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Abstract
The effects of oral motor exercises (OMEs) on diadochokinetic (DDK) rates were
investigated. The participants consisted of 18 female students majoring in
Communicative Sciences and Disorders. Participants were randomly selected to engage
in the tongue press or blowing task. The DDK rates were measured before and after
implementation of the OMEs. The researchers hypothesized that there will be no
differences in the DDK rates before and after implementing the OMEs. The results from
the blowing task revealed that 44% of the participant’s DDK rates increased, whereas the
tongue press revealed that 67% of the participant’s DDK rates increased. There was no
significant difference in the DDK rates before and after the implementation of OMEs.
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Table of Contents
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Chapter One
Introduction
tools are used to assess current level of functioning and to determine which treatment
option best serves the problem. Diadochokinetic (DDK) rates are a technique that speech-
language pathologist (SLP) use in screenings. The major areas of emphasis in DDK rates
are tongue and lips. The lips and tongue play the most important role in articulation. Oral
motor exercises (OMEs) are used as assessment and treatment tools. OMEs and DDK are
separate entities, but the relationship between the two should be explored. In order to
explore this new concept, previous literature will be reviewed. Initially, OMEs and DDK
rates will be explained. Next, deficiencies within previous research will be examined.
Lastly, based on the findings from previous literature, practical implications will be made
Oral motor exercises (OMEs), also referred to as non-speech oral motor exercises
(NSOMEs), are movements of the articulatory structures that are used to strengthen the
structures. OMEs provide information about the strength of the articulatory structures
needed to produce specific speech sounds. OMEs can be defined as “repetitive drills that
rely on conditioning the muscles of the mouth and face” (Marshalla, 1999 as cited in
Cascella & Guisti Braislin, 2008). Oral movements of the jaw, tongue, and lip muscles
are used to stretch and strengthen the oral structures and improve intelligibility. Some
common technique are pursing lips, elevating the tongue, and blowing. They are often
used as treatment options. In the study conducted by Cascella and Guisti Braislin (2008),
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an oral motor therapy approach was used for children with mild articulation disorders.
The oral motor procedure implemented was Easy Does it for Articulation: An Oral
Motor Approach and was assessed over a seven week time period. Some techniques used
were pucker resistance, tongue tip elevation, tongue lateralization, and jaw resistance.
The results showed that the number of errors decreased after the use of oral motor
Diadochokinetic rates
An important part in the screening and assessment of oral motor skills is the
collection of diadochokinetic rates (DDK). DDK rates are an assessment tool used to
pathologists (SLPs) to identify how the articulators move in sequence to produce target
sounds, to detect abnormality, and to classify disorders (Gadesmann & Miller 2008).
DDK performance is broken down into three categories that include rate, accuracy, and
sequencing and consistency. Rate can be measured by counting the number of syllable
determined by whether the patient maintains order of speech sounds within context
DDK rates can also be used to determine the prognosis in individuals with speech
related to the severity of the head trauma. Patients with severe the head trauma, produced
slower DDK abilities. Based on this information, researchers concluded that DDK rates
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can assist in rating the severity of dysarthria and provide some insight to prognosis
(Ergun & Oder, 2008). If prognosis is known then clinical decisions about assessment
communicative sciences and disorders. Systematic research allows the determination for
clinical diagnosis and treatment. EBP is the use of evidence to determine an appropriate
Oral motor exercises have been used in evidence-based practice to effectively treat
communicative disorders.
A few types of oral motor exercises with regards to the tongue have been found to
support the improvement of oral functioning and speech production within evidence-
based practice. For example, Molfenter, Steele, and Yeates (2008) examined the use of
lingual isometric strengthening exercises and tongue pressure accuracy tasks with
individuals from 50-72 years old. These individuals suffered from dysphagia as a
Researchers found that an increase in isometric tongue strength and tongue pressure
generation accuracy significantly improved the oral phase of swallowing. With the use of
videofluoroscopy, the individuals were found to have better bolus control. Calleja, Clark,
Corrie, and O’Brien (2009) analyzed the effects of lingual strengthening exercises on 39
healthy adults over a 9 week period of time. Their findings replicated previous studies
that demonstrated an increase in lingual strength and ability. They also confirmed that
after discontinuing the variety of exercise protocols, detraining effects were observed.
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support or refute the effects that OMEs have on speech (Frymark, Lof, McCauley,
Schooling, & Strand, 2009). Few articles have been published regarding the efficacy of
non speech oral motor activities and its effect on the improvement of speech production.
The articles that have been published in this area tend to focus on the effectiveness of
OMEs and additional treatment approaches. However, there are some findings that OMEs
are effective in improving speech production. A major dilemma in this topic of interest is
variability. Research that has been examined shows a wide range in age within the
infants to the elderly population. Lack of sufficient evidence is found within participants
with a wide range and variety of medical diagnoses and disorders, and the types of the
OMEs used. All of these factors cause the potential for subjective bias. Integrity of a
clinician is also an important principle; reliability and non experimental approaches may
conclude to false positive results and insufficient evidence (Frymark, Lof, McCauley,
Research has also been found that SLPs disregard evidence-based practice
even when statistics show OMEs to be beneficial to their clients. Lof & Watson (2008)
examined the number of SLPs who used non speech oral motor exercises with children
who displayed speech sound problems. SLPs that were certified by the American
that 85% of the participants had implemented the use of non-speech oral motor exercises
(NSOMEs) into their treatment plans for at least one of their clients. Of the 85% of the
SLPs that implemented the use of NSOMEs, 92.7% had clients that benefited from this
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technique. However, 68% of those SLPs used NSOMEs as a last resort because other
techniques were not successful. Lof and Watson concluded that SLPs were going against
In a study conducted by Gadesmann and Miller (2008), the reliability of the DDK
rating system was examined. Their results found that the SLPs and the untrained
participants both measured abnormally low on the ability to rate diadochokinesis; the
SLPs’ reliability rate was lower than what is considered acceptable for clinical diagnosis
and assessment. The researchers concluded that the SLPs’ experience did not greatly
impact the results as expected. Experience should have been a factor in accurately
Conclusion
Despite previous findings, research has also been found that refutes the
relationship between OMEs and oral functioning and speech production. Ruscello (2008)
examined the effects of non speech oral motor treatments (NSOMTs) with children that
nonspeech methods and procedures that claim to influence tongue, lip, and jawresting
postures; increase strength; improvemuscle tone; facilitate range of motion; and develop
muscle control” (Ruscello, 2008, p.380). The use of NSOMTs were found to be
questionable because of the etiology of the disorder, the neurophysiologic variation of the
limbs and oral musculature, the advances in the theories of movement and movement
control, and the lack of research relating to NSOMTs. This study found no sufficient
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evidence to support the use of OMEs as an appropriate method for children that presented
OMEs comprise the potential to strengthen and stretch the oral motor structures
used for articulating. However, unless these exercises are implemented appropriately
within EBP, they are not considered effective for improving oral motor skills and speech
with the disorders in which oral motor exercises (OMEs) and non-speech oral motor
the SLP would be going against EBP due to misuse of a treatment method for the
corresponding target objective. Much like OMEs, the reliability of DDK rates is also
questionable. The lack of experience required to accurately measure the results of the
DDK rating system is a apparent realization that the results and reliability can be flawed.
Research shows there is not enough evidence to refute or support the use of
OMEs. There are numerous factors that may be substantial in examining the efficacy of
OMEs and the improvement of speech production for the future. “Only by growing the
research evidence base can clinicians continue to improve their ability to make sound
clinical decisions” (Frymark, Lof, McCauley, Schooling, & Strand, 2009, p.356). With
adequate descriptions of the participants and interventions and the use of single-subject
outside of treatment and the incorporation of validity and reliability can also enhance
The reliability and consistency of OMEs and DDK rates are clearly faulted due to
violations of EBP, and lack of experience and knowledge. Although these two variables
have been researched independently, the relationship between OMEs and DDK rates has
not been explored. Thus, the aim of the current study is to identify which OMEs best
improve DDK rates. The null hypothesis for this study is that there will be no difference
Rationale
conducted in the current study will provide valid explanations to discern the relationship
between OMEs and DDK rates. The results and conclusions obtained from this research
study can be used to assist with the treatment of clients who display symptoms of
Chapter Two
Design
Variables
The dependent variables are the diadochokinetic rates. Diadochokinetic rates are
an assessment tool used to measure the rate and accuracy of oral motor movements. The
articulated over a five second time period. The independent variables are oral motor
exercises, the tongue press and blowing. The tongue press is a type of oral motor exercise
that strengthens one’s tongue muscles by pushing against an immovable force. Blowing
is a type of exercise that strengthens one’s lip muscles. To blow, one must fill their
cheeks with air, purse their lips, and release a sudden burst of exhalation.
Research Design
The current study will follow the A-B-A design. This design can be described as
factorial because it measures the effects two independent variables have on the dependent
variable. More specifically, this research design signifies that a pretest will be
During the last stage, the posttest is administered to measure the effectiveness of the
treatment. This study is considered a qualitative design because there is little information
known about the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. The
controlled.
Methods
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Participants
between the ages of 19 and 35. Participants with a history of hearing, speech, fluency, or
oral motor problems were excluded. A consent form was dispersed to each participant
Materials
Materials needed for this experiment included 2 sheets of paper, 1 baseball cap, 1
stop watch or timer, 20 tongue depressors, 1 ruler, tape, 20 straws, and 1 cotton ball.
Procedure
and the number 1 was placed on 10 segments of paper and the number 2 on the other 10.
The 20 pieces of paper were then placed in a baseball cap. Each participant reached into
the baseball cap to determine which oral motor exercise they were to perform. A ruler
was used to measure out 3 ft. on a table, and a piece of tape was placed to show the mark.
between the participants, group 1 was assigned the tongue press and group 2 was
assigned a blowing task. These exercises were chosen because they were most cost
effective and explored two different oral structures. To begin, the researchers collected
pre-experimental diadochokinetic (DDK) rates from each participant. DDK rates were
over a five second interval. Participants in group number 1 articulated /t ۸/ repetitions for
five seconds, while the remaining participants in group 2 articulated /p ۸/ repetitions for
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five seconds. After these measurements were collected for pretest results, the members in
Group 1 were provided information about the tongue press exercise. The tongue press is a
immovable force. Group 1 stuck out their tongues and pressed against the tongue
depressor for 5 seconds. This task was repeated 4 additional times with 2 second rests
between repetitions. Immediately after the last repetition, DDK rates were collected by
having the participants articulate /t ۸/ repetitions for five seconds. The members in Group
2 were provided information about the blowing task. Blowing is a type of exercise that
strengthens one’s lip muscles. For this exercise, each participant was given a straw and
instructed to blow a cotton ball to or past the 3 ft. mark. DDK rates were collected
immediately after blowing the cotton ball 3ft. by having the participants articulate /p ۸/
repetitions for five seconds. Analysis was conducted to compare which oral motor
Chapter Three
Results
The current study tested the null hypothesis that there will be no difference in the
DDK rates before and after implementing the oral motor exercises (OMEs). Data was
diadochokinetic (DDK) rates from each participant. DDK rates were measured by counting the
Participants in group number 1 articulated /t ۸/ repetitions for five seconds, while the
remaining participants in group 2 articulated /p ۸/ repetitions for five seconds. After these
measurements were collected for pretest results, the members in Group 1 were provided
information about the tongue press exercise. The tongue press is a type of exercise which
strengthens your tongue muscles by pushing against an immovable force. Group 1 stuck out
their tongues and pressed against the tongue depressor for 5 seconds. This task was repeated 4
additional times with 2 second rests between repetitions. Immediately after the last repetition,
DDK rates were collected by having the participants articulate /t ۸/ repetitions for five
seconds. The members in Group 2 were provided information about the blowing task. Blowing
is a type of exercise that strengthens one’s lip muscles. For this exercise, each participant was
given a straw and instructed to blow a cotton ball to or past the 3 ft. mark. DDK rates were
collected immediately after blowing the cotton ball 3ft. by having the participants
articulate /p ۸/ repetitions for five seconds. Analysis was conducted to compare which oral
Tables 1 and 2 present the raw data for each independent variable
In Table 1, it can be seen that the results varied depending on the participant. The results
from the blowing task revealed that 4 out of 9 (44%) participants’ diadochokinetic (DDK) rates
increased after implementation of the oral motor exercise. However, the remaining 5 (56%)
participant’s DDK rates decreased after implementation of the oral motor exercise. In
comparison to Table 1, the results also varied for Table 2. It was revealed that 6 out of 9 (67%)
participants’ DDK rates increased after implementation of the tongue press. Conversely, the
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remaining 3 (33%) participant’s DDK rates decreased after implementation of the oral motor
exercise. Figure 1 and Figure 2 illustrate the raw data for the independent variables.
40
DDK Rates
30
Before
20
After
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Participants
40
DDK Rates
30
Before
20
After
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Participants
The data was analyzed using descriptive statistics. The results of the statistics follow.
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Before After
28.888888 28.222222
Mean 89 Mean 22
0.8240220 1.4792807
Standard Error 54 Standard Error 73
Median 29 Median 27
Mode 29 Mode 27
Standard 2.4720661 Standard 4.4378423
Deviation 62 Deviation 19
Sample 6.1111111 Sample 19.694444
Variance 11 Variance 44
4.4861865 0.4801647
Kurtosis 41 Kurtosis 85
- -
1.87970 0.25584
Skewness 424 Skewness 5497
Range 8 Range 15
Minimum 23 Minimum 20
Maximum 31 Maximum 35
Sum 260 Sum 254
Count 9 Count 9
In Table 3, the data obtained before and after the administration of the blowing task was
analyzed using descriptive statistics. Before the oral motor exercise was administered, results
yielded a mean of 28.89, a median of 29, a mode of 29, the standard deviation of 2.47, and a
range of 8. Findings revealed the kurtosis to be 4.49, which indicated significant distribution (flat
kurtosis) between the scores. The skewness was -1.88, which revealed that a significant amount
of scores were clustered toward the maximum range. After the oral motor exercise was
administered, results yielded a mean of 28.22, a median of 27, a mode of 27, the standard
deviations of 4.44, and a range of 15. Findings revealed the kurtosis to 0.48, which indicated a
normal distribution of the scores. The skewness was -0.26, which revealed that a significant
Before After
28.333333 30.555555
Mean 33 Mean 56
1.1180339 0.6478835
Standard Error 89 Standard Error 44
Median 27 Median 30
Mode 27 Mode 30
Standard 3.3541019 Standard 1.9436506
Deviation 66 Deviation 32
Sample Sample 3.7777777
Variance 11.25 Variance 78
- -
1.57601 0.23412
Kurtosis 4109 Kurtosis 0119
0.6757894 0.6804098
Skewness 33 Skewness 28
Range 8 Range 6
Minimum 25 Minimum 28
Maximum 33 Maximum 34
Sum 255 Sum 275
Count 9 Count 9
In Table 4, the data obtained before and after the administration of the tongue press was
analyzed using descriptive statistics. Before the oral motor exercise was administered, results
yielded a mean of 28.33, a median of 27, a mode of 27, the standard deviation of 3.35, and a
range of 8. Findings revealed the kurtosis to be -1.58, which indicated that the distribution was
within normal limits. The skewness was 0.68, which revealed that a significant amount of scores
were clustered toward the minimum range. After the oral motor exercise was administered,
results yielded a mean of 30.56, a median of 30, a mode of 30, the standard deviations of 1.94,
and a range of 6. Findings revealed the kurtosis to -0.23, which indicated that the distribution
was within normal limits. The skewness was 0.68, which revealed that a significant amount of
The data was analyzed using inferential statistics. The results of the statistics follow.
SUMMARY
Groups Count Sum Average Variance
DDK Rates Before Blowing 9 260 28.88888889 6.111111111
DDK Rates After Blowing 9 254 28.22222222 19.69444444
DDK Rates Before Tongue Press 9 255 28.33333333 11.25
DDK Rates After Tongue Press 9 275 30.55555556 3.777777778
ANOVA
Source of Variation SS df MS F P-value F crit
Between Groups 31.33333333 3 10.44444444 1.023129252 0.395367297 2.901119588
Within Groups 326.6666667 32 10.20833333
Total 358 35
The inferential analysis of the data revealed a degree of freedom (df) of 3, an F-value
of 1.02, a P-value of 0.4, and a F-critical of 2.9. According to the F-value and P-value, the
conclusion, there was no difference in the DDK rates before and after the implementation of
the OMEs.
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Chapter Four
Discussion
In the current study, findings do not support that oral motor exercises (OMEs) improve
diadochokinetic (DDK) rates. The results do not contain enough variation to contribute to the
independent variable, OMEs. The findings, the possible reasons for the results obtained, and the
Regarding the blowing task, 4 out of the 9 participant’s DDK rates increased, and the
remaining 5 DDK rates decreased. For the tongue press, 6 out of the 9 participant’s DDK rates
increased, and the remaining 3 DDK rates decreased. Although differences were evident in the
raw data, they were not significant enough to contribute to the OMEs.
The findings support the previous literature (Frymark et al., 2009; Gadesmann & Miller,
2008; Lof & Watson, 2008; Ruscello, 2008) that indicates that OMEs do not improve speech.
However, other literature (Molfenter et al., 2008; Calleja et al., 2009) found OMEs to be
References
Ergun, A. & Oder, W. (2008). Oral diadochokinesis and velocity of narrative speech: A
prognostic parameter for the outcome of diffuse axonal injury in severe head
trauma. Brain Injury, 22, 773-779.
Calleja, A., Clark, H.M., Corrie, S.N., & O’Brien, K. (2009). Effects of directional exercise
on lingual strength. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 52, 1034-1047.
Cascella, P.W. & Guisti Braislin, M.A. (2005). A preliminary investigation of the efficacy of
oral motor exercises for children with mild articulation disorders. International Journal
of Rehabilitation Research, 28, 263-266.
Fletcher, S.G. (1972). Time-by-Count Measurement of Diadochokinetic Syllable Rate. Journal
of Speech and Hearing Research, 15, 763-770.
Frymark, T., Lof, G.L., McCauley, R.J., Schooling, T., & Strand, E. (2009). Evidence-based
systematic review: effects on non speech oral motor exercises on speech. American
Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 18, 343-360.
Gradesmann, M., & Miller, N. (2008). Reliability of speech diadochokinetic test measurement.
International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 43(1), 41-54.
Lof, G., & Watson, M. (2008). A nationwide survey of non speech oral motor exercise
use: Implications for evidence-based practice. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services
in Schools, 39, 392-407.
Molfenter, S.M., Steele, C.M., & Yeates, E.M. (2008). Improvements in tongue strength and
pressure-generation precision following a tongue-pressure training protocol in older
individuals with dysphagia: three case reports. Clinical Interventions in Aging, 3(4), 735-
747
Ruscello, D.M. (2008). Non speech oral motor treatment issues related to children with
developmental speech sound disorders. Language, Speech, Hearing Services in
Schools, 39, 380-391.
Appendix A
CONSENT FORM
To participants:
You will be participating in a research study that examines how tongue and lip exercises affect
how well you can produce sounds. This study will take about 15 minutes of your time. 16 participants are
needed to conduct this experiment. You will be divided into two groups based on drawing a number, 1 or
2, from a hat. You will also be given a number from 1-16 for identification purposes; therefore, no
personal information will be collected. After you are in your respective group, a researcher will ask you to
produce a specific sound, which will be modeled for you first. This task will not cause you any pain or
discomfort. After each person has completed this task, you will take part in the experimental portion of
the study.
If you are in Group 1 you will be asked to perform a tongue press exercise. The tongue press is a
type of exercise which strengthens your tongue muscles by pushing against an immovable force. If you
are in Group 2, you will be asked to perform a blowing task. Blowing is a type of exercise that
strengthens your lip muscles. After you have completed one of these tasks, a researcher will ask you to
produce a specific sound again, which will be modeled for you first. These tasks will cause minimal or no
discomfort.
Your participation is voluntary; refusal will involve no penalty or loss of benefits to which you
are otherwise entitled. You may discontinue at any time without penalty or loss of benefits to which you
are otherwise entitled. This study will not put you at any risk or to your embryo or fetus if you were to
become pregnant. Your participation may be terminated by the researcher without the regard to your
consent. If you are terminated from the study, the researcher will inform and explain why. The cost to you
is $0.00. You will not receive any compensation for your participation in this study. You will be
informed of any significant findings that are discovered within this study. You have the right to obtain a
copy of the consent form. This consent form is only valid if it has been signed by the chair of the
Hampton University IRB. You have the right to contact Dr. Robert Forbes, the chairperson of the IRB, at
(757) 727-5419 with any questions pertaining to this study, as well as your rights.
_______________________________ ______________________________
(Participant’s Name Printed) (Participant’s Signature & Date)
_______________________________ ______________________________
(Chairperson’s Name Printed) (Chairperson’s Signature)
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Appendix B
Data Collection
Diadochokinetic (DDK) rates can be referred to as “an assessment tool, used by speech-
language pathologists (SLPs), that measures how quickly an individual can accurately produce a
series of rapid, alternating sounds” (Fletcher, 1972).
Instruments
The instruments used in this study included SuperDuper tongue depressors, straws, cotton
balls, tape measurer, tape, RCA audio recorder (Model Number VR5220-A), stopwatch from a
Samsung Behold cellular device, 18 sheets of paper, and two highlighters.
Scoring Procedure
DDK rates were measured by a trained researcher by counting the frequency of syllable
repetitions (consonant-vowel) articulated. The Samsung Behold stopwatch was used to
accurately calculate each five second interval. The trained researcher would tally the number of
repetitions by using a highlighter to mark a sheet of paper with a tally mark. The RCA audio
recorder was used to ensure intrajudge reliability.