK
P[YPZLZHUKTV]LZ[V^HYKZ[OL\WWLYTHU[SL([[OLZHTL
[PTLP[MSV^ZZPKL^HYKZ(ZP[KVLZZVP[JVVSZHUKZPURZ
IYPUNPUN^P[OP[HWSH[L;OPZYLZ\S[ZPUHJPYJ\SHYTV]LTLU[ To best understand convection currents,
*VU]LJ[PVUJ\YYLU[Z[OLYLMVYLM\LS[OLTV]LTLU[VMWSH[LZ observe water in a saucepan boiling.

Warning: Be careful. Do not scald

Fig 2.1 Convection currents yourself.
Plates pulling apart Observe the water in the saucepan as it
Plates colliding
begins to boil. Notice how air bubbles
rise, then flow sideways, and then sink.
This movement is of a circular motion
Convection and is similar to how convection currents
currents
fuel the movement of plates.

5
 Core Patterns and Processes in the Physical Environment

Sea-floor spreading
;OL[OLVY`VMZLHÅVVYZWYLHKPUNZ\NNLZ[Z[OH[[OLVJLHUMSVVYZ^PKLUHZUL^YVJRPZ
MVYTLK^OLYLWSH[LZOH]LZWSP[HWHY[
*VU]LJ[PVUJ\YYLU[ZM\LS[OLZLWHYH[PVUVM[OLWSH[LZ(Z[OL`ZLWHYH[LTHNTHYPZLZ
MYVT^P[OPU[OLTHU[SLHUKMPSSZ[OLVWLUPUNTHKL(Z[OPZTHNTHJVVSZHUL^JY\Z[
PZMVYTLK;OPZYLZ\S[ZPUHUL^VJLHUMSVVYILPUNMVYTLK>P[OM\Y[OLYTHNTHJVVSPUN
V]LY[PTLM\Y[OLYUL^JY\Z[PZMVYTLKHUKVSKLYJY\Z[TV]LZH^H`MYVT[OLJLU[YL

MID-OCEAN RIDGE

Oldest Youngest Oldest

American Eurasian
continent continent
Floor of ocean

Convection Convection
currents currents

Mantle Mantle

Fig 2.3 Sea-floor spreading

Proof of sea-floor spreading

:HTWSLZMYVT[OLVJLHUÅVVYZOV^[OH[JY\Z[UL^
i GEOTERMS
s Glaciations refers to a
ZLHÅVVYPZ`V\UNLZ[^OLYL[OLTHNTHJVVSZH[
period when the Earth is
[OLTPKVJLHUYPKNL0[NL[ZVSKLYTV]PUN[V^HYKZ
covered with glaciers or ice.
[OLJVU[PULU[Z+LWVZP[ZVMZLKPTLU[MVSSV^PUN
s A mid-ocean ridge is
NSHJPH[PVUHYLHSZVMV\UK^OLYLJVU[PULU[Z^LYLH[
made up of underwater
VULZ[HNLQVPULK[VNL[OLY;OPZOLSWZ[VWYV]L[OH[
mountain ranges.
[OLJVU[PULU[ZHYLTV]PUN

Ì EXAM HINTS
A question on plate tectonics
has appeared every year on
the Higher Level paper.

6
 Plate Tectonics Chapter 2

Continental drift
;OL[OLVY`VMJVU[PULU[HSKYPM[Z\NNLZ[Z[OH[
[OLJVU[PULU[ZHYL[YHUZWVY[LKHJYVZZ[OL

P A
Panthalassa – an WSHUL[I`JVU]LJ[PVUJ\YYLU[Z;OPZKYPM[PUN
ancient ocean VM[OLJVU[PULU[ZPZZ[PSSVJJ\YYPUN[VKH`
N
G
A
E A
;OLJVU[PULU[Z^LYLHSSVUJLQVPULK
[VNL[OLYPUHZPUNSLSHUKTHZZRUV^U
Fig 2.4(a) Pangaea: The supercontinent of 200 million years ago
HZ7HUNHLH0[^HZHZ\WLYJVU[PULU[
Z\YYV\UKLKI`HUVJLHUJHSSLK7HU[OHSHZZH

Laurasia (WWYV_PTH[LS`TPSSPVU`LHYZHNV
7HUNHLHZ[HY[LK[VIYLHRHWHY[;OL
Gondwa JVU[PULU[ZM\LSSLKI`JVU]LJ[PVU
nal J\YYLU[ZILNHU[VKYPM[HWHY[0UP[PHSS`
an
d
[OLZ\WLYJVU[PULU[IYVRL\WPU[V[^V
THQVYZLJ[PVUZJHSSLK3H\YHZPHHUK
Fig 2.4(b) Convection currents split Pangaea into two continents
.VUK^HUHSHUK

The process of subduction

*VU[PULU[ZJVSSPKL^P[OV[OLYJVU[PULU[Z^OLU[OL`HYLJHYYPLK
i GEOTERMS
s Subduction occurs when a
HJYVZZ[OLNSVILI`JVU]LJ[PVUJ\YYLU[Z>OLU[OPZVJJ\YZ[OL
heavier plate sinks and bends
VJLHUÅVVYPUIL[^LLU[^VJVU[PULU[ZPZW\SSLKKV^UPU[V[OL
beneath a lighter plate.
THU[SLI`HWYVJLZZRUV^UHZZ\IK\J[PVU;OPZOHWWLUZILJH\ZL
s The subduction zone is
[OLVJLHUPJWSH[LPZUVYTHSS`OLH]PLY[OHU[OLJVU[PULU[HSWSH[L
the point where an oceanic
:\IK\J[PVUHSSV^Z[OLJVU[PULU[Z[VJVSSPKL:PUJLULP[OLYJVU[PULU[
plate slides beneath either a
^PSSILZ\IK\J[LK[OLSHUKI\JRSLZ[VNL[OLY[VMVYTMVSKTV\U[HPUZ
continental plate or another
(Z^LOH]LHSYLHK`SLHYULKOV[THNTHYPZLZMYVTKLLWPUZPKL oceanic plate.
[OL,HY[OHUK[OLUJVVSZMSV^ZZPKL^HYKZHUKZPURZ;OLYPZPUNOV[
YVJRHUKZPKL^H`ZÅV^OLSWZ[VJVU[YVS[OLJ\YYLU[WVZP[PVUVMV\Y
JVU[PULU[ZHUKVJLHUZ ! NOTE
sContinental fit occurs at the
Proof of continental drift continental shelves which lie
below sea level and have not
  ;OLLKNLZVMJVU[PULU[ZMP[[VNL[OLYSPRLHQPNZH^W\aaSL-VY
been eroded.
L_HTWSL[OLLHZ[JVHZ[VM:V\[O(TLYPJHHUK[OL^LZ[JVHZ[
VM(MYPJHÄ[[VNL[OLY sMesosaurus lived in
freshwater lakes and ponds.
  ;OLZHTL[`WLVMMVZZPSZOH]LILLUMV\UKPU:V\[O(TLYPJH
Mesosaurus may have seldom,
HUKPU(MYPJH;OPZ[LSSZ\Z[OH[[OLZL[^VJVU[PULU[Z^LYL
if ever, ventured onto land.
VUJLQVPULK[VNL[OLY
sMesosauruswas significant
  ;OLZHTLRPUKVMYVJRZHYLMV\UKPUIV[O(MYPJHHUK:V\[O in providing evidence for the
(TLYPJHHUKHSZVHSVUN[OLJVHZ[SPULZVM,\YVWLHUK5VY[O theory of continental drift.
(TLYPJH;OLZLYVJRZ[LSS\Z[OH[[OLTV\U[HPUZHYLVM[OLZHTL Its remains were found in
YVJR[`WLHNLHUKZ[Y\J[\YL;OPZWYV]PKLZM\Y[OLYL]PKLUJLVM southern Africa and eastern
JVU[PULU[HSKYPM[ South America.

7
 Core Patterns and Processes in the Physical Environment

  0JLZOLL[ZHUK[OLPYNSHJPHSKLWVZP[ZMV\UKPU(\Z[YHSPH North American Plate

(MYPJH0UKPHHUK:V\[O(TLYPJHHYLVM[OLZHTLHNLHUK
OH]LVYPNPUH[LKPUHZPTPSHYWSHJL;OLZLPJLZOLL[ZULLK Eurasian Plate
HT\JOJVSKLYJSPTH[LPUVYKLY[VMVYTHUK[OPZ[OLYLMVYL
African
[LSSZ\Z[OH[[OLZL^HYTLYJVU[PULU[ZT\Z[OH]LILLU Plate
South Indo-Australian
QVPULK[VJVSKLYVULZ American Plate Plate

/ INTERESTING FACTS Madagascar Plate

T Appalachian mountains of North America are formed by

The Antartic Plate
the same type of rock as the Caledonian mountains of Ireland Fig 2.5 The position of our continents today
and Scandinavia.

Europe
North America Asia
? QUICK QUESTIONS Africa
1. Who developed the theory of continental drift?
South America Australasia
2. Name seven major plates that make up the Earth’s
crust.
Antartica
3. What fuels the movement of these plates?
Fig 2.6 Could this be the position of the continents 50
4. Explain briefly the process of the movement of
million years from now?
convection currents.
5. Explain briefly the theory of sea-floor spreading.
6. What was Pangaea?
Ì EXAM HINTS
Make sure you can recognise and label a map of
7. When did the single landmass begin to split apart? the major plate margins of the world.
8. What evidence, found in the rocks, is proof that
The Chief Examiner’s report of 2007 stated that
the continents were once joined together?
students should familiarise themselves more with
maps displaying plate margins of the world.

NORTH AMERICAN EURASIAN PLATE

1 PLATE

5
4
AFRICAN 6
PACIFIC
3 PLATE
2
PLATE

7 SOUTH AMERICAN
PLATE INDO-AUSTRALIAN
PLATE

A N T A R C T I C P L A T E
1 Juan de Fuca Plate 2 Cocos Plate 3 Caribbean Plate 4 Arabian Plate 5 Anatolian Plate 6 Phillipine Plate 7 Nazca Plate

8 Fig 2.7 The Earth’s crust is broken up into seven major plates and several minor plates
 Plate Tectonics Chapter 2

Plate boundaries
4V]PUNWSH[LZ^PSSOH]LHJ[P]P[`H[[OLPYIV\UKHYPLZ9VJRZHUKZ[Y\J[\YLZHYLLP[OLY
JYLH[LKVYKLZ[YV`LKHZ[OLZLWSH[LZKP]LYNLJVU]LYNLVYZSPKLWHZ[LHJOV[OLY
;OLWSH[LTV]LTLU[ZHYL[OLYLMVYLYLZWVUZPISLMVYLHY[OX\HRLHUK]VSJHUPJHJ[P]P[`
HYV\UK[OL^VYSK>OLYLWSH[LZW\ZO[VNL[OLY[OL`YLZ\S[PU[OLMVYTH[PVUVM
TV\U[HPUZ>OLYLWSH[LZW\SSHWHY[JVU[PULU[ZZWSP[HUKVJLHUZMVYT
;OLYLHYL[OYLL[`WLZVMWSH[LIV\UKHYPLZ!
Fig 2.8 Types of plate boundaries

  +P]LYNLU[IV\UKHYPLZVMJVUZ[Y\J[PVU Plate

  *VU]LYNLU[IV\UKHYPLZVMKLZ[Y\J[PVU
  *VUZLY]H[P]LWHZZP]LIV\UKHYPLZVY
[YHUZMVYTWSH[LIV\UKHYPLZ Magma

1. Divergent (boundaries of Plates separating Convection

construction) currents fuel the
separating plates
Mantle
([[OLZLIV\UKHYPLZUL^YVJRPZ
MVYTLKJYLH[PUNTPKVJLHUYPKNLZ (a) Divergent plate boundaries (boundaries of construction)
;OLWSH[LZZLWHYH[LHUKTV]LH^H`
MYVTLHJOV[OLY
Island arcs

2. Convergent (boundaries
of destruction)
([[OLZLIV\UKHYPLZYVJRPZJOHUNLK
VYKLZ[YV`LKHZWSH[LZJVSSPKL Convection
currents
;OLYLHYL[OYLL[`WLZVMKLZ[Y\J[P]L
IV\UKHYPLZ!
z6JLHUPJVJLHUPJ!^OLYL[^VVJLHU Subducting plate
WSH[LZJVSSPKL melts
(b) Convergent plate boundaries (boundaries of destruction)
z6JLHUPJJVU[PULU[!^OLYLHU
VJLHUWSH[LHUKHJVU[PULU[HSWSH[L
JVSSPKL
z*VU[PULU[JVU[PULU[!^OLYL[^V
JVU[PULU[HSWSH[LZJVSSPKL

3. Conservative (passive Convection

boundaries) currents
*VUZLY]H[P]LWSH[LIV\UKHYPLZHYLHSZV Convection
currents
RUV^UHZ[YHUZMVYTWSH[LIV\UKHYPLZ
([[OLZLIV\UKHYPLZYVJRPZULP[OLY Plates slide past each other
along the transform fault
JYLH[LKUVYKLZ[YV`LK7SH[LZZSPKL
WHZ[LHJOV[OLY (c) Conservative plate boundaries (passive boundaries)

! NOTE
The San Andreas Fault in California, USA, is a conservative plate boundary. The plates slide past
each other in the same direction along the transform fault. Because the plates are moving at
different speeds it appears they are moving in different directions. See Fig 2.14 on page 12. 9
Core Patterns and Processes in the Physical Environment

1. Divergent plate boundaries

:LHMSVVYZWYLHKPUNYLZ\S[ZPU[^VWSH[LZTV]PUNHWHY[HZHJVUZLX\LUJLVMTHNTH
YPZPUNMYVT[OLTHU[SL(UL_HTWSLVJJ\YZH[[OL4PK([SHU[PJ9PKNL/LYLJVU]LJ[PVU
J\YYLU[Z^P[OPU[OLTHU[SLVM[OLTPKVJLHUYPKNLW\SS[OLWSH[LZHWHY[;OPZYLZ\S[Z
PU[OLSP[OVZWOLYLTHKL\WVM[OLJVU[PULU[HSJY\Z[[OLVJLHUJY\Z[HUK[OL\WWLY
THU[SLZWSP[[PUNHUKWYVK\JPUNHYPM[]HSSL`Z\JOHZ[OL,HZ[(MYPJHU9PM[=HSSL`
;OLYPM[]HSSL`WYV]PKLZ[OLYV\[LMVYTHNTH[VTV]LMYVT[OLTHU[SL\W[OYV\NO[OL
]HSSL`HUK[OLU[VMSV^V\[[V[OLZLHMSVVYJYLH[PUNHUL^ZLHMSVVYVYVJLHUJY\Z[
;OPZPZRUV^UHZZLHMSVVYZWYLHKPUN>OLU[OLTHNTHYLHJOLZ[OLZ\YMHJLVM[OLZLH
ÅVVYP[PZ[OLURUV^UHZSH]H0[JVVSZHUKMVYTZ]VSJHUPJTV\U[HPUZV]LY[PTL>P[O
M\Y[OLYLY\W[PVUZ[OLZL]VSJHUPJTV\U[HPUZTH`HWWLHYHIV]L[OL^H[LYHUKHYL[OLU
RUV^UHZ]VSJHUPJPZSHUKZSPRL0JLSHUK

As plates separate a Fig 2.9 A divergent

rift valley forms (constructive) plate
Surface of sea boundary

Forms as Mid-ocean ridge

magma rises
Younger
Crust crust
movement
Older
crust
NORTH AMERICAN PLATE Oceanic
EURASIAN PLATE crust

Mantle Convection currents in the

mantle fuel the movement
of separating plates

2. Convergent plate boundaries

*VU]LYNLU[WSH[LIV\UKHYPLZHYLKLZ[Y\J[P]LIV\UKHYPLZ7SH[LZJVSSPKLHUKYVJRPZ
JOHUNLKVYKLZ[YV`LK;OLWYVJLZZVMZ\IK\J[PVUVJJ\YZ^OLUHWSH[LKPWZILULH[O
HUV[OLYWSH[LH[HZ\IK\J[PVUaVUL

Fig 2.10 A convergent (destructive) plate boundary Ì EXAM HINTS

Make sure you know
the different types of
Explosive acidic lava plate margins very
well. It is important not
Volcanic mountains
Deep trench to confuse the different
Sea types when answering
Continental crust an exam question.
Oceanic crust
Subducted and melted plate rises and the
subducted oceanic plate melts. It later rises
and forces magma through continental crust
700 km

Convection currents in the Oceanic plate melts into

mantle mantle as it subducts

10
 Plate Tectonics Chapter 2

Fig ( ) The collision of oceanic-oceanic p

g 2.11(a) plates Oceanic-oceanic
Trench Island arc Continental crust boundaries
>OLU[^VWSH[LZJVSSPKL[OL
Oceanic crust
OLH]PLYVSKLYWSH[LKPWZHUKPZ
S u b d u c t i n g o c e a n i c pl a Oceanic litho
sphere
Z\IK\J[LKILULH[O[OLSPNO[LY
tes
Melting `V\UNLYWSH[L([[OLWVPU[VM
Z\IK\J[PVUHKLLWZLH[YLUJO
Eur
asi TH`KL]LSVW;OLZ\IK\J[LK
Pla an Japan
te trench WSH[LTLS[ZHZP[TV]LZKV^U
[OLTHU[SL;OLTLS[PUN
Pa c VJJ\YZILJH\ZL[OLWSH[LPZ
if
Pla ic
te JVTWYLZZLKHZP[TV]LZKV^U
HUKHSZVILJH\ZLVM[OLLMMLJ[
Fig 2.11(b) Japan – an VM[OLOV[TVS[LUTHNTH
example of an island arc

=VSJHUPJHJ[P]P[`VJJ\YZH[[OLIV\UKHYPLZVM[^VJVSSPKPUNVJLHUPJWSH[LZ
;OLKLZJLUKPUNWSH[LTLS[ZX\PJRS`4HNTHV]LY[PTLYPZLZ\WMYVT[OL
VJLHUMSVVYHUKMVYTZPZSHUKZ[OH[HWWLHYHIV]LZLHSL]LS(NYV\WVMZ\JO
PZSHUKZPZRUV^UHZHUPZSHUKHYJ0UTHU`PUZ[HUJLZ[OLZLPZSHUKHYJZHYL
HJ[P]L]VSJHUVLZHZPU1HWHU^OLYL[OL7HJPÄJ7SH[LJVSSPKLZ^P[O[OL
,\YHZPHU7SH[L,HY[OX\HRLZTH`HSZVVJJ\YH[[OLZLIV\UKHYPLZ

Oceanic-continent
>OLUHUVJLHUPJWSH[LHUKHJVU[PULU[HSWSH[LJVSSPKL[OLOLH]PLYVJLHUPJ
WSH[LZ\IK\J[ZHUKHUVJLHU[YLUJOPZMVYTLK;OLVJLHUPJWSH[LTLS[ZHUK
[OLTHNTHYPZLZ[VJYLH[L]VSJHUVLZH[[OLJVU[PULU[HSWSH[L
;OLJVU[PULU[HSWSH[LPZI\JRSLK*VTWYLZZPVUJH\ZLZ[OLWSH[L[VYPZL
MVYTPUNHTV\U[HPUILS[-VSKTV\U[HPUZMVYTPU[OPZ^H`MVYL_HTWSL[OL
(UKLZPU:V\[O(TLYPJHHUK[OL>PJRSV^4V\U[HPUZPU0YLSHUK;OL(UKLZ
MVYTLK^OLYL[OL5HaJH7SH[LPZZ\IK\J[LK\UKLY[OL:V\[O(TLYPJHUWSH[L
>OLUWSH[LZJVSSPKLMH\S[PUNTH`HSZVOHWWLU-H\S[ZHYLJYLH[LKI`Z[YLZZPU
[OL,HY[O»ZJY\Z[^OPJOPZ[OLYLZ\S[VM[OLTV]LTLU[VM[OL,HY[O»ZWSH[LZ-H\S[Z
OH]LVJJ\YYLKPU[OL9VJRPLZPU5VY[O(TLYPJH^OLYL[OL7HJPMPJ7SH[LJVSSPKLZ
^P[O[OL5VY[O(TLYPJHU7SH[L;OPZMH\S[PZYLMLYYLK[VHZH[OY\Z[MH\S[
,UKVNLUPJMVYJLZHYL Fig 2.12 The formation of the Andes Mountains in South America
PU[LYUHSMVYJLZ[OH[HYL Volcanic arc
M\LSSLKI`[OL,HY[O»Z Trench

PU[LYUHSTLJOHUPZT
,UKVNLUPJMVYJLZH[^VYR
YLZ\S[PU[OLWYVJLZZLZ
Oceanic crust
VM]VSJHUPZTHUK[OH[VM
SOUTH AMERICAN
MH\S[PUN,HY[OX\HRLZTH` Continental crust PLATE
NAZCA PLATE Subducting oceanic lith
HSZVVJJ\YH[VJLHUPJ osp
her
— 100 km e
JVU[PULU[IV\UKHYPLZ
Melting
— 200 km

11
Core Patterns and Processes in the Physical Environment

Continent-continent boundaries
>OLU[^VJVU[PULU[HSWSH[LZJVSSPKLULP[OLYVM[OLWSH[LZ^PSSZPUR;OL`HYLIV[O
THKLVM]LY`[OPJRI\[SPNO[YVJRZ^OPJOTLHUZ[OH[Z\IK\J[PVUKVLZUV[VJJ\Y
0UZ[LHK[OLVJLHUPJWSH[LZ\IK\J[Z^OPSL[OLJVU[PULU[HSWSH[LZYLTHPUPU[HJ[I\[
JVSSPZPVUJVU[PU\LZ5L_[[OLJVU[PULU[HSJY\Z[ZI\JRSLSLHKPUN[V[OLMVYTH[PVUVM
MVSKTV\U[HPUZ-VYL_HTWSL[OLJVSSPZPVUVM[OL0UKPHU7SH[LHUK[OL,\YHZPHU7SH[L
SLHK[V[OLMVYTH[PVUVM[OL/PTHSH`HZ;OLZ[YLZZLZHUKWYLZZ\YL[OH[I\PSKZ\WTH`
HSZVSLHK[VLHY[OX\HRLHJ[P]P[`

! NOTE
Fig 2.13 The formation of the Himalayas as a result of continental-continental plate collision

Shallow Himalayas
Ganges plain
earthquake Tibetan plateau
activity may
occur at
convergent Buckling of
continent- continental crust
continent Continental crust
Continental crust
plate
Subducting oceanic lith
boundaries. osp
her
e

Ancient oceanic crust

Asthenosphere

3. Conservative plate boundaries

([[OLZLJVUZLY]H[P]LWSH[LIV\UKHYPLZYVJRPZULP[OLYJYLH[LKUVYKLZ[YV`LK7SH[LZ
ZSPKLWHZ[LHJOV[OLY;OLSPULHSVUN^OPJO[OLWSH[LZZSPKLPZRUV^UHZHMH\S[SPUL
;OLZLMH\S[SPULZHYLRUV^UHZ[YHUZMVYTMH\S[Z:VTLMH\S[ZHYLMV\UK\UKLY[OL
VJLHU^OPSLZVTLV[OLYZHYLSVJH[LK^P[OPUJVU[PULU[Z;OL:HU(UKYLHZ-H\S[PU
*HSPMVYUPHPZHJVUZLY]H[P]LWSH[LWHZZP]LIV\UKHY`^OLYL[OL7HJPMPJ7SH[LHUK
5VY[O(TLYPJHU7SH[LZSPKLWHZ[LHJOV[OLY,HY[OX\HRLHJ[P]P[`PZVUS`HZZVJPH[LK
^P[OJVUZLY]H[P]LWSH[LIV\UKHYPLZ

Fig 2.14 The location of the San Andreas Fault Fig 2.15 The San Andreas Fault

San Francisco USA

Sa
n
An
dr
ea
s
Pa Fa
c ific ul
Pla
te: t
6c No
rth
m Am
eric
pe an
ry Pla
ea te:
r 1c
m
per
yea
r
Los Angeles

San Diego
Plate movement
M E X IC O

12
 Plate Tectonics Chapter 2

The position of Ireland

;OL0YLSHUK[OH[^LRUV^[VKH`KPKUV[MVYTV]LYUPNO[7SH[LTV]LTLU[OHZOHKHUPTWHJ[VU
OV^0YLSHUKSVVRZ[VKH`

  (WWYV_PTH[LS`TPSSPVU`LHYZHNV0YLSHUK^HZKP]PKLKPU[V[^VZLJ[PVUZ6ULZLJ[PVU
^HZWHY[VM[OL5VY[O(TLYPJHU7SH[LHUK^HZWVZP[PVULKJSVZL[V[OLLX\H[VYHZ^HZ
:JV[SHUK;OLV[OLYZLJ[PVU^HZWHY[VMHUV[OLYJVU[PULU[HSVUN^P[O,UNSHUKHUK>HSLZ
  ;OLUHIV\[TPSSPVU`LHYZHNV[OLWSH[LZJVSSPKLKMVYTPUN0YLSHUK;OPZJVSSPZPVUSLK
[VHJ[P]P[PLZZ\JOHZMVSKPUNHUKMH\S[PUN;OLZLH[OH[VUJLZLWHYH[LK[OL[^VZLWHYH[L
ZLJ[PVUZ[OL0HWL[\Z:LHJSVZLK
  )`HWWYV_PTH[LS`TPSSPVU`LHYZHNV[OLWVZP[PVUVM0YLSHUKOHKTV]LK[V[OLZV\[O
VM[OLLX\H[VY+\YPUN[OPZ[PTL[OLUVY[OVM0YLSHUKSH`HIV]LZLHSL]LS^OPSL[OLZV\[O
^HZZ\ITLYNLK
  :LHSL]LSZYVZLHIV\[TPSSPVU
`LHYZHNVHUKJV]LYLK0YLSHUK ? QUICK QUESTIONS

0[^HZK\YPUN[OPZ[PTL[OH[ 1. Name three types of plate boundaries.

0YLSHUK»ZTVZ[JVTTVUYVJR 2. At divergent plate boundaries, what activity
SPTLZ[VULMVYTLK results in two plates moving apart? Give an
example of where this occurs.
  ;OL,\YHZPHUHUK(MYPJHU7SH[LZ
3. Explain what a rift valley is and give an example.
JVSSPKLKHIV\[TPSSPVU`LHYZ
HNV;OPZYLZ\S[LKPUMVSKPUN 4. Name a volcanic island.
+\YPUN[OPZ[PTLPU0YLSHUK 5. List the three types of convergent plate boundaries.
MVSKPUNVJJ\YYLKTVZ[S`PU 6. Name an example of an island arc.
4\UZ[LY 7. What activity is associated with a conservative plate?
  )L[^LLUHUKTPSSPVU 8. Name and locate an example of a fault line.
`LHYZHNVJVU[PULU[HSKYPM[
9. Match the margins, landforms and examples
YLZ\S[LKPU0YLSHUKTV]PUNUVY[O from the table.
  ;OL([SHU[PJ6JLHUMVYTLK
Margin Type Landform Example
HIV\[TPSSPVU`LHYZHNV^OLU
Conservative Mountain belt Andes
[OL(TLYPJHUHUK,\YVWLHU
7SH[LZILNHU[VTV]LHWHY[ Convergent Volcanoes, mountains Himalayas
Convergent Fault valley San Andreas Fault
0YLSHUKPZJVUZ[HU[S`JOHUNPUN;OL
WYVJLZZLZVMLYVZPVUKLWVZP[PVUHUK Divergent Rift valley African Rift Valley
^LH[OLYPUNHYLYLZWVUZPISLMVY[OL Divergent Mid-ocean ridge Mid-Atlantic Ridge
L]VS\[PVUVM[OLWO`ZPJHSSHUKZJHWL

Fig 2.16 Ireland’s timeline

850 million years ago 350 million years ago 200 million years ago Today

13
 Questions
Ordinary Level Short Questions |
Ordinary Level Long Questions|

Plate tectonics Fold mountains

1. (a) Examine the diagram and then match 3. Look at the photograph of fold mountains
each of the named landforms in the table in Europe. Explain with the aid of a diagram/
with one of the letters in the diagram. diagrams how fold mountains are formed.
In your answer name an example you have
Landform Letter
studied.
Volcanoes
Mid-ocean ridges
Subduction zone
Rising magma

(b) Name any volcano.

A C
Ocean floor
2009, Part 2, Q3B, 30 marks
Sediments
Oceanic crust The marking scheme for a question like this on
Ocean crust moves down under an Ordinary Level paper is as follows:
continental crust
Naming the example 2 marks
Diagram: two aspects @ 2 marks each 4 marks
D Continental crust Formation of fold mountains explained:
8 SRPs @ 3 marks each 24 marks
2009, Part 1, Q2, 10 marks Total 30 marks

Plate tectonics
Plate tectonics
2. Examine the map which shows the world’s
4. Use the diagram to explain the theory of plate
plate margins.
tectonics.
(a) Name two plates which are converging
The lithosphere is broken up into plates. Convection currents in the
(coming together). mantle cause the plates to move in different directions.
(b) Name two plates which are diverging
(pulling apart).
(c) ‘Mid-ocean ridges are formed at the edges MANTLE
of diverging plates (pulling apart)’. True or
false?

North American
Plate Eurasian
Plate
2009, Part 2, Q3C, 40 marks

African Plate Pacific

Pacific Plate Plate The marking scheme for a question like this on
an Ordinary Level paper is as follows:
13 SRPs @ 3 marks 39 marks
Nazca
Plate South American
Plate
Indo-Australian
Plate
Reference to diagram 1 mark
Total 40 marks
2007, Part 1, Q1, 10 marks
14
Plate tectonics Higher Level Long Questions |

5. Examine the cut-away diagram of the Earth. Plate margins

Match each of the following names with a
8. Explain, with reference to examples you
letter from the diagram.
have studied, how plate tectonics help us
zContinental crust zOcean crust understand the forces at work along crustal
zOuter core zInner core plate boundaries.
zMantle 2009, Part 2, Q1B, 30 marks

E B The marking scheme for a question like this on

a Higher Level paper is as follows:
Name two forces @ 2 marks each 4 marks
A Name different boundaries @ 2 marks each 4 marks
C Discussion: 11 SRPs @ 2 marks each 22 marks
D Total 30 marks

2008, Part 2, Q2A, 30 marks Crustal plates

6. Examine this map of global crustal plates. 9. Examine the map showing the major crustal
With reference to the labels shown: plates of the Earth. Answer the following:
(a) Name the crustal plates A and B. (a) Name the volcanic island at L.
(b) Name the type of plate margin at C and at D. (b) Which term, constructive or destructive,
best describes the plate boundary at M?
(c) Name the plate at N.
C (d) Which of the following statements is
D false?
O. As the plates move apart (very slowly)
magma rises from the mantle.
A
B P. Convection currents inside the Earth
cause the Earth’s plates to move apart.
Q. The North American Plate moves
eastwards.
SEC sample paper, Part 2, Q2A, 30 marks
R. Volcanoes often form at plate boundaries.
Higher Level Short Questions |
North American L Phillipine
Plate
Plate
Subduction zone N
Juan de
7. Examine this diagram showing a subduction Fuca Plate
Pacific
Plate
Caribbean Arabian
zone. Pair each of the letters A to D with the Cocos
Plate
Plate
African Plate
Plate Caroline
Plate
correct features below. Pacific Plate Nazca
Plate
Bismarck
Plate
South American Fiji
Plate Indo-Australian Plate
Feature Letter Plate

Asthenosphere
Scotia M
Lithosphere Plate

Subduction zone 2009, Part 2, Q2A, 20 marks

Volcanic intrusions

Sea level The marking scheme for a question

like this on a Higher Level paper is as
Mountains follows:
Folded
sedimentary rock
Folded sedimentary rock
Four answers @ 5 marks 20 marks
Continental crust
Oceanic crust
D
C Magma moving upwards B
Magma created here
0 100
A
kilometres
15
2009, Part 1, Q1, 8 marks
 Sea-floor spreading Plate tectonics
10. Examine this diagram. Answer these 12. Answer the following questions.
questions.
(a) Name the island at A where volcanoes
(a) Name the Earth’s internal layer labelled X. occur.
(b) Name the internal process shown by the (b) Name the feature which can be found at B.
arrows at Y. (c) State clearly the different types of plate
(c) Name one mid-ocean ridge which you boundaries found at both C and D.
have studied.
(d) Name the type of plate boundary shown at Z.
Eurasian North American A Eurasian
Plate Plate
Sea-floor spreading Plate

Juan de
Fuca Plate B
C Caribbean
Plate Arabian D
Phillipine Plate
Plate Cocos Indian
Oceanic crust Mid-ocean ridge Plate African Plate
Plate
Z Equator
Continental crust Continental crust
Nazca
Lithosphere Plate
Lithosphere South American
Australian Plate
Plate
Australian
Y Plate
X Antarctic
Plate Scotia
Plate

2008, Part 2, Q2A, 20 marks 2007, Part 2, Q2A, 20 marks

Plate boundaries
11. ‘Plate boundaries are zones where crust is
both created and destroyed.’ Examine this
statement, with references to examples you
have studied.
2007, Part 2, Q1B, 30 marks

M IN D M A P
Plate boundaries:
z Divergent plate boundaries – boundaries of
Sea-floor spreading:
z Plates split apart, ocean floor widens, new rock is formed
construction. New rock formed, mid-ocean
z Proofs: Samples from ocean floor; new crust youngest
ridges form. Plates separate and move away
z Convergent plate boundaries – boundaries
where magma cooled at mid-ocean, older closer to
continents of destruction. Rock changed or destroyed as
z Deposit of sediment following glaciation where continents
plates collide
z 3 types: 1. Ocean-ocean
once joined together
2. Ocean-continent
3. Continent-continent
z Conservative plate boundaries – passive
Continental drift theory (developed by Wegener):
z Continents transported by convection currents boundaries. Rock neither created nor destroyed.
Plates slide past each other
z Once one supercontinent, Pangaea

Surrounded by Panthalassa ocean

z 200 m years ago – broke apart, drifting Plate
s
tectonic
started – initially two sections: Laurasia and Position of Ireland:
Gondwanaland z 850 m years ago ¶divided into two sections
z Subduction – continents collide, ocean z 400 m years ago ¶ plates collided, forming Ireland.

between pulled down into mantle tle Folding, faulting occurring

z 380 m years ago¶moved south of equator. North

Ireland above sea level, south was below

Plate tectonics theory: z 350 m years ago ¶ sea level rose, covering Ireland.
z Earth’s crust consists of plates
Proofs of continental drift: z 250 m years ago¶ Eurasian and African Plates
z Plates move, fuelled by
z Edges of continents fit collided – folding
convection currents z 200 m–140 m years ago¶ continental drift, Ireland
like jigsaw puzzle
z Movements results in
z Matching fossils found moved north
volcanic/earthquake activity, z 65 m years ago ¶Atlantic Ocean formed when
folding and faulting Sth America and Africa
z Common rocks found Sth American and European Plates drifted apart
z Still changing today
America and Africa
16 z Glacial deposits same age
3 The Geography
of Volcanoes
By the end of this chapter students will have studied:
z Volcanic activity – how, why and where it occurs
z How volcanoes and their effects may be predicted
z Volcanic activity and its effects on the Irish landscape and worldwide
SYLLABUS LINK
The development of landforms is
influenced by geological structures which
have resulted from the operation of the
tectonic cycle.
The mobility of the Earth’s crust produces
endogenic forces, which give rise to
geological structures within it. Crustal
structures are created, modified and
destroyed as part of the tectonic cycle.

Fig 3.1 A volcanic landscape

Cloud of ash and gases

Crater

Volcanic cone made

up of layers of rock
and ash Pyroclastic materials
Secondary cone in old crater
Volcanic bombs
Parasitic (secondary) Lava flow Spatter cone
cone
Caldera

Vent

Heated underground water results

in hot springs and geysers

Magma chamber

What is a volcano?
(]VSJHUVPZHZ[Y\J[\YLJVU[HPUPUNHTHNTHJOHTILYMYVT^OPJOTVS[LUTHNTH
TV]LZ;OLTHNTH[YH]LSZ\W[OYV\NOH]LU[HUKL]LU[\HSS`V\[[OYV\NOHJYH[LY
;OYV\NO[OPZJYH[LYOV[HZOK\Z[]VSJHUPJYVJRIVTIZHUKTVS[LUTHNTHLY\W[
4HNTH^OPJOOHZTV]LKV\[VM[OLJYH[LYPZRUV^UHZSH]H6]LY[PTLHSHUKMVYT
RUV^UHZH]VSJHUPJJVULKL]LSVWZ

17
Core Patterns and Processes in the Physical Environment

Where does volcanic activity occur?

! NOTE
The pressure of the gas within the magma
chamber causes the magma to rise. The
magma is forced further upwards by gases
expanding. When pressure from gases
within the molten rock becomes too great,
an eruption occurs.
=VSJHUPJHJ[P]P[`VJJ\YZ!
>OLYLWSH[LZZLWHYH[LJVUZ[Y\J[P]LWSH[LIV\UKHYPLZ
 >OLYLWSH[LZJVSSPKLKLZ[Y\J[P]LWSH[LIV\UKHYPLZ
 ([OV[ZWV[Z
;OL7HJPÄJ9PUNVM-PYLPZ[OL^VYSK»ZTVZ[HJ[P]LLHY[OX\HRL
HUK]VSJHUVaVUL

i GEOTERMS
Hotspots are unusually
warm areas found deep within
the mantle of the Earth.

Eurasian
! NOTE Plate
North American
Pacific
Plate
A fissure is a long crack in the Plate
Earth’s surface through which Caribbean
Cocos Plate
African Plate
magma erupts. Plate Nazca
Plate
Australian-Indian South
Plate American
Plate

Fig 3.2 The Pacific Ring of Fire and the

location of the world’s major volcanoes Antarctic Plate

;OLYLHYL[OYLLZ[HNLZPU[OLºSPMLJ`JSL»VMH]VSJHUV!
 (J[P]L¶HUHJ[P]L]VSJHUVLY\W[ZYLN\SHYS`MVYL_HTWSL
4V\U[,[UHPU0[HS`HUK4V\U[:[/LSLUZPU[OL<:(
 +VYTHU[¶HKVYTHU[]VSJHUVOHZUV[LY\W[LKMVYH
SVUN[PTLI\[TH`LY\W[HNHPUMVYL_HTWSL*V[VWH_P
PU7LY\
 ,_[PUJ[¶HUL_[PUJ[]VSJHUVOHZUV[LY\W[LKPU
YLJVYKLKOPZ[VY`MVYL_HTWSL:SLTPZO4V\U[HPUPU
*V(U[YPT5VY[OLYU0YLSHUK

Causes of a volcanic eruption

;LTWLYH[\YLZPU[OL\WWLYTHU[SLHYLVM[LUOV[LUV\NOMVY[OL
YVJRVM[OLZ\IK\J[LKWSH[LZ[VTLS[HUKMVYTTVS[LUTHNTH
;OPZTVS[LUTHNTHW\ZOLZ[V^HYKZ[OLZ\YMHJLHUKI\PSKZ\W
PUHTHNTHJOHTILY;OLTHNTHJOHTILYJHUOVSKHSHYNL
X\HU[P[`VMTHNTH;OLNHZLZJVU[HPULKPU[OPZTHNTHL_WHUK
KYHTH[PJHSS`PU]VS\TLHUK[OPZJH\ZLZ[OLTHNTH[VYPZL;OL
NHZLZL_WSVKLHUKTHNTHW\ZOLZ\W^HYK
(Z[OLTHNTHULHYZ[OLZ\YMHJL[OL]VSJHUVILOH]LZSPRL
HWYLZZ\YLJVVRLY;OLWYLZZ\YLI\PSKZ\WHUK[OL]VSJHUPJ
TV\U[HPUI\SNLZ;OLTHNTH[OLUMVYJLZP[Z^H`\W[OYV\NO
ÄZZ\YLZPU[OL]VSJHUV>OLU[OLTHNTHHUKNHZLZ^P[OPUP[
Fig 3.3 A volcano erupting, Mount St Helens, USA YLHJOLZ[OLZ\YMHJL[OLWYLZZ\YLPZYLSLHZLKHUKH]VSJHUPJ
LY\W[PVUVMOV[HZOHUKK\Z[YVJRNHZLZHUKSH]HVJJ\YZ
18
 The Geography of Volcanoes Chapter 3

What determines whether a volcanic

eruption will be violent? i GEOTERMS
The term pyroclast or pyroclastic
;OLWYLZLUJLVYHIZLUJLVMZPSPJHOLSWZKL[LYTPUL^OL[OLYVY material refers to broken-down rock. This
UV[H]VSJHUPJLY\W[PVU^PSSIL]PVSLU[:PSPJHOLSWZWYVK\JL material varies from pea- to walnut-size
[OPJRSH]H^OPJO[YHWZNHZLZ^P[OPUTHNTH;OLTVYLZPSPJH fragments to hardened lava blocks. It may
WYLZLU[PU[OLTHNTH[OLIL[[LYP[ZHIPSP[`[V[YHWNHZLZHUK include ash, dust, rocks and rock bombs.
[OLNYLH[LY[OLSPRLSPOVVK[OH[H]PVSLU[LY\W[PVU^PSSVJJ\Y

Volcanic materials ejected during ? QUICK QUESTIONS

1. Explain briefly the term ‘volcano’.
volcanic activity
2. What materials are ejected out of
(]HYPL[`VMTH[LYPHSZHYLLQLJ[LKK\YPUNH]VSJHUPJLY\W[PVU! a volcano?
 =VSJHUPJHZO 3. List three places where volcanic
 9VJRWHY[PJSLZRUV^UHZW`YVJSHZ[Z activity occurs.
 +\Z[ 4. Name the world’s most active
 .HZLZ volcanic and earthquake zone.
 3H]H 5. List three categories of volcano.
=VSJHUPJHZOHUKK\Z[HYLHSZVISHZ[LKPU[V[OLZR`K\YPUNHU 6. Explain each category of
LY\W[PVU;OLZLWHY[PJSLZ[OLU[YH]LSNYLH[KPZ[HUJLZHYV\UK[OL volcano and give an example of
^VYSK;OL`TH`HSZVYLK\JL[LTWLYH[\YLZI`ISVJRPUNV\[[OLZ\U each.
7. Discuss briefly the causes of a
volcanic eruption.
Lava
=VSJHUVLZHYLTV\U[HPUZ / INTERESTING FACTS
8. Will the presence of silica
in magma lead to a violent
MVYTLKI`[OLI\PSK\WVM P
Pumic air-filled lava that cooled volcanic eruption? Discuss.
TH[LYPHS^OPJOOHZLY\W[LK quickly can float in water. It is 9. List the materials that are
[OYV\NOVWLUPUNZPU[OL,HY[O»Z used by people to remove hard ejected during a volcanic
Z\YMHJL=VSJHUVLZTH`OH]L skin from their feet. eruption.
Z[LLWZPKLZVYNLU[SLZSVWLZ 10. What is meant by the term
‘pyroclastic material’?
;OLYLHYL[^V[`WLZVMSH]H!
 (JPKPJSH]H
 )HZPJSH]H i GEOTERMS
s Pyroclastic flow refers to the material
Fig 3.4 A volcanic eruption hurling volcanic bombs, ash, gases and dust into the air that flows down the side of a volcano
during an eruption. Examples may
include lahars (when a snow-capped
volcanic mountain erupts, the resulting
mudslide is called a lahar. This happened
in Nevada del Ruiz in Colombia),
mudflows or nuées ardentes.
s Nuées ardentes are often called
glowing avalanches, as they are made
up of clouds of dust, ash and gas.
Many of the gases (such as sulfur
dioxide and carbon dioxide) are
poisonous and often more dangerous
than the lava flow.

19
Core Patterns and Processes in the Physical Environment

Acidic lava
;OPZSH]HPZOPNOPUZPSPJHJVU[LU[WLYJLU[VYTVYL[LUKZ[VIL[OPJRHUKKVLZ
UV[ÅV^]LY`MHY.HZLZÄUKP[KPMÄJ\S[[VLZJHWLHUKZVILJVTL[YHWWLKPU[OLSH]H
,]LU[\HSS`H]VSJHUVVM[OPZUH[\YL^PSSLY\W[]PVSLU[S`;OPZ]VSJHUV^PSSOH]LZ[LLW
ZPKLZTHRPUNJVU]L_KVTLKJVULZ

! NOTE
The higher the silica
content of magma, the
more viscous (sticky) it is.
Viscous magma tends to
lead to more explosive
volcanoes. Lava with a
low silica content tends to
form shield volcanoes. The
lava can flow very long
distances as it is much
more fluid.
Basic lava
;OPZSH]HPZSV^PUZPSPJHJVU[LU[WLYJLU[VYSLZZ[LUKZ[VILY\UU`
HUKÅV^ZNYLH[KPZ[HUJLZ.HZLZÄUKP[LHZPLY[VLZJHWLMYVT[OPZSH]HHUK
[OPZSLHKZ[VP[TV]PUNMHZ[LY,Y\W[PVUZVMIHZPJSH]H[LUK[VILNLU[SLYHUK
HZHYLZ\S[[OPZ]VSJHUV^PSSOH]LNLU[S`ZSVWPUNZPKLZ[VMVYTZOPLSKJVULZ
;OLHIPSP[`VMSH]H[VÅV^PZKPYLJ[S`SPURLK[V[OLX\HU[P[PLZVMNHZLZ
KPZZVS]LK^P[OPUP[>OLUSH]HÅV^ZJVU[HPUHSV[VMNHZ[OL`ÅV^NYLH[LY
KPZ[HUJLZ>OLUSLZZNHZPZWYLZLU[[OLSH]HÅV^ZKVUV[[YH]LSHZMHY
;OLYL[OYLLTHPU[`WLZVMSH]HÅV^!
 7HOVLOVLSH]H
 (HSH]H
 7PSSV^SH]H

Fig 3.5(a) Pahoehoe lava. This lava has a Fig 3.5(b) Aa lava. This lava has a lumpy Fig 3.5(c) Pillow lava. This appears as
ropey texture and the flow is runny or fluid texture rounded blobs of lava. It is found on the sea floor

i GEOTERMS Location of volcanic activity

Constructive plate =VSJHUPJHJ[P]P[`JHUVJJ\YH[HU\TILYVMSVJH[PVUZ!
margins/boundaries
 >OLYLWSH[LZZLWHYH[LH[JVUZ[Y\J[P]LWSH[LIV\UKHYPLZ!
are also known as
divergent plate margins/ ([[OLZLWSH[LZVMZLWHYH[PVU[OLJVU]LJ[PVUJ\YYLU[ZPU[OLTHU[SL
boundaries. M\LS[OLTV]LTLU[HWHY[VMWSH[LZ;OPZZLWHYH[PVUVMWSH[LZJYLH[LZ
HYPM[]HSSL`4HNTHYPZLZ[VÄSS[OLZWHJLSLM[I`[OLYPM[]HSSL`>OLU
[OLTHNTHYLHJOLZ[OLZ\YMHJLP[ILNPUZ[VJVVSHUK[OLUZVSPKPÄLZ
[VMVYT]VSJHUPJTV\U[HPUZ;OLZLHYL[OLTPKVJLHUYPKNLZ
:VTL[PTLZPZSHUKZMVYTZ\JOHZ[OL]VSJHUPJPZSHUKVM0JLSHUK
^OPJOMVYTLKHZWHY[VM[OL4PK([SHU[PJ9PKNL

20
 The Geography of Volcanoes Chapter 3

 >OLYLWSH[LZJVSSPKLH[KLZ[Y\J[P]LWSH[LIV\UKHYPLZ!
>OLYL[^VVJLHUPJWSH[LZJVSSPKL[OLOLH]PLYWSH[LZPURZ i GEOTERMS

ILSV^[OLV[OLYWSH[LPUHWYVJLZZRUV^UHZZ\IK\J[PVU sDestructive plate

;OLWSH[L[OH[ZPURZTLS[ZPU[V[OLTHU[SL;OLTVS[LU margins/boundaries are
THNTH[OLUYPZLZ\W[OYV\NOJYHJRZHUKTHRLZP[Z^H` also known as convergent
[V[OLZ\YMHJL[OYV\NO[OL]LU[,]LU[\HSS`P[YLHJOLZ[OL plate margins/boundaries.
Z\YMHJL^OLYL]VSJHUPJPZSHUKZHYLMVYTLK;OLPZSHUKZVM sHotspots are the unusually
1HWHUHYLHUL_HTWSLVM[OPZ hot areas of mantle-core
boundary. Examples
 ([OV[ZWV[Z!
include Hawaii, Iceland and
Fig 3.6 The location of hotspots Yellowstone National Park,
USA.

Eurasian
! NOTE
North American Plate Magma, which contains large
Plate
Pacific
amounts of silica, causes
Caribbean Pacific
Plate Plate Plate violent eruptions.
Cocos
Plate
Nazca South African Indo-Australian
Plate American Plate Plate
Plate

Antarctic Plate

([[OLZLOV[ZWV[ZWS\TLZVMTHNTHYPZL\W^HYKZ
Fig 3.7 A plume of rising magma at a hotspot
[V^HYKZ[OLZ\YMHJLTV]PUN\W[OYV\NO[OLTHU[SL
,]LU[\HSS`[OLTHNTHWS\TLZYLHJO[OLWSH[L Volcanoes and basalt plateaus
Lava flows out through are formed from magma
V]LYOLHK;OLOV[ZWV[YLTHPUZPU[OLZHTLWSHJL^OPSL cracks called fissures
[OLWSH[LZTV]L(ZP[KVLZZV[OLYPZPUNTHNTHÄUKZ Continental crust
HÄZZ\YLPU[OLWSH[L is pushed up by
magma
>OLUWSH[LZTV]LV]LY[OLWS\TL]VSJHUVLZMVYT
6]LY[PTL[OL`ILJVTLSLZZHJ[P]LHUKSPLHZL_[PUJ[
]VSJHUVLZ;OLWSH[LZJVU[PU\L[VILM\LSSLKI`
JVU]LJ[PVUJ\YYLU[Z(ZHWSH[LTV]LZVU[OLTHNTH
^PSSÄUKHUL^ÄZZ\YL^OPJO^PSSPU[\YUSLHK[V[OL
MVYTH[PVUVMHUL^]VSJHUV/V[ZWV[ZSLH]LILOPUK
[OLTH[YHPSVML_[PUJ[]VSJHUVLZ0[PZHSZV[OV\NO[
[OH[JVU[PULU[ZTH`HJ[\HSS`ZWSP[HWHY[K\L[VYPZPUN
WS\TLZVMTHNTHH[HOV[ZWV[;OL(MYPJHU9PM[=HSSL`
Plume of magma rising
PZHUL_HTWSL/V[ZWV[ZHYLHSZVSVJH[LK\UKLY0JLSHUK towards the surface
[OL*HUHY`0ZSHUKZ/H^HPPHUK[OL.HSHWHNVZ0ZSHUKZ

Intrusive and extrusive structures

0U[Y\ZP]LZ[Y\J[\YLZHYL[OVZLMVYTLK^OLUTHNTHMHPSZ[VYLHJO[OL
Z\YMHJLVM[OL,HY[O0[MVYJLZP[ZLSMPU[V[OLYVJRJVVSPUN[VMVYTHU
PU[Y\ZP]LYVJRPUZPKLVM[OLJY\Z[.YHUP[LPZHUL_HTWSL9VJRZMVYTLK
^P[OPU[OL,HY[OHYLJHSSLKWS\[VUPJPU[Y\ZP]LYVJRZ

21
 Core Patterns and Processes in the Physical Environment

,_[Y\ZP]LZ[Y\J[\YLZHYL[OVZLMVYTLKVU[OLZ\YMHJLVM
Ash cloud [OL,HY[O;OLTHNTHYLHJOLK[OLZ\YMHJLHUKPZUV^
Lava RUV^UHZSH]H([[OLZ\YMHJLL_[Y\ZP]LZ[Y\J[\YLZVY
Extrusives and ash
YVJRZHYLMVYTLK0UL_[Y\ZP]LYVJRZ[OLTHNTHLY\W[Z
Cool quickly
[OYV\NOHÄZZ\YLVYH]VSJHUV

Intrusive structures Ì EXAM HINTS

(IH[OVSP[OPZHUL_HTWSLVMHU The Leinster Batholith
Intrusives Igneous
intrusion PU[Y\ZP]LMLH[\YL;OPZMLH[\YL can be used as an
Cool slowly
MVYTLK^OLUTHNTH^HZ example of a distinctive
MVYJLKPU[V[OLJY\Z[JVVSPUN landscape for igneous
HUKZVSPKPM`PUN[VMVYTHU rock (granite) in Ireland.
PU[Y\ZP]LYVJRZ\JOHZNYHUP[L
Magma
chamber )H[OVSP[OZTH`HWWLHYH[[OLZ\YMHJLK\L[V[^VMHJ[VYZ!
 +LU\KH[PVU^LH[OLYPUNHUKLYVZPVUYLZ\S[PUNPU
[OLIH[OVSP[OILJVTPUNL_WVZLK
 7SH[LZJVSSPKLYLZ\S[PUNPUI\JRSPUNHUK
Fig 3.8 Intrusive and extrusive volcanic structures
JVTWYLZZPVUHUK[OLMVYTH[PVUVMMVSKTV\U[HPUZ
:\JOHUL_HTWSLPZMV\UKPU[OLHYLHMYVT+\ISPU
Ì EXAM HINTS [V2PSRLUU`^OPJOPZRUV^UHZ[OL3LPUZ[LY
The Leinster Batholith is also an example of )H[OVSP[O;OPZIH[OVSP[O^HZL_WVZLKK\YPUN[OL
an Irish volcanic landform. TV\U[HPUI\PSKPUNWLYPVKRUV^UHZ[OL*HSLKVUPHU
MVSKTV]LTLU[;OLMVSKPUNYLZ\S[LKPU[OL
MVYTH[PVUVM[OL>PJRSV^HUK+\ISPU4V\U[HPUZ
i GEOTERMS )H[OVSP[OZHYL\Z\HSS`Z\YYV\UKLKI`TL[HTVYWOPJ
The Leinster Batholith is the largest YVJRZYVJRZ[OH[^LYLVUJLPNULV\ZZLKPTLU[HY`I\[
batholith in Great Britain or Ireland at ^LYLJOHUNLKK\L[VLP[OLYNYLH[OLH[VYWYLZZ\YL;OL
1500 km2. Over the last 400 million years >PJRSV^4V\U[HPUZ^LYLMVYTLKK\YPUN[OL*HSLKVUPHU
it has become exposed as the top layers of MVSKTV]LTLU[^OLU[OL(TLYPJHUHUK,\YHZPHU7SH[LZ
rock are eroded. At 925 m above sea level JVSSPKLK;OLJVYLVM[OLIH[OVSP[OMV\UKPU[OL>PJRSV^
Lugnaquilla is the highest peak of the 4V\U[HPUZPZNYHUP[LHUK[OLHYLHZ\YYV\UKPUN[OLLKNLZ
Leinster Batholith. VM[OLIH[OVSP[OPZTHKL\WVMTL[HTVYWOPJYVJRZ\JOHZ
X\HY[aP[LHUKZJOPZ[

Fig 3.9 A batholith

Rocks in contact with and heated by molten Erosion of overlying Rocks not
magma change into metamorphic rocks rock exposes affected by
batholith batholith

Batholith Metamorphic
Rising magma rock
moves into the
rocks of the Batholith
Upper mantle Earth’s crust

100 km

22
 The Geography of Volcanoes Chapter 3

6[OLYPU[Y\ZP]LMLH[\YLZPUJS\KL!
 :PSSZ
? QUICK QUESTIONS
1. Explain the difference between acidic
 +`RLZ and basic lava.
 3HJJVSP[O 2. Name three types of lava flow.
 3VWVSP[O
3. Name three places where volcanic
(ZPSSPZMVYTLK^OLUTHNTHPZPUQLJ[LKOVYPaVU[HSS` activity may occur.
IL[^LLUSH`LYZVMZLKPTLU[HY`YVJR[OH[HYLMV\UKJSVZL[V 4. Explain what a hotspot is.
[OLZ\YMHJL;OLTHNTHZX\LLaLZPU[V[OLILKKPUNWSHULZ
5. Give two examples of hotspots you
TLS[PUNZ\YYV\UKPUNYVJR[OLUJVVSPUN[VMVYTNYHUP[L
have studied.
RUV^UHZHOVYPaVU[HSSH`LYVMNYHUP[L;OPZJYLH[LZHZPSS
6. Explain the term ‘intrusive structure’.
+`RLZMVYT^OLUTHNTHPZPUQLJ[LK]LY[PJHSS`PU[V
7. Explain the term ‘extrusive structure’.
ÄZZ\YLZPU[OLJY\Z[6]LY[PTL[OLTHNTH^PKLUZ[OL
8. Give an example of an intrusive
MYHJ[\YLHUKL]LU[\HSS`P[JVVSZMVYTPUNH]LY[PJHSSH`LY
structure you have studied.
VMNYHUP[L;OPZJYLH[LZHK`RL
9. Name an intrusive rock.
3HJJVSP[OZMVYT^OLUTHNTHW\ZOLZHUV]LYS`PUNYVJR
10. Name a batholith located in Ireland.
\W^HYKZ
11. When was this batholith exposed?
3VWVSP[OZMVYT^OLUTHNTHW\ZOLZ[OL\UKLYS`PUNYVJR
12. What category of rock usually
KV^U^HYKZ surrounds batholiths?

Extrusive structures
,_[Y\ZP]LZ[Y\J[\YLZHYL[OVZLMVYTLKVU[OLZ\YMHJLVM i GEOTERMS
[OL,HY[O=VSJHUVLZHYLL_[Y\ZP]LSHUKMVYTZ=VSJHUVLZ sWhen magma squeezes in between fissures/
]HY`PUZOHWLK\L[V[^VTHPUMHJ[VYZ![OL[`WLVMSH]H bedding planes, it forms a sill.
LQLJ[LKHUK[OLUH[\YLVM[OLLY\W[PVU^OL[OLYP[PZ sWhen magma cuts across fissures/bedding
]PVSLU[HUKKLZ[Y\J[P]LVYUV[ planes, it forms a dyke.
>L^PSSIYPLÅ`KPZJ\ZZ[OLMVSSV^PUN!

 *LU[YHS]LU[LY\W[PVUZ
 -PZZ\YLLY\W[PVUZ Volcanic ash
cloud
 /V[ZWV[Z Crater

1. Central vent eruptions

Lava flow Vent
4VZ[JLU[YHS]LU[LY\W[PVUZVJJ\YH[ Dyke
KLZ[Y\J[P]LWSH[LIV\UKHYPLZ^OLYL
WSH[LZJVSSPKL3H]HHZOHUKV[OLY
Laccolith
]VSJHUPJTH[LYPHSPZLQLJ[LK[OYV\NO
HJLU[YHS]LU[HUKSLH]LZ[OL]VSJHUV Sill
[OYV\NO[OLJYH[LY;OLZOHWLVM[OPZ
Sill
]VSJHUVPZ\Z\HSS`[OH[VMHJVUL Sill
ZOHWLKTV\U[HPU
Lopolith

! NOTE
Secondary cones form around Batholith
(magma chamber)
secondary vents on larger volcanoes.
Larger volcanoes can have several
secondary vents in addition to the Fig 3.10 Intrusive features

main central vent.

23
Core Patterns and Processes in the Physical Environment

;OLZOHWLVM[OL]VSJHUVKLWLUKZVU[OL[`WLVMSH]HLY\W[PUN
MYVTP[
z:OPLSK]VSJHUVLZ[LUK[VOH]LNLU[S`ZSVWPUNJVULZHUKH
Ash
cloud IYVHKIHZL;OPZPZILJH\ZLIHZPJSH]HLY\W[ZMYVT[OL]LU[
Lava flow
;OPZIHZPJSH]HPZHWWYV_PTH[LS`WLYJLU[ZPSPJHHUKPZ
Vent
Y\UU`0[PZHISL[VÅV^MVYSVUNKPZ[HUJLZILMVYLP[JVVSZ
Ash
HUKZVSPKPÄLZ[VMVYTIHZHS[YVJR6]LY[PTLSH`LYZVMY\UU`
Lava
SH]HI\PSK\W[VMVYTZOPLSK]VSJHUVLZ;OLZL]VSJHUVLZHYL
High-silica
magma JVTTVUH[OV[ZWV[Z(UL_HTWSLVMHZOPLSK]VSJHUVPZ[OH[
VM4H\UH3VHVU[OL/H^HPPHU0ZSHUKZ
Fig 3.11 Volcanic cone-shaped mountain
z=VSJHUPJKVTLZ[LUK[VOH]LZ[LLWZPKLZ;OPZPZK\L[VHJPKPJ

SH]HLY\W[PUNMYVT[OL]LU[/PNOHTV\U[ZVMNHZJVU[HPULK
i GEOTERMS
^P[OPU[OLTHNTHSLHKZ[VHUL_WSVZP]LLY\W[PVU4V\U[:[
Rock fragments produced /LSLUZPZHUL_HTWSLVMZ\JOH]VSJHUPJKVTL
by volcanic explosions are
z*VTWVZP[L]VSJHUVLZ[LUK[VILZ[LLWZPKLK;OLPYZOHWL
called pyroclasts (from the
Greek pyro, ‘fire’, and clast, YLZ\S[ZMYVTW`YVJSHZ[PJTH[LYPHSHUKHS[LYUH[PUNSH`LYZ
‘broken’). Pyroclastic debris is VMSH]HI\PSKPUN\WHYV\UK[OLZ\TTP[^OLYL[OL`MHSS
also known as tephra. ,_HTWSLZHYL4V\U[=LZ\]P\ZHUK4V\U[,[UH

Fig 3.12(a) A shield volcano Fig 3.13(a) A dome volcano Fig 3.14(a) A composite volcano

Ash Ash

Ash

Fig 3.12(b) Mount Kilauea, Hawaii, is an Fig 3.13(b) Mount St Helens, USA, is an Fig 3.14(b) Mount Vesuvius is an example of a
example of a shield volcano example of a dome volcano composite volcano

24
 The Geography of Volcanoes Chapter 3

/ INTERESTING FACTS
A caldera is a cauldron-like volcanic feature. It is usually formed by the collapse
of land following a volcanic eruption. Examples are found at Glencoe, Scotland Ash cloud
and Yellowstone National Park, USA.
Cone

z*PUKLY]VSJHUVLZ[LUK[VILZ[LLWZPKLKJVULZHUKNLULYHSS`

OH]LHNLU[SLZSVWLK\L[V[OLSH`LYPUNVM]VSJHUPJWHY[PJSLZ
*PUKLY]VSJHUVLZHYLMVYTLKHZHYLZ\S[VM]PVSLU[LY\W[PVUZ

2. Fissure eruptions
Fig 3.15 A cinder volcano
-PZZ\YLLY\W[PVUZVJJ\YH[JVUZ[Y\J[P]LWSH[LIV\UKHYPLZ^OLYL
IHZPJSH]HÅV^ZV\[VU[V[OLZ\YMHJL[OYV\NOÄZZ\YLZ)LJH\ZL
[OLSH]HPZIHZPJP[JHUÅV^MVYSVUNKPZ[HUJLZ6]LYZ\JJLZZP]L
LY\W[PVUZ[OLSH]HI\PSKZ\W[VMVYTHIHZHS[WSH[LH\;OPZJHU Ì EXAM HINTS
YLZ\S[PUHÅH[SHUKZJHWLZ\JOHZ[OH[VM[OL(U[YPT+LYY`7SH[LH\ The Antrim-Derry Plateau is also an
example of an Irish volcanic landform.
;OL(U[YPT+LYY`7SH[LH\PZHUL_HTWSLVMHIHZHS[WSH[LH\;OPZ
WSH[LH\MVYTLKHZHYLZ\S[VM]VSJHUPJHJ[P]P[`^OPJOVJJ\YYLK
V]LYTPSSPVU`LHYZHNV+\YPUN[OPZWLYPVK[OL,\YVWLHUHUK
(TLYPJHU7SH[LZILNHU[VW\SSHWHY[;OPZTLHU[[OH[[OLJY\Z[ i GEOTERMS
VM[OL,HY[O^HZZ[YL[JOLKHUK[OPUULKJVUZPKLYHIS`*YHJRZ The Antrim-Derry Plateau covers
ILNHU[VHWWLHYHUKHZHYLZ\S[SH]HILNHU[VÅV^V\[VU[V[OL an area of 4000 km2 – was created
Z\YMHJL>P[OLHJOZ\JJLZZP]LSH]HÅV^HÅH[IHZHS[WSH[LH\ 65 million years ago, and consists of
^HZJYLH[LK;OLJVU[PU\PUNTV]LTLU[HWHY[VM[OLWSH[LZSLK[V 60,000 basalt columns.
HUL^JVU[PULU[HSJY\Z[ILPUNMVYTLKHUK[OL([SHU[PJ6JLHU
ILNHU[VVWLU;OPZMVYTLK[OL(U[YPT+LYY`7SH[LH\
;OL.PHU[»Z*H\ZL^H`MVYTZWHY[VM[OLWSH[LH\;OLOL_HNVUHS ? QUICK QUESTIONS
JVS\TUZVMIHZHS[MVYTLK^OLUTVS[LUTHNTHJVVSLK]LY` 1. Explain briefly the formation
ZSV^S`OH]PUNILLU[YHWWLKPUHYP]LY]HSSL`;OLOL_HNVUHSZOHWL of each of the following
^HZ[OLYLZ\S[VM[OLSH]HJVU[YHJ[PUNHZP[JVVSLK intrusive features:
(a) Sill (c) Laccolith
Fig 3.16 The Giant’s Causeway, Co. Antrim
(b) Dyke (d) Lopolith
2. List four different shapes
of volcanoes and give an
example of each.
3. Refer to figure 3.14(c). What
activity is occurring? Is
this an active, dormant or
extinct volcano? Explain your
answer.
4. Where do fissure eruptions
occur?
5. Name an Irish example of a
fissure eruption.
6. How did the Giant’s Causeway
form?

25
Core Patterns and Processes in the Physical Environment
Fig 3.17 A satellite image of the Hawaiian Island chain
! NOTE
Hydrothermal areas are also called
geothermal areas.
! NOTE
Sulfur is sometimes evident on the slopes of
a volcanic cone where it is ejected through
vents known as fumaroles. Sulfur is bright
yellow in colour.
Fig 3.18(a) Old Faithful, Yellowstone National Park, USA
26
3. Hotspots and volcanic arcs
/V[ZWV[ZHYL\U\Z\HSS`^HYTHYLHZVMTHNTHMV\UK
ILULH[O[OL,HY[O»ZZ\YMHJL^P[OPU[OLTHU[SL>LOH]L
SLHYULKOV^[OLZLOV[ZWV[ZHYLPUÄ_LKSVJH[PVUZHUK
OV^[OL`KVUV[TV]L^P[O[OLWSH[LZ>OLUHWSH[L
TV]LZ[OLTHNTHWS\TLZYPZL\W^HYKZ[OYV\NO[OL
ÄZZ\YLZPU[OLWSH[LHUKMVYTHUHJ[P]L]VSJHUV>OLU
[OLWSH[LTV]LZH^H`MYVT[OLOV[ZWV[[OLVUJLHJ[P]L
]VSJHUVILJVTLZPUHJ[P]L5L^]VSJHUVLZ^PSSMVYTPU
[OLWHY[VM[OLJY\Z[^OPJOOHZTV]LKV]LY[OLOV[ZWV[
(Z[YPUNVML_[PUJ[]VSJHUVLZHYLSLM[ILOPUK;OLVSKLZ[
]VSJHUVLZHYL[OVZLM\Y[OLZ[H^H`MYVT[OLOV[ZWV[(U
L_HTWSLVMZ\JOHZ[YPUNPZ[OL/H^HPPHU0ZSHUKZMVYTLK
I`HOV[ZWV[SVJH[LKILULH[O[OL7HJPÄJ7SH[L
Hydrothermal areas
;OLZLHYLHYLHZ^OLYL]VSJHUPJHJ[P]P[`VUJLVJJ\YYLK
4VPZ[\YLJVSSLJ[ZPZ[OLUOLH[LKI`THNTHHUK
L]LU[\HSS`YLHJOLZ[OLZ\YMHJL
/`KYV[OLYTHSHYLHZPUJS\KL[OLMVSSV^PUN!
 .L`ZLYZ
 /V[ZWYPUNZ
 )SHJRZTVRLYZ
 .L`ZLYZHYLQL[ZVMZ[LHTHUKOV[^H[LY[OH[
SLHWPU[V[OLHPYH[YLN\SHYPU[LY]HSZ6SK-HP[OM\S
PU@LSSV^Z[VUL5H[PVUHS7HYRPU[OL<:(PZHU
L_HTWSLVMHNL`ZLY;OPZO`KYV[OLYTHSHYLH
H[[YHJ[ZTHU`]PZP[VYZLHJO`LHY.L`ZLYZHYLHSZV
ZVTL[PTLZ\ZLK[VNLULYH[LLULYN`MVYL_HTWSL
[OL)S\L3HNVVUPU0JLSHUK
 /V[ZWYPUNZHYLMV\UK^OLYLNYV\UK^H[LYPZ
OLH[LKH[NYLH[KLW[OZHUK[OLUYPZLZ[V[OL
Z\YMHJL,_HTWSLZVMOV[ZWYPUNZHYLMV\UKPU
0JLSHUK
 )SHJRZTVRLYZYLZLTISLHJOPTUL`VWLUPUN
;OL`HYLMV\UKH[TPKVJLHUYPKNLZ^OLYL
^H[LYOV[[LY[OHU‡*YPZLZV\[MYVT[OL
THU[SL[OYV\NO]LU[ZPU[OLVJLHUÅVVY
 The Geography of Volcanoes Chapter 3

Fig 3.18(b) A hot spring in Iceland Fig 3.18(c) A black smoker on the ocean floor at the mid-ocean ridge

Fig 3.18(d) Steam and sulfur on the grand crater of the volcano on Aeolian Island, Italy

The prediction of volcanic activity and its effects

7LVWSL^OVZ[\K`YVJRZHYLRUV^UHZNLVSVNPZ[Z.LVSVNPZ[Z\ZL[OLPYRUV^SLKNLVM]VSJHUV
MVYTH[PVU[OL[`WLVMKLWVZP[ZHUK[OLKH[LVM[OLZLKLWVZP[ZWH[[LYUZVML]LU[ZSLHKPUN[V
]VSJHUPJLY\W[PVUZHUK[OLSVJH[PVUZ^OLYL[OLZL]VSJHUVLZLY\W[[VNP]L\ZMVYLJHZ[ZVM
]VSJHUPJLY\W[PVUZ;OLPYZ[\K`JHUWSHJL[OLTPU]LY`KHUNLYV\ZZP[\H[PVUZ:VTLNLVSVNPZ[Z
OH]LKPLK^OPSLPU]LZ[PNH[PUN]VSJHUPJHJ[P]P[`
;OL[`WLHUKKH[LVMTH[LYPHSZHUKKPZ[YPI\[PVUVMKLWVZP[ZJHU
NP]LHUPUZPNO[PU[V]VSJHUPJHJ[P]P[`.LVSVNPZ[ZZ[\K`KLWVZP[LK i GEOTERMS
TH[LYPHSVU[OLZPKLZVM]VSJHUVLZ)`L_HTPUPUN[OLZLKLWVZP[Z Seismographs are instruments
P[TH`ILWVZZPISL[V^VYRV\[[OLUH[\YLVMWYL]PV\ZLY\W[PVUZ that measure earthquake
;OPZOLSWZ[VPKLU[PM`[OLMYLX\LUJ`VMWHZ[]VSJHUPJLY\W[PVUZ activity. Seismographs are
^OPJOTH`HZZPZ[PU[OLWYLKPJ[PVUVMWVZZPISLM\[\YLLY\W[PVUZ)` positioned around the sides of a
L_HTPUPUN[OLKPZ[YPI\[PVUVMKLWVZP[ZMYVTWYL]PV\ZLY\W[PVUZP[ volcano. When magma begins to
JHUHSZVILWVZZPISL[VPKLU[PM`SVJH[PVUZ[OH[TH`ILHMMLJ[LKI` move it creates great heat. With
LY\W[PVUZ this heat, rocks begin to crack
and break and this can lead to
.LVSVNPZ[ZTH`HSZVPUZ[HSS[PS[TL[LYZ[OH[OLSWPKLU[PM`^OL[OLY
vibrations of the Earth’s crust.
I\SNPUNVJJ\YZPU[OLZPKLVMH]VSJHUV(I\SNLTH`PUKPJH[L
These vibrations can provide a
[OH[HULY\W[PVUPZSPRLS`[VVJJ\YZVVU-VYL_HTWSLILMVYL[OL
clear indication of an imminent
LY\W[PVUVM4V\U[:[/LSLUZPU [OLZPKLVM[OL]VSJHUV
volcanic eruption.
I\SNLKZ^LSSPUNI`V]LYT

27
Core Patterns and Processes in the Physical Environment

:JPLU[PZ[ZHSZVZ[\K`[OLNHZLZLTP[[LKMYVTH]VSJHUV>OLYL[OLYLPZ
HUPUJYLHZLPUNHZLZ[OPZZ\NNLZ[Z[OH[HULY\W[PVU^PSSZVVUMVSSV^
.LVSVNPZ[ZHSZVZ[\K`[OL[LTWLYH[\YLVMOLH[JVTPUNV\[VM[OLJYH[LY
HUKSVJHSNYV\UK^H[LY:[LHTYPZPUNMYVT]LU[Z[OLHWWLHYHUJLVM
NL`ZLYZHUKVMOV[ZWYPUNZPUKPJH[LZWVZZPISL]VSJHUPJHJ[P]P[`

Fig 3.19(a) Mount Etna erupting, showering ash and hot gases Fig 3.19(b) Two geologists take and record lava samples at the Volcanoes
National Park on the Big Island of Hawaii for signs of future volcanic eruption

Fig 3.19(c) Seismographs are used to record earthquakes under volcanoes

Fig 3.19(d) Scientists

wear gas masks to
protect against gases
emitted by a volcano

(SS[OLPUMVYTH[PVUPZ\ZLK[VJYLH[LL]HJ\H[PVUWSHUZPUHYLHZ^OLYL
UL^]VSJHUPJLY\W[PVUZHYLSPRLS`[VVJJ\Y

28
 The Geography of Volcanoes Chapter 3

Effects of volcanic activity ? QUICK QUESTIONS

;OLLMMLJ[ZVM]VSJHUPJLY\W[PVUZHYLIV[OWVZP[P]LHUKULNH[P]L 1. Look at the satellite image

of the Hawaiian Island
Positive effects of volcanic activity chain (Fig 3.17). What do
these islands signify?
Fertile soils 2. What are hydrothermal
=VSJHUPJZVPSZHYL]LY`MLY[PSL;OLZLYPJOZVPSZHYLJHSSLKSH[LYP[L areas?
ZVPSZHUKHYLYPJOPUTPULYHSZ;OLZLZVPSZHYLZVTL[PTLZJHSSLK 3. List three examples of
[LYYHYVZZH;OL`HYLJVTTVUPUTHU`JV\U[YPLZZ\JOHZ)YHaPS hydrothermal areas.
^OLYLJVMMLLPZNYV^UHUKWHY[ZVMZV\[OLYU0[HS`^OLYLMY\P[ 4. What is a geologist?
HUK]LNL[HISLZHYLNYV^U
5. List six possible signs that
a volcanic eruption may be
Tourism imminent.
4HU`KVYTHU[HUKHJ[P]L]VSJHUVLZH[[YHJ[O\UKYLKZVM[OV\ZHUKZ 6. What are seismographs?
VM[V\YPZ[ZLHJO`LHY4V\U[=LZ\]P\ZPUZV\[OLYU0[HS`HUK4V\U[
7. List five positive effects of
,[UHPU:PJPS`HYL]LY`WVW\SHY;V\YPZ[ZÅVJR[V[OLZL[VJSPTI[OL
volcanic activity.
ZPKLZHUK[VL_WLYPLUJL[OLSHUKZJHWL;OPZSLHKZ[VTHU`ZWPU
8. Look at the photograph of
VMMPUK\Z[YPLZZ\JOHZI\ZJVTWHUPLZYLZ[H\YHU[ZZOVWZZV\]LUPY
Mount Vesuvius (Fig 3.20).
ZOVWZHUKOV[LSZ;OPZNLULYH[LZHSV[VMLTWSV`TLU[0U[OLJHZL
Discuss briefly its role in
VM4V\U[=LZ\]P\ZULHYI`SVJH[PVUZZ\JOHZ7VTWLPPKLZ[YV`LK
generating tourism.
PU (+I`[OL]PVSLU[LY\W[PVUVM=LZ\]P\ZHSZVH[[YHJ[[V\YPZ[Z

Fig 3.20 Mount Vesuvius Fig 3.21 The Pompeii forums and the Vesuvius Fig 3.22 Pompeii. The remains of original
volcano inhabitants after the volcanic eruption

@LSSV^Z[VUL5H[PVUHS7HYR^OLYL[OL.L`ZLY6SK-HP[OM\SLY\W[ZL]LY`OV\Y
PZHSZV]LY`WVW\SHY^P[O[V\YPZ[Z

Geothermal energy
.LV[OLYTHSLULYN`PZYLZWVUZPISLMVYWYV]PKPUNHWWYV_PTH[LS`WLYJLU[
VMOVTLZPU0JLSHUK^P[O[OLPYLSLJ[YPJP[`,ULYN`PZOHYULZZLKPUHYLHZ^OLYL
^H[LYPZZ\WLYOLH[LK[V[LTWLYH[\YLZVM[LUV]LY‡*K\L[VYVJRZILPUN
OLH[LKILSV^[OLT;OL^H[LYKVLZUV[L]HWVYH[LI\[PUZ[LHK[OLZ[LHT
HUKOV[^H[LYHYLW\ZOLK[V[OLZ\YMHJL^OLYL[\YIPULZOHYULZZ[OLLULYN`
WYVK\JLK;OPZLULYN`PZ[OLU[\YULKPU[VLSLJ[YPJP[`HZPZKVULPU0JLSHUK
29
Core Patterns and Processes in the Physical Environment

Creation of new land

=VSJHUVLZJHUJYLH[LUL^SHUKMVYO\THUOHIP[H[PVUMVYL_HTWSL
0JLSHUK

Building materials
.YHUP[L^OPJOPZ\ZLKPU[OLJVUZ[Y\J[PVUPUK\Z[Y`PZMVYTLKI`
]VSJHUPJHJ[P]P[`

Negative effects of volcanic activity

Lahars
3HOHYZHYLMVYTLK^OLYLPJLHUKZUV^VU[VWVMH]VSJHUPJJVUL
TLS[^OLUHULY\W[PVUVJJ\YZ;OLZLSHOHYZJYLH[LT\KÅV^Z^OPJO
JHU[YH]LSKV^U[OLZSVWLZVM[OL]VSJHUPJJVULPU[V[OLZ\YYV\UKPUN
YLNPVU;OPZJHUOH]LKL]HZ[H[PUNLMMLJ[ZMVY[V^UZHUK]PSSHNLZ
4V\U[7PUH[\IVPU[OL7OPSPWWPULZL_WSVKLKPU ;OLLY\W[PVU Fig 3.23 A geyser in Iceland
YLZ\S[LKPU]VSJHUPJHZOHUKYVJRMYHNTLU[ZILPUNKLWVZP[LKVU
[OL]VSJHUV»ZZSVWLZ>P[OPUOV\YZOLH]`YHPUZILNHU[V^HZO[OPZ
TH[LYPHSKV^UPU[V[OLZ\YYV\UKPUNSV^SHUKZPUNPHU[MHZ[TV]PUN
SHOHYZ6]LY[OLUL_[MV\YYHPU`ZLHZVUZSHOHYZJHYYPLKHIV\[OHSM
VM[OLKLWVZP[ZVMM[OL]VSJHUVJH\ZPUNL]LUTVYLKLZ[Y\J[PVU

Nuée ardentes
;OLZLHYLJSV\KZVMOV[HZOHUKWVPZVUV\ZNHZLZ[OH[HYLLQLJ[LKMYVT
H]VSJHUV;OL`JYLH[L^OH[HYLZVTL[PTLZJHSSLKNSV^PUNH]HSHUJOLZ
;OLZLJSV\KZ[YH]LSKV^U[OL]VSJHUPJJVULZPKLZH[O\NLZWLLKZVM\W
[VRTWLYOV\YHUKJHU[YH]LSNYLH[KPZ[HUJLZ

Fig 3.24 A lahar Fig 3.25 A nuée ardente

Loss of life
;OLLY\W[PVUVM4V\U[=LZ\]P\ZPU (+JH\ZLKKLH[OHUKKLZ[Y\J[PVU4VYL[OHU
WLVWSLKPLKHUK[OL[V^UZVM7VTWLPPHUK/LYJ\SHUL\T^LYLKLZ[YV`LK

Damage to property
3H]HJHUHSZVI\YUL]LY`[OPUNPUP[ZWH[O

30
 The Geography of Volcanoes Chapter 3

Effect on the environment

*SV\KZVMHZOK\Z[HUKNHZTH`YLK\JLNSVIHS
? QUICK QUESTIONS
1. Explain the following terms:
[LTWLYH[\YLZI`ZL]LYHSKLNYLLZ;OPZVJJ\YYLK (a) Lahars
PU^OLU[OLLY\W[PVUVM;HTIVYHULHY
(b) Nuées ardentes
0UKVULZPHJH\ZLKNSVIHSZ\TTLY[LTWLYH[\YLZ[V
2. Explain what geothermal energy is.
KYVWI`[V‡*;OLLTPZZPVUVMZ\SM\YKPV_PKL
PU[V[OLH[TVZWOLYLTH`SLHK[VHJPKYHPU6[OLY 3. Where is geothermal energy widely used?
[V_PJWVPZVUV\ZNHZLZZ\JOHZJHYIVUTVUV_PKL 4. List four negative effects of volcanic activity.
HUKZ\SM\YJHUHSZVILOHYTM\S[VO\THUZ0U 5. Give an example of volcanic activity that has
HKKP[PVUW`YVJSHZ[PJTH[LYPHSLQLJ[LKMYVTH had negative effects on a local population.
]VSJHUVJHUKHTHNL[OLLU]PYVUTLU[-VYL_HTWSL 
PM*6PZLTP[[LKMYVTH]VSJHUVP[HKKZ[V[OL
UH[\YHSNYLLUOV\ZLLMMLJ[:\SM\Y+PV_PKLJH\ZLZ
LU]PYVUTLU[HSWYVISLTZILJH\ZLP[PZJVU]LY[LK
[V:\SM\YPJ(JPKPU[OLZ[YH[VZWOLYL;OPZPZHTHQVY
JH\ZLVMHJPKYHPU;OL 4V\U[7PUH[\IV
LY\W[PVUPU;OL7OPSPWWPULZJH\ZLKZ\IZ[HU[PHS Fig 3.26 The effect of volcanic dust in the atmosphere following the
LU]PYVUTLU[HSKHTHNL eruption of Mount St Helens

Mount St Helens

CASE STUDY 3.1

Fig 3.27 Mount St Helens

On the morning of 18 May, 1980 at 8.32 am, an

earthquake measuring 5.1 on the Richter scale
occurred directly below the northern slope of
Mount St Helens. This triggered a landslide, the
largest in recorded history. It travelled at speeds
of 175 to 250 km per hour. Most of Mount St
Helens’ north side turned to rubble. Thousands of
trees were destroyed and the water of Spirit lake
was temporarily displaced by this landslide.
The eruption of Mount St Helens could be heard 1120 km away.
The magma was exposed to lower pressure and this lead to
molten rock and steam exploding just a few moments after the
! NOTE
The eruption of Eyjafjallajökull in April
landslide started.
2010 in Iceland caused enormous
The blasting of rock debris and the pyroclastic flow of extremely disruption to air travel for a period
hot volcanic gases, ash and rocks overtook the initial landslide. of 6 days. This is the greatest level of
Approximately 600 km2 of forest was knocked down and other air travel disruptions experienced in
parts of the forest were destroyed by the extreme heat. Europe since World War II.
The heart of the mountain had blasted upwards and gigantic
clouds of ash hovered some 25 km above it. Fifty-seven people
were killed. The Washington State Department of Game estimated that ?
QUICK QUESTIONS

approximately 7000 deer, elk and bears died, as well as birds and other Discuss briefly how this eruption
small mammals. Frogs, crawfish and burrowing rodents survived because could have a negative effect on
the environment.
they were either below ground level or under the surface of the water
when the volcanic eruption occurred. The Washington Department of
Fisheries estimated that 12 million salmon were killed and approximately 40,000 young salmon destroyed.
The elevation of the summit before the eruption was 2950 m. This was reduced by 401 m to its
post-eruption elevation of 2549 m.

31
 Questions
Ordinary Level Short Questions
|
Higher Level Short Questions
|

Height of volcanoes
Volcanoes
1. Examine the diagram of a volcano shown 3. The table below shows the height of some
below. well-known volcanoes around the world.
Name and location Height in metres
Vesuvius – Italy 1281
Krakatoa – Indonesia 813
Fuji – Japan 3776
Rainier – USA 4392
St Helens – USA 2549
Stromboli – Italy 924
Use graph paper to draw a graph that shows
the data in the table above.
2007, Part 2, Q3A, 30 marks

The marking scheme for a question like this on

Use the following terms to identify the blanks a Higher Level paper is as follows:
on the diagram. Vertical axis labelled – circle 3 marks
zVent zCrater Horizontal axis labelled – centred 3 marks
zSecondary cone zMagma chamber Six items @ 4 marks each 24 marks
Total 30 marks
zAsh cloud
2008, Part 1, Q6, 10 marks

Higher Level Long Questions

|

Ordinary Level Long Questions

|

Volcanoes Satellite images – volcano

2. Volcanoes can have both negative and
positive effects on the landscape and
on people. Explain one negative and
one positive effect of volcanoes.
2009, Part 2, Q1C, 40 marks
4. Name an example of a volcano which you
have studied. State two advantages and one
disadvantage for people living in a volcanic
region.
2007, Part 2, Q3A, 20 marks

The marking scheme for a question like this on

Ì EXAM HINTS
Remember to read the question carefully. You
an Ordinary Level paper is as follows:
Positive effect 2 marks need to include two advantages in your answer.
Explaining the effect: 6 SRPs @ 3 marks each 18 marks
Negative effect 2 marks Volcanoes
Explaining the effect: 6 SRPs @ 3 marks each 18 marks 5. Examine the processes that have led to the
Total 40 marks formation of any two volcanic landforms.
2006, Part 2, Q3C, 30 marks

Ì EXAM HINTS
You will be awarded marks for using graph paper
for any question that requires you to draw a graph.

32
 The Geography of Volcanoes Chapter 3
M IN D M A P

z Central vent eruptions: destructive plate boundaries

Volcanic activity occurs at:
z Constructive plate boundaries
zcone-shaped volcano
z Fissure eruptions:
z Destructive plate boundaries
z Hotspots
zConstructive plate boundaries
zBasic lava flows out onto surface by means of fissure
Categories of volcano:
z Active: erupts regularly e.g. Mt Etna, Italy
zMay build up to form basalt plateau – Antrim-Derry
z Dormant: has not erupted for a long time,
Plateau
zFlat landscape – Antrim-Derry Plateau
e.g. Cotopaxi, Peru
z Hot spots: unusually warm areas of magma found
z Extinct: has not erupted in recorded history,
beneath the Earth’s surface, within the mantle
e.g. Slemish Mountain, Co. Antrim.
z Hydrothermal areas:

zGeysers, e.g. Old Faithful Yellow Stone National Park,

USA
Instruments used: zHot springs, e.g. Iceland
z Tiltmeters: identify zBlack smokers, found at mid-ocean ridges, hot water
bulging on side of (700 ºC+) rises but through vent on ocean floor
volcano
z Seismograph: measures
earthquake activity Batholiths – intrusive structure:
z Leinster Batholith

zMagma forced into crust, then cools and solidifies

Other intrusive to form an intrusive rock, e.g. granite
features: zFormation of Wicklow and Dublin Mountains
z Sills zBatholiths usually surrounded by metamorphic rock
z Dykes
z Laccolith
z Lopolith
Mount St Helens 18 May, 1980 eruption

Extrusive structures, e.g. z Intrusive structures form when magma

volcanoes – vary in shape:
hape: doesn’t reach the surface – forms
z Shield volcano
intrusive rock, e.g. granite (plutonic/
z Volcanic dome
intrusive rocks)
z Composite volcano
z Extrusive structures form on the surface

Volcanic
z Cinder volcano
of the earth – form extrusive rocks

activity
Volcanic activity prediction
based on geologists’ study of:
z Volcano formation
z Type of deposits
z Date of deposits
z Patterns of events
z Locations of volcanic eruptions
z Gases and temperatures and

Volcanic materials ejected during eruption: steam

z Volcanic ash
z Rock particles
z Dust
Effects of volcanic activity:
z Gases
z Two types of lava: Negative Positive
zacidic lava: high silica content 1. Lahars 1. Fertile soils
zbasic lava: low silica content 2. Damage to property 2. Tourism
z Three types of lava flow: 3. Nuée ardentes 3. Geothermal energy
zPahoehoe lava 4. Loss of life 4. Creation of new land
zAa lava 5. Destruction by fire 5. Building materials
zPillow lava 6. Effect on environment

33