Technical Information
properties of Extension of
Steel Wire Ropes
Any assembly of steel wires spun into a helical formation, either
as a strand or wire rope, when subjected to a tensile load, can
extend in three separate phases, depending on the magnitude
of the applied load.
There are also other factors that produce rope extension that
are very small and can normally be ignored.
phase 1 — Initial or permanent
Constructional Extension
At the commencement of loading a new rope, extension is
created by the bedding down of the assembled wires with a
corresponding reduction in overall diameter. This reduction in
diameter is accommodated by a lengthening of the helical lay.
When sufficiently large bearing areas have been generated on
adjacent wires to withstand the circumferential compressive
loads, this mechanically created extension ceases and the
extension in Phase 2 commences. The initial extension of any
rope cannot be accurately determined by calculation and has
no elastic properties.
The practical value of this characteristic depends upon many
factors, the most important being the type and construction
of rope, the range of loads and the number and frequency of
the cycles of operation. It is not possible to quote exact values
for the various constructions of rope in use, but the following
approximate values may be employed to give reasonably
accurate results.
% of Rope Length
Fiber Core SteelCore
Lightly loaded Factor of Safety about 8:1 0.25 0.125
Normally loaded Factor of Safety
0.50 0.25
about 5:1
Heavily loaded Factor of Safety about 3:1 0.75 0.50
Heavily loaded with many bends
Up to 2.00 Up to 1.00
and/or deflections
The above figures are for guidance purposes. More precise
figures are available upon request.
phase 2 — Elastic Extension
Following Phase 1, the rope extends in a manner which
complies approximately with Hookes Law (stress is proportional
to strain) until the limit of proportionality or elastic limit
is reached.
40 BRIDON North American Catalog
It is important to note that wire ropes do not possess a Young’s
Modulus of Elasticity, but an "apparent" Modulus of Elasticity
can be determined between two fixed loads.
The Modulus of Elasticity also varies with different rope
constructions, but generally increases as the cross-sectional area
of steel increases. By using the values given, it is possible to make
a reasonable estimate of elastic extension, but if greater accuracy
is required, it is advisable to carry out a modulus test on an actual
sample of the rope. As rope users will find it difficult to calculate the
actual metallic steel area, the values can be found in the Wire Rope
Users Manual or obtained from Bridon Engineering.
Elastic Extension = WL (inches)
EA
W = load applied (pounds)
L = rope length (inches)
E = elastic modulus (pounds/in2)
A = rope area (in2)
phase 3 — permanent Extension
The permanent, non-elastic extension of the steel is caused by
tensile loads exceeding the yield point of the material.
If the load exceeds the limit of proportionality, the rate of extension
will accelerate as the load is increased, until a loading is reached at
which continuous extension will commence, causing the wire rope
to fracture without any further increase of load.
Thermal Expansion and Contraction
The coefficient of linear expansion (∝) of steel wire rope is (6.94
x10-6 per °F) and therefore the change in length of 1 foot of rope
produced by a temperature change of t (°F) would be:
Change in length ∆L = ∝L. t where
∝ = coefficient of linear expansion
L = original length of rope (in)
t = temperature change (°F)
The change will be an increase in length if the temperature rises
and a decrease in length if the temperature falls.
Extension due to rotation
The elongation caused by a free rope end being allowed to rotate.
Extension due to wear
The elongation due to inter-wire wear, which reduces the cross-
sectional area of steel and produces extra constructional extension.
Example: What will be the total elongation of a 200' length of
11⁄8" diameter Blue Strand 6x41 IWRC wire rope at a tension of
20,000 Ib and with an increase in temperature of 20°F.
Permanent Constructional Extension = 0.25% of rope length = .5 = 6"
WL 20,000 x 200 x 12
Elastic Extension = = = 5.73"
EA 13,500,000 x .62
Thermal Expansion = ∆L = ∝Lo t =6.94 x 106 x 200 x 20 = .33"
Therefore total extension = 6" + 5.73" + .33" = 12.06"
pressures Between Ropes Hardness of Rope Wire
and Sheaves or Drums Rope grade Approximate Hardness
In addition to bending stresses experienced by wire ropes
Minimum Tensile Strength Brinel Rockwell 'C'
operating over sheaves or pulleys, ropes are also subjected
to radial pressure as they make contact with the sheave. EEIP 444/486 46-50
This pressure sets up shearing stresses in the wires, distorts the
rope’s structure, and affects the rate of wear of the sheave grooves. EIP 415/461 44-48
When a rope passes over a sheave, the load on the sheave IPS 388/444 42-46
bearing results from the tension in the rope and the angle of rope
contact. It is independent of the diameter of the sheave. Recommended pulley hardness: 250-300 Brinell for Mn steel or
Load on bearing = 2T sin θ equivalent alloy steel.
2

T = rope tension (pounds)

θ = angle of rope contact
Design Factor
Assuming that the rope is supported in a well-fitting groove,
(Minimum Rope Breaking Strength /
then the pressure between the rope and the groove is Maximum Load on Rope)
dependent upon the rope tension and diameter but is
independent of the arc of contact. Industry standards provide minimum design factors allowed
2T for certain rope applications. Some typical minimum design
Pressure, P = factors follow:
Dd

P = pressure (psi)
Mobile crane Hoist rope 3.5
T = rope tension (pounds)
D = diameter of sheave or drum (in) Hoist rope (rotation resistant) 5
d = diameter of rope (in) Boom hoist rope 3.5
It must be realized that this method of estimation of pressure Wire rope slings 5
assumes that the area of contact of the rope in the groove is
Tower cranes 5
on the full rope diameter, whereas in fact only the crowns of
the outer wires are actually in contact with the groove. It is Offshore pedestal cranes 5
estimated that the local pressures at these contact points may
Drill lines 3
be as high as five times those calculated.
Overhead cranes 5
If the pressure is high, the compressive strength of the material
in the groove may be insufficient to prevent excessive wear
and indentation and this in turn will damage the outer wires of
the rope and affect its working life. As with bending stresses,
stresses due to radial pressure increase as the diameter
of the sheave decreases. Although high bending stresses
generally call for the use of flexible rope constructions having
relatively small-diameter outer wires, these have less ability to
withstand heavy pressures than do the larger wires in the less
flexible constructions. If the calculated pressures are too high
for the particular material chosen for the sheaves or drums
or indentations are being experienced, consideration should
be given to an increase in sheave or drum diameter. Such a
modification would not only reduce the groove pressure, but
would also improve the fatigue life of the rope.

The pressure of the rope against the sheave also causes

distortion and flattening of the rope structure. This can be
controlled by using sheaves with the correct groove profile
which, for general purposes, suggests a recommended groove
diameter of nominal rope diameter +6%. The profile at the
bottom of the groove should be circular over an angle of
approximately 120°, and the angle of flare between the sides of
the sheave should be approximately 52°.

BRIDON North American Catalog 41

 Technical Information

Bend Fatigue Service life curve for various D:d ratios

Bend fatigue testing of ropes usually consists of cycling a length
of rope over a sheave while the rope is under a constant tension. 100
As part of its ongoing development program, Bridon has tested

Relative Rope Service Life

literally thousands of ropes in this manner over the years on its
80
own in-house design bend testing equipment.

Through this work, Bridon has been able to compare the effects 60
of rope construction, tensile strength, lay direction, sheave size,
groove profile and tensile loading on bend fatigue performance 40
under ideal operating conditions. At the same time it has been
possible to compare rope life to discard criteria (e.g., as laid
20
down in ISO 4309) with that to complete failure of the rope, i.e.,
to the point where the rope has been unable to sustain the load
any longer. As part of the exercise, it has also been possible to 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
establish the residual breaking strength of the rope at discard level
D:d ratio
of deterioration.

Effects of D:d Ratio and loading on fatigue life Oversize Tolerance

Typical example Dyform 6 Wire ropes are manufactured slightly larger than the nominal
diameter. The maximum allowable oversize tolerances provided
by industry standards are shown in the following table:
Number of bends to rope failure

Tolerance
Nominal Rope Diameter
Under Over
5% MBL

Up to 1/8" -0 +8%
10% MBL
Over 1/8” to 3/16" -0 +7%

Over 3/16” to 5/16" -0 +6%

20% MBL
Over 5/16" -0 +5%
30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16
Sheave D:d ratio

Bending Ratios D:d

What needs to be recognized, however, is that very few ropes Typical minimum bending ratios (sheave or drum dia : rope
operate under these controlled operating conditions, making it very dia) provided by some industry standards are as follows:
difficult to use this base information when attempting to predict
rope life under other conditions. Other influencing factors, such as Drum Sheave
dynamic loading, differential loads in the cycle, fleet angle, reeving
Mobile crane Load hoist 18 18
arrangement, type of spooling on the drum, change in rope
direction, sheave alignment, sheave size and groove profile, can Boom hoist 15 15
have an equally dramatic effect on rope performance.
Load block 16
However, the benefit of such testing can be particularly helpful to Tower crane Hoist 18 18
the rope manufacturer when developing new or improving
existing products. Load block 16
Rotary drilling Drill Line 20 20
If designers or operators of equipment are seeking optimum rope
performance or regard bending fatigue life as a key factor in the Offshore pedestal crane Hoist 18 18
operation of equipment, such information can be provided by
Surface mining Hoist 24 24
Bridon for guidance purposes.
Drag 22 22

42 BRIDON North American Catalog

The Use of Swivels with Wire Rope
Under certain circumstances it may be necessary to use a swivel in
a lifting system to prevent rotation of the load. This is typically done
for employee safety considerations. It is possible however, that the
use of a swivel will have an adverse affect on rope performance
and may in some cases damage the wire rope.
There are many types of accessories available that incorporate
different types and degrees of rotation preventing swivels. The
swivel may be either an independent accessory or an integral
part of a lifting device such as a crane block with a swivel hook. A
typical independent accessory is a ball bearing anti-friction swivel.
There are also headache balls with swivel hooks.
The type of swivel that causes the most concern from the
standpoint of the wire rope is the independent anti-friction
swivel that attaches directly to the rope. The purpose of using a
swivel in a lifting system is to prevent rotation of the load. This
then allows the wire rope to rotate. Excessive rope rotation can
damage a wire rope.
Group 3a and 3b
The ropes in this Group are designed with an inner rope that is laid
in the opposite direction to the outer strands to provide a medium
resistance to rotation. Ropes with medium rotation characteristics
are used with a swivel in single part reeving applications. However,
a swivel is not recommended for multiple-part hoisting applications
or in any application where the swivel is not necessary for safety
reasons. If it is necessary to use a swivel the rope must be
operating within the design factor of 5, must not be shock loaded
and must be inspected daily by a qualified person for distortion.
It should be noted that if a swivel is used in conjunction with Group
3a ropes, rope service life might be reduced due to increased
internal wear between the outer strands and the inner rope.
Group 3a - Endurance 8RR Rotation Resistant
- Endurance 19 Rotation Resistant
Group 3b - Endurance Dyform 18 Rotation Resistant

To assist in determining whether or not a swivel should be used Group 4

in the lifting system, the following recommendations should
be considered. It must also be recognized that the rotation
characteristics of different types and constructions of wire rope vary
considerably. The following types and constructions of wire rope
are grouped according to their rotation characteristics.
Group 1
Wire rope constructions having very high rotation characteristics
should not be used with a swivel under any circumstances.
These rope constructions will rotate excessively with one end free
to rotate and the rope will unlay and distort and be easily damaged
with a loss of rope breaking force.
• Blue Strand 6x19 and 6x36 Class Lang Lay
• All constructions of Triangular (flattened) Strand Lang Lay
• Endurance Dyform 8 Lang Lay
• Constructex
Wire ropes having low rotation characteristics used in either single
or multiple part reeving may be used with a swivel. The reason for
this is that the ropes will exhibit very little, if any, rotation when used
at the proper design factor. Application parameters such as a fleet
angle may induce turn into a wire rope that can be relieved by the
use of a swivel. However, if the application does not induce any
turn into the rope or if a swivel is not beneficial to the performance
of the rope the swivel may not be necessary.
• Endurance 35 LS
• Endurance Dyform34LR /PI/MAX
NOTE: W
 hen using a swivel with any wire rope, frequent inspection of
the rope is necessary. The rope should not be shock loaded or
overloaded.

Group 2
Wire rope constructions having high rotation characteristics when
used in single part reeving may require a swivel in the system
to prevent rotation in certain operating conditions. However, this
should be done only when employee safety is the issue.

These rope constructions when used in a reeving system with

one end free to rotate will have a high level of rotation. This will
cause the rope to unlay to some degree and distortion of the
rope will occur.

• Blue Strand 6x19 and 6x36 Class Regular Lay

• Endurance Dyform 6 and 8 Regular Lay

BRIDON North American Catalog 43

 Technical Information
Fleet Angle
Of all the factors that have some influence on the winding of
a rope on a smooth drum, the fleet angle, arguably, has the
greatest effect.
Fleet angle is usually defined as the included angle between
two lines, one that extends from a fixed sheave to the flange of
a drum and the other that extends from the same fixed sheave
to the drum in a line perpendicular to the axis of the drum.
(See illustration.)
Illustration of Fleet Angle
Fleet angle
Sheave
Drum
If the drum incorporates helical grooving, the helix angle of the
groove needs to be added or subtracted from the fleet angle as
described above to determine the actual fleet angle experienced
by the rope.
At the drum
When spooling rope onto a drum, it is generally recommended
that the fleet angle is limited to between 0.5° and 2.5°. If the fleet
angle is too small, i.e., less than 0.5°, the rope will tend to pile
up at the drum flange and fail to return across the drum. In this
situation, the problem may be alleviated by introducing a kicker
device or by increasing the fleet angle through the introduction
of a sheave or spooling mechanism.
If the rope is allowed to pile up, it will eventually roll away
from the flange, creating a shock load in both the rope and
the structure of the mechanism; an undesirable and unsafe
operating condition.
Excessively high fleet angles will return the rope across the
drum prematurely, creating gaps between wraps of rope close
to the flanges as well as increasing the pressure on the rope at
the crossover positions.
Even where helical grooving is provided, large fleet angles will
inevitably result in localized areas of mechanical damage as
the wires "pluck" against each other. This is often referred to as
"interference," but the amount can be reduced by selecting a
Langs lay rope if the reeving allows. The interference effect can
also be reduced by employing a Dyform rope, which offers a
much smoother exterior surface than conventional
rope constructions.
Floating sheaves or specially designed fleet angle
compensating devices may also be employed to reduce the
fleet angle effect.
44 BRIDON North American Catalog
At the sheave
Where a fleet angle exists as the rope enters a sheave, it initially makes
contact with the sheave flange. As the rope continues to pass through
the sheave, it moves down the flange until it sits in the bottom of the
groove. In doing so, even when under tension, the rope will actually roll
as well as slide. As a result of the rolling action, the rope is twisted, i.e.,
turn is induced into or out of the rope, either shortening or lengthening
the lay length of the outer layer of strands. As the fleet angle increases
so does the amount of twist.
To reduce the amount of twist to an acceptable level, the fleet angle
should be limited to 2.5° for grooved drums and 1.5° for plain drums,
and when using rotation-resistant ropes, the fleet angle should be
limited to 1.5°.
However, for some crane and hoist applications it is recognized
that for practical reasons it is not always possible to comply with
these general recommendations, in which case the rope life could
be affected.
Rope Torque
The problem of torsional instability in crane hoist ropes would not exist
if the ropes could be perfectly torque balanced under load. The torque
generated in a wire rope under load is usually directly related to the
applied load by a constant torque factor. For a given rope construction,
the torque factor can be expressed as a proportion of the rope
diameter and this has been done below.
Variation with rope construction is relatively small, and hence the
scope for dramatically changing the stability of a hoisting system
is limited. Nevertheless the choice of the correct rope can have a
deciding influence, especially in systems that are operating close to
the critical limit. It should be noted that the rope torque referred to
here is purely that due to tensile loading. No account is taken of the
possible residual torque due, for example, to rope manufacture or
installation procedures.
Torsional Stability
Torsional stability and the cabling graph (see page 46) are two
methods that can be used to determine torsional stability or the
tendency of the rope to cable. The torque factors quoted on page 47
are approximate maximum values for the particular constructions. To
calculate the torque value for a particular rope size multiply by the
nominal rope diameter. Example: for 20 mm dia. Dyform 34LR at 20%
of minimum breaking force
Torque value = torque factor x rope dia.
= 0.76% x 20 mm
= 0.152 mm
To calculate the torque generated in a particular rope when subjected
to a tensile load, multiply the load by the torque value and combine
the units.
Example: for 20 mm dia. Dyform 34LR at 6000 kgf load
Torque generated = torque value x load
= 0.152 . 6000
= 912 kgf.mm
The torsional characteristics of wire rope will have the effect of Stable condition if
causing angular displacement of a sheave block when used in
multi-fall reeving arrangements. The formula below gives a good S > 4 000 . L. Tv
approximation under such arrangements.

S2 = 4000L. Tv Angular displacement of block

sin θ
To predict the amount of angular displacement by which a
Where S is the rope spacing in mm sheave block may turn under the influence of rope torque:
L is the length of each part in the reeving sin θ = (4 000 L. Tv)
Tv is the torque value of the rope S2
θ is the angular displacement of the sheave block (for even number of falls)
When the angular displacement of the sheave block exceeds The equations assume that rope is torque-free in the no-load
90° (sin θ = 1) torsional instability results and cabling of the condition, therefore, induced torque during or immediately after
reeving will occur. Therefore the test for stability of any particular installation will adversely influence the calculated effect.
reeving can be expressed as:
The above data assumes a constant torque value which is a
S> 4 000 L. Tv valid assumption for a new rope. Wear and usage can have
a significant effect on the torque value but practical work
Where S is the rope spacing in mm shows that under such circumstances the torque value will
L is length of each part in meters diminish, thus improving the stability of the arrangement. Some
Tv is torque value in mm arrangements may be of such complexity that the evaluation
demands a computer study.
The preceding equations are all relative to a simple two part
reeving. For more complex systems a similar approach may be Examples:
used if account is taken of the different spacings of the ropes. Assuming a pedestal crane working on two falls is roped with
20 mm diameter Dyform 34LR and the bottom block carries a
Even Number of Falls sheave of 360 mm diameter with the falls parallel:

Rope Plan Effective Rope Torque value = 0.76% x 20

Spacing = 0.152 mm

If the rope is new (worst condition) and no account is taken of

block weight and friction, then angular displacement for a height
of lift of 30 meters is given by

sin θ = (4 000 . 30 . 0.152)

S=(X + Y)½
3602

= 0.141 i.e. 8° 10'

The reeving would be expected to cable at a height of lift

calculated as:

Note: For hoisting arrangements in which the rope falls are L = S2

not parallel an average rope spacing should be used. 4 000 . Tv

= 3602
Uneven Number of Falls 4 000 . 0.152

(Rope termination at bottom block) = 213 metres

Rope Plan From the crane designer’s viewpoint a safety factor against cabling
should be recognized (angular displacement limited at 30°) hence
the practical height of lift is approximately 106.5 meters.

Effective Rope Spacing and modified formula

for stable condition

Effective Rope Spacing S

BRIDON North American Catalog 45

 Technical Information

Cabling graph S is determined as follows

Field research jointly conducted by the Wire Rope Technical S = Spacing (Ft)
Board and the Power Crane and Shovel Association has
shown that cabling of the rope parts in a multiple-part reeved
hoisting arrangement is controlled by several factors. The 2 part 3 part
following calculations and graphs can be used to determine
when and if cabling will occur on multiple-part reeved
hoisting arrangements. S 2/3 of 2 part
The graph illustrates two-dimensional ratios. They are:

1. L/s = Length of fall per unit rope spacing

2. D/d = Average pitch diameter of traveling and crown block

sheave per unit rope diameter 4 part 5 part
Various constructions of rope shown on the graph indicate
the limited conditions for torsional stability with the angular 4/5 of 4 part
displacement of the hoist block to a maximum of 90°. When the
operating conditions for a particular installation give a resultant S
above the appropriate band, then cabling of the falls will most
likely occur. If the operating conditions give a resultant below
any particular band, the cabling of the falls will most likely not
occur. If the operating conditions for any particular installation
fall within the band, cabling is unpredictable.
6 part 7 part

300
6/7 of 6 part

250
S
200 Stable if below band
Unstable if above band
Uncertain if in band
L/s 150

100

50

5 10 15 20 25 30
D/d

1 Band 1 6x19 and 6x36 Class ropes, Endurance Dyform 6 and 8

2 Band 2 Endurance 8RR
3 Band 3 Endurance Dyform 18, Endurance 19
4 Band 4 Endurance Dyform 34LR, Endurance 35LS
L = length of fall (ft)
s = average rope spacing (ft)
D = average pitch diameter of point and block sheaves (in)
d = nominal rope diameter (in)

46 BRIDON North American Catalog

Summary Technical Information and Conversion Factors
(For guidance purposes only)
Bridon supplies a range of Endurance high performance steel wire ropes specifically designed and manufactured to meet the needs
of today’s cranes and the demanding applications to which they are exposed. High performance ropes are normally selected by
customers when they require the specific characteristics of improved performance, high strength, low extension, or low rotation.

Extension characteristics Rotational characteristics

Fill
Rope Construction Factor Rope modulus at 20% Initial permanent Torque factor at 20% Turn value at 20%
% of breaking force extension of breaking force of breaking force
psi % % degrees/rope lay
6 & 8 Strand High performance
Endurance Dyform 6 69.0 13,500,000 0.10 7.50 58
Endurance Dyform 8 66.2 12,600,000 0.15 8.74 91
Endurance Dyform 8PI 66.8 12,600,000 0.16 9.55 94
Rotation-Resistant
Endurance 19 61.3 10,000,000 0.24 6.60 5
Endurance Dyform 18 72.8 14,000,000 0.09 4.50 4
Endurance Dyform 18PI 71.1 14,000,000 0.11 3.80 2.6
Endurance 35ls 63.8 14,000,000 0.10 0.76 0.2
Endurance Dyform 34lr/34LRPI 77.3 14,500,000 0.05 0.76 0.2
Conventional Constructions
Blue Strand 6x36 61.7 12,600,000 0.17 7.75 56
Blue Strand 6x19 62.4 13,500,000 0.15 7.10 42

Conversion Factors S.I. units

Force Mass
1 kN = 0.101 972 Mp 1 UK tonf = 9.964.02 N 1 kg = 2.204 62 lb 1 lb = 0.453 592 kg
1N = 0.101 972 kgf 1 lbf = 4.448 22 N 1 tonne (t) = 0.984 207 UK ton 1 UK ton = 1.01605 tonnes (t)
1 kgf = 9.806 65 N 1 lbf = 0.453 592 kgf 1 kg/m = 0.671 970 lb/ft 1 lb/ft = 1.488 kg/m
1 kgf = 1 kp 1 UK tonf = 1.01605 tonne 1 kg = 1000 g 1 kip (USA) = 1000 lb
1N = 1.003 61 x 104 UK tonf 1 UK tonf = 9.964 02 kN 1 Mp = 1 x 106 g
1N = 0.2244 809 lbf 1 UK tonf = 2240 lbf
1 kgf = 2.204 62 lbf 1 short tonf Length
1t = 0.984 207 UK tonf (USA) = 2000 lbf 1m = 3.280 84 ft 1 ft = 0.304 8 m
1 kN = 0.100 361 UK tonf 1 kip (USA) = 1000 lbf 1 km = 0.621 371 miles 1 mile = 1.609 344 km
1 kip = 453.592 37 kgf
pressure/Stress Area
1 N/mm 2
= 0.101972 kgf/mm 2
1 mm 2
= 0.001 55 in 2
1 in2 = 645.16 mm2
1 kgf/mm2 = 9.806 65 N/mm2 1 m2 = 10.763 9 ft2 1 ft2 = 0.092 903 0 m2
1 N/mm 2
= 1 MPa
1 kgf/mm2 = 1 422.33 lbf/in2 1 lbf/in2 = 7.030 x 10-4 kgf/mm2 Volume
1 kgf/mm2 = 0.634 969 tonf/in2 1 tonf/in2 = 1.574.88 kgf/mm2 1 cm3 = 0.061 023 7 in3 1 in3 =16.387 1 cm3
1 N/m 2
= 1.450 38 x 10 lbf/in
-4 2
1 lbf/in 2
= 6.894.76 N/m 2
1 litre (1) = 61.025 5 in 3
1 in3
= 16.386 6 ml
1 N/m2 = 1 x 10-6N/mm2 1 tonf/in2 = 1.544 43 x 108 dyn/cm2 1 m3 = 6.102 37 x 104 in3 1 yd3 = 0.764 555 m3
1 bar = 14.503 8 lbf/in2
1 hectobar = 10 N/mm2
1 hectobar = 107 N/m2

BRIDON North American Catalog 47

 Guide to Examination

guide to Examination Some of the More Common Types of

The continued safe operation of lifting equipment, lifting Wire Fractures Can Include:
accessories (e.g., slings) and other systems employing
wire rope depends to a large extent on the operation of A Severed by
wear
B Tension C Fatigue D Corrosion
fatigue
well-programmed periodic rope examinations and the
assessment by the competent person of the fitness of the
rope for further service.

Examination and discard of ropes by the competent person

should be in accordance with the instructions given in the
original equipment manufacturer’s handbook. In addition,
account should be taken of any local or application
specific regulations.

The competent person should also be familiar, as appropriate,

with the latest versions of related ASME B30, International,
European, or National standards.

particular attention must be paid to those sections of rope

which experience has shown to be liable to deterioration.
Excessive wear, broken wires, distortions and corrosion are E Plastic wear F Martensite g Sheared end

the more common visible signs of deterioration (see below).

Note: This publication has been prepared as an aid for rope examination
and should not be regarded as a substitute for the competent person.

Wear is a normal feature of rope service and the use of the

correct rope construction ensures that it remains a secondary
aspect of deterioration. Lubrication may help to reduce wear.

Broken wires are a normal feature of rope service towards the

end of the rope’s life, resulting from bending fatigue and wear.
The local breakup of wires may indicate some mechanical fault
in the equipment. Correct lubrication in service will increase
fatigue performance.

Distortions are usually a result of mechanical damage, and if

severe, can considerably affect rope strength.
Visible rusting indicates a lack of suitable lubrication, resulting in
corrosion. Pitting of external wire surfaces becomes evident in
some circumstances. Broken wires ultimately result.
Internal corrosion occurs in some environments when
lubrication is inadequate or of an unsuitable type. Reduction
in rope diameter will frequently guide the observer to this
condition. Confirmation can only be made by opening the rope
with clamps or the correct use of spike and needle to facilitate
internal inspection.
Note: Non-destructive testing (NDT) using electromagnetic means may
also be used to detect broken wires and/or loss in metallic area. This
method complements the visual examination but does not replace it.
pictures courtesy of S.M.R.E. Crown Copyright 1966
Factors Affecting Rope performance
Multi-layers of the rope on the drum can result in severe
distortion in the underlying layers.
Bad spooling (due to excessive fleet angles or slack
winding) can result in mechanical damage, shown as severe
crushing, and may cause shock loading during operation.
Small-diameter sheaves can result in permanent set of
the rope, and will certainly lead to early wire breaks.
Oversize grooves offer insufficient support to the rope
leading to increased localized pressure, flattening of the
rope and premature wire fractures. Grooves are deemed
to be oversize when the groove diameter exceeds the
nominal rope diameter by more than 15%.
Undersize grooves in sheaves will crush and deform
the rope, often leading to two clear patterns of wear and
associated wire breaks.

Excessive angle of fleet can result in severe wear of the

rope due to scrubbing against adjacent laps on the drum.
Rope deterioration at the termination may be exhibited in
the form of broken wires. An excessive angle of fleet can
also induce rotation causing torsional imbalance.

48 BRIDON North American Catalog

Typical Examples of Wire Rope Deterioration

1 Mechanical damage due

to rope movement over
9 Typical wire fractures
as a result of bend
sharp edge projection fatigue.
while under load.

2 Localized wear due

to abrasion on
10 Wire fractures at
the strand, or core
supporting structure. interface, as distinct
from "crown" fractures.

3 Narrow path of wear

resulting in fatigue
11 Breakup of IWRC
resulting from high
fractures, caused by stress application.
working in a grossly
oversize groove, or over
small support rollers.

4 Two parallel paths of

broken wires indicative
12 Looped wires as a
result of torsional
of bending through an imbalance and/or
undersize groove in shock loading.
the sheave.

5 Severe wear,
associated with
13 Typical example
of localized wear
high tread pressure. and deformation.

6 Severe wear in
Langs Lay, caused
14 Multi-strand rope
"bird caged" due to
by abrasion. torsional imbalance.

7 Severe corrosion. 15 Protrusion of rope

center resulting from
buildup of turn.

8 Internal corrosion while

external surface shows
16 Substantial wear
and severe internal
little evidence corrosion.
of deterioration.

BRIDON North American Catalog 49

 Troubleshooting Guide
The following is a simplified guide to common wire rope problems. In the event of no other standard being applicable,
Bridon recommends that ropes are inspected/examined in accordance with ASME B30.5.
problem
Mechanical damage caused by the rope contacting the structure of the
crane on which it is operating or an external structure — usually of a
localized nature.
Opening of strands in rotation-resistant ropes — in extreme circumstances the
rope may develop a “birdcage distortion” or protrusion of inner strands.
Note — rotation-resistant ropes are designed with a specific strand gap which
may be apparent on delivery in an off tension condition. These gaps will close
under load and will have no effect on the operational performance of the rope.
Broken wires or crushed or flattened rope on lower layers at crossover points
in multi-layer coiling situations.
Wire breaks usually resulting from crushing or abrasion.
Wires looping from strands.
“pigtail” or severe spiralling in rope.
50 BRIDON North American Catalog
Cause/Action
• Generally results from operational conditions.
• Check sheave guards and support/guide sheaves to ensure that the rope has not
“jumped out” of the intended reeving system.
• Review operating conditions.
• Check sheave and drum groove radii using sheave gauge to ensure that they are no
smaller than nominal rope radius +2.5%. Bridon recommends that the sheave and
drum groove radii are checked prior to any rope installation.
• Repair or replace drum/sheaves if necessary.
• Check fleet angles in the reeving system — a fleet angle in excess of 1.5 degrees
may cause distortion (see page 56).
• Check installation method — turn induced during installation can cause excessive
rope rotation resulting in distortion (see pages 55 to 58).
• Check if the rope has been cut on site prior to installation or cut to remove a
damaged portion from the end of the rope. If so, was the correct cutting procedure
used? Incorrect cutting of rotation-resistant, low-rotation and parallel closed ropes
can cause distortion in operation (see page 56 to 57).
• Rope may have experienced a shock load.
• Check tension on underlying layers. Bridon recommends an installation tension of
between 2% and 5% of the minimum breaking force of the wire rope. Care should
be taken to ensure that tension is retained in service. Insufficient tension will result in
these lower layers being more prone to crushing damage.
• Review wire rope construction. Dyform wire ropes are more resistant to crushing on
underlying layers than conventional rope constructions.
• Do not use more rope than necessary.
• Check drum diameter. Insufficient bending ratio increases tread pressure.
• Insufficient service dressing.
• Consider alternative rope construction.
• If wires are looping out of the rope underneath a crossover point, there may be
insufficient tension on the lower wraps on the drum.
• Check for areas of rope crushing or distortion.
• Possible fleet angle problems causing rope rotation.
• Check that the sheave and drum diameter is large enough. Bridon recommends a
minimum ratio of the drum/sheave to nominal rope diameter of 18:1.
• Indicates that the rope has run over a small radius or sharp edge.
• Check to see if the rope has “jumped off” a sheave and has run over a shaft.
 problem
Two single axial lines of broken wires running along the length of the rope
approximately 120 degrees apart indicating that the rope is being nipped in a
tight sheave.
One line of broken wires running along the length of the rope indicating
insufficient support for the rope, generally caused by oversize sheave or
drum grooving.
Short rope life resulting from evenly/randomly distributed bend fatigue wire
breaks caused by bending through the reeving system.
Fatigue-induced wire breaks are characterized by flat ends on the
broken wires.
Short rope life resulting from localized bend fatigue wire breaks.
Fatigue-induced wire breaks are characterized by flat ends on the
broken wires.
Broken rope — ropes are likely to break when subjected to substantial
overload or misuse particularly when a rope has already been subjected to
mechanical damage.
Corrosion of the rope both internally and/or externally can also result in a
significant loss in metallic area. The rope strength is reduced to a level where
it is unable to sustain the normal working load.
Wave or corkscrew deformations normally associated with
rotation-resistant ropes.
Rotation of the load in a single fall system.
Rotation of the load in a multi-fall system resulting in “cabling” of the rope falls.
possibly due to induced turn during installation or operation.
Cause/Action
• Check sheave and drum groove radii using sheave gauge to ensure that they are
no smaller than nominal rope radius + 2.5%. Bridon would recommend that the
sheave/drum groove radii are checked prior to any rope installation.
• Repair or replace drum/sheaves if necessary.
• Check to see if the groove diameter is no greater than 15% greater than the nominal
rope diameter.
• Repair or replace drum/sheaves if necessary.
• Check for contact damage.
• Bending fatigue is accelerated as the load increases and as the bending radius
decreases (see page 42). Consider whether either factor can be improved.
• Check wire rope construction. Dyform ropes are capable of doubling the bending
fatigue life of a conventional steel wire rope.
• Bending fatigue is accelerated as the load increases and as the bending radius
decreases (see page 42). Consider whether either factor can be improved.
• Check wire rope construction. Dyform ropes are capable of doubling the bending
fatigue life of a conventional steel wire rope.
• Localized fatigue breaks indicate continuous repetitive bends over a short length.
Consider whether it is economical to periodically shorten the rope in order to move
the rope through the system and progressively expose fresh rope to the severe
bending zone. In order to facilitate this procedure it may be necessary to begin
operating with a slightly longer length of rope.
• Review operating conditions.
• Check sheave and drum groove radii using sheave gauge to ensure that they are no
smaller than nominal rope radius +2.5%. Bridon recommends that the sheave/drum
groove radii are checked prior to any rope installation.
• Repair or replace drum/sheaves if necessary.
• Check fleet angles in the reeving system — a fleet angle in excess of 1.5 degrees
may cause distortion (see page 44)
• Check that rope end has been secured in accordance with manufacturer's
instructions (see page 56 and 57).
• Check operating conditions for induced turn.
• Review rope selection.
• Consider use of rotation-resistant rope.
• Review rope selection (see page 44 to 46 cabling calc.)
• Consider use of rotation-resistant rope.
• Review installation procedure (see page 55 to 58) or operating procedures.
BRIDON North American Catalog 51
 Troubleshooting Guide

problem Cause/Action

Core protrusion or broken core in single layer six– or eight-strand rope. • Caused by repetitive shock loading — review operating conditions.

Rope accumulating or “stacking” at drum flange due to insufficient • Review drum design with original equipment manufacturer — consider adding rope
fleet angle. kicker, fleeting sheave, etc.

• Check correct rope diameter.

• If grooved drum check groove pitch.
• Check tension on underlying layers. Bridon recommends an installation tension of
Sunken wraps of rope on the drum normally associated with insufficient between 2% and 5% of the minimum breaking force of the wire rope. Care should
support from lower layers of rope or grooving. be taken to ensure that tension is retained in service. Insufficient tension will result in
these lower layers being more prone to crushing damage.
• Make sure that the correct rope length is being used. Too much rope (which may
not be necessary) may aggravate the problem.

• Check fleet angle to drum.

• Check general alignment of sheaves in the reeving system.

Short rope life induced by excessive wear and abrasion. • Check that all sheaves are free to rotate.
• Review rope selection. The smooth surface of Dyform wire ropes gives better
contact with drum and sheaves and offers improved resistance to interference
betweeen adjacent laps of rope.

• Consider selection of galvanized rope.

External corrosion.
• Review level and type of service dressing.

• Consider selection of galvanized rope.

Internal corrosion. • Review frequency amount and type of service dressing.
• Consider selection of plastic impregnated (PI) wire rope.

52 BRIDON North American Catalog

Product Safety: Instructions and warnings on
the use of steel wire rope
The following instructions and warnings combine to provide
guidance on product safety and are intended for use by those
already having a working knowledge of wire ropes, as well as
the new user. They should be read, followed and passed on
to others.
Failure to read, understand and follow these instructions could
result in harmful and damaging consequences.
1. Rope Selection Criteria
Ensure that the correct type of wire rope is selected
for the equipment by referring to the OEM’s instruction
manual or other relevant documents. If in doubt contact
Bridon for guidance.
1.1 Rope strength
If necessary, refer to the appropriate regulations and/or
application standards and calculate the maximum force to
which the rope will be subjected.
The calculation may take into account the mass to be
lifted or moved, any shock loading, effects of high speed,
acceleration, any sudden starts or stops, frequency of
operation and sheave bearing friction.
By applying the relevant design factor and, where
applicable, the efficiency of the rope termination, the
required minimum breaking load or force of the rope will
be determined, the values of which are available from
the relevant national or international standards or from
specific product data literature. If in doubt ask for advice
from Bridon.
1.2 Bending fatigue
The size and number of sheaves in the system will
influence the performance of the rope.
Wire rope that bends around sheaves, rollers or drums will deteriorate
through bending fatigue. Reverse bending and high speed will
accelerate the process. Therefore, under such conditions select a rope
with high bending fatigue resistance. Refer to product data information,
and if in doubt ask for advice.
1.3 Abrasion
Wire rope that is subject to abrasion will become
progressively weaker as a result of:
Externally — dragging it through overburden, sand or
other abrasive materials and passing around a sheave,
roller or drum.
Internally — being loaded or bent.
Abrasion weakens the rope by removing metal from both the inner and
outer wires. Therefore, a rope with large outer wires should normally
be selected.
1.4 Vibration
Vibration in wire rope will cause deterioration. This may
become apparent in the form of wire fractures where the
vibration is absorbed.
These fractures may be internal only and will not be visually identified.
1.5 Distortion
Wire rope can be distorted due to high pressure against
a sheave, improperly sized grooves, or as a result of
multi-layer spooling on a drum.
Rope with a steel core is more resistant to crushing
and distortion.
1.6 Corrosion
Rope with a large number of small wires is more
susceptible to corrosion than rope with a small number
of large wires. Therefore, if corrosion is expected to have
a significant effect on rope performance. The rope may
have to be lubricated frequently in service or a galvanized
rope may be selected.
1.7 Cabling
Cabling of rope reeving due to block rotation can occur
if the rope is incorrectly selected. Applications involving
high lifts are particularly vulnerable to this condition,
therefore, ropes specifically designed to resist rotation
need to be selected.
1.8 Fixing of rope ends
Ropes that have high rotation characteristics must not
be selected unless both ends of the rope are fixed or the
load is guided and unable to rotate.
1.9 Connecting ropes
In the event that it is necessary to connect one rope
to another (in series) it is essential that they have the
required strength, are of the same type and have the
same lay direction (i.e., connect right lay to right lay).
Failure to heed this warning could result in catastrophic failure
particularly at a termination that is capable of being pulled apart (i.e.,
splice) due to unlaying.
1.10 Rope length
Rope length and/or difference in length between two or
more ropes used in a set may be a critical factor and
must be considered along with rope selection.
Wire rope will elongate under load. Other factors such as temperature,
rope rotation and internal wear will also have an effect. These factors
should also be considered during rope selection.
BRIDON North American Catalog 53
 Product Safety: Instructions and warnings on
the use of steel wire rope
1.11 Preformed and non-preformed ropes
Single layer round-strand rope is normally supplied
preformed. However, if a non-preformed rope is selected
then personnel responsible for its installation and/or
maintenance need to take particular care when handling
such rope, especially when cutting. For the purposes
of this instruction, rotation-resistant ropes should be
regarded as non-preformed ropes.
1.12 Operating temperatures
Wire rope with a steel core should be selected if there is
any evidence to suggest that a fiber core will not provide
adequate support to the outer strands and/or if the
temperature of the working environment may be expected
to exceed 180˚F.
For operating temperatures above 200˚F de-rating of the
minimum breaking force of the rope is necessary (e.g.,
between 200˚F and 400˚F reduce by 10%; between
200˚C and 300˚C reduce by 25%; between 600˚F and
800˚F reduce by 35%).
Do not use ropes with high carbon wires above 800˚F.
Failure to observe this general guidance could result in failure of the
ropes to support the load.
For temperatures over 800˚F, other materials such
as stainless steel or other special alloys should be
considered.
Rope lubricants and any synthetic filling and/or covering materials may
become ineffective at certain low or high operating temperature levels.
Certain types of rope end terminations also have limiting
operating temperatures and the manufacturer or Bridon
should be consulted where there is any doubt. Ropes
with aluminium ferrules must not be used at temperatures
in excess of 300˚F.
2. Storage
2.1 Unwrap the rope and examine the rope immediately after
delivery to check its identification and condition and verify
that it is in accordance with the details on the certificates
and/or other relevant documents.
Check the rope diameter and examine any rope
terminations to ensure that they are compatible with the
equipment or machinery to which they are to be fitted.
54 BRIDON North American Catalog
2.2   Select a clean, well-ventilated, dry, undercover location.
Cover with waterproof material if the delivery site
conditions preclude inside storage.
Rotate the reel periodically during long periods of storage,
particularly in warm environments, to prevent migration of
the lubricant from the rope.
Never store wire rope in areas subject to elevated temperatures as
this may seriously affect its future performance. In extreme cases its
original as-manufactured strength may be severely reduced rendering it
unfit for safe use.
Ensure that the rope does not make any direct contact
with the floor and that there is a flow of air under the reel.
Failure to do so may result in the rope becoming contaminated with
foreign matter and start the onset of corrosion before the rope is even
put to work.
Support the reel on a simple A-frame or cradle, located
on ground that is capable of supporting the total mass
of rope and reel. Ensure that the rope is stored where it
is not likely to be affected by chemical fumes, steam or
other corrosive agents.
Failure to do so may seriously affect its condition rendering it unfit for
safe use.
2.3 Examine ropes in storage periodically and, when
necessary, apply a suitable dressing that is compatible
with the manufacturing lubricant. Contact the rope
supplier, Bridon or original equipment manufacturer’s
(OEM) manual for guidance on types of dressings
available, methods of application and equipment for the
various types of ropes and applications.
Re-wrap the rope unless it is obvious that this will be
detrimental to rope preservation.
Failure to apply the correct dressing may render the original
manufacturing lubricant ineffective and rope performance may be
significantly affected.
Ensure that the rope is stored and protected in such
a manner that it will not be exposed to any accidental
damage either during the storage period or when placing
the rope in, or taking it out of storage.
Failure to carry out or pay attention to any of the above could result in a
loss of strength and/or a reduction in performance. In extreme cases the
rope may be unfit for safe use.
3. Certification and Marking
3.1 Make sure that the relevant certificate has been obtained
before taking the rope into use for a lifting operation.
Check to verify that the marking on the rope or its
package matches the relevant certificate.
Note: The rating of a component part of a machine or lifting
accessory is the responsibility of the designer of the machine
or accessory. Any re-rating of a lifting accessory must be
approved by a competent person.
3.2 Retain the certificate in a safe place for identification
of the rope when carrying out subsequent periodic
statutory examinations in service.
4. Handling and Installation
4.1 Handling and installation of the rope should be carried
out in accordance with a detailed plan and should be
supervised by a competent person.
Incorrectly supervised handling and installation procedures may result
in serious injury to persons in the vicinity of the operation as well as
those persons directly involved in the handling and installation.
4.2 Wear suitable protective clothing such as overalls,
industrial gloves, helmet, eye protectors, and safety
footwear (and respirator, particularly where the emission
of fumes due to heat is likely).
Failure to wear suitable protective clothing and equipment may result
in skin problems from overexposure to certain types of rope lubricants
and dressings; burns from sparks, rope ends, molten lubricants, and
metals when cutting ropes or preparing sockets for reuse; respiratory or
other internal problems from the inhalation of fumes when cutting ropes
or preparing sockets for reuse; eye injuries from sparks when cutting
ropes; lacerations to the body from wire and rope ends; bruising of the
body and damage to limbs due to rope recoil, backlash and any sudden
deviation from the line of path of rope.
4.3 Ensure that the correct rope has been supplied by
checking to see that the description on the certificate is in
accordance with that specified in the purchaser’s order.
4.4 Check by measurement that the nominal diameter of
the new rope conforms to the nominal size stated on
the certificate.
For verification purposes, measure the diameter by using
a suitable rope vernier fitted with jaws broad enough to
cover not less than two adjacent strands. Take two sets of
measurements spaced at least 3' apart, ensuring that they
are taken at the largest cross-sectional dimension of the
rope. At each point take measurements at right angles to
each other.
The average of these four measurements should be
within the tolerances specified in the appropriate standard
or specification.
For a more general assessment of rope diameter use a
rope calliper.
4.5 Examine the rope visually to ensure that no damage or
obvious signs of deterioration have taken place during
storage or transportation to the installation site.
4.6 Check the working area around the equipment for any
potential hazards that may affect the safe installation of
the rope.
4.7 Check the condition of the rope-related equipment
in accordance with the OEM’s instructions. Include
the following:
Drum
Check the general condition of the drum.
If the drum is grooved, check the radius and pitch
and ensure that the grooves will satisfactorily
accommodate the size of the new rope.
Check the condition and position of the kicker plates
or wear plates, if fitted, to ensure that the new rope will
spool correctly on the drum.
Sheaves
Ensure that the grooving is of the correct shape and
size for the new rope.
Check that all sheaves are free to rotate and in
good condition.
Rope guards
 heck that any rope guards are correctly fitted and are
C
in good condition.
Check the condition of any wear plates or rollers which
are protecting structural members.
Failure to carry out any of the above could result in unsatisfactory and
unsafe rope performance.
Note: Grooves must have clearance for the rope and provide
adequate circumferential support to allow for free movement of
the strands and facilitate bending. When grooves become worn
and the rope is pinched at the sides, strand and wire movement
is restricted and the ability of the rope to bend is reduced.
4.8 When a new rope is fitted a variation in size compared
with the old worn rope will be apparent. The new rope
may not fit correctly into the previously worn groove
profile and unnecessary wear and rope distortion is likely
to occur. This may be remedied by machining out the
grooves before the new rope is installed. Before carrying
out such action the sheaves or drum should be examined
to ensure that there will be sufficient strength remaining in
the underlying material to safely support the rope.
BRIDON North American Catalog 55
 Product Safety: Instructions and warnings on
the use of steel wire rope
The competent person should be familiar with the
requirements of the appropriate application/machinery
standard.
Note: General guidance to users is given in the Wire Rope
Users Manual.
Transfer the wire rope carefully from the storage area to
the installation site.
Coils
Place the coil on the ground and roll it out straight,
ensuring that it does not become contaminated with
dust/grit, moisture, or any other harmful material.
If the coil is too large to physically handle, it may be
placed on a swift turntable and the outside end of the
rope pulled out allowing the coil to rotate.
Never pull a rope away from a stationary coil as this will induce
turn into the rope and kinks will form. These will adversely affect
rope performance.
Reels
Pass a shaft through the reel and place the reel in a
suitable stand which allows it to rotate and be braked
to avoid overrun during installation. Where multi-layer
coiling is involved it may be necessary for the reel
to be placed in equipment which has the capability
of providing a back tension in the rope as it is being
transferred from reel to drum. This is to ensure that the
underlying (and subsequent) laps are wound tightly on
the drum.
- Position the reel and stand such that the fleet angle
during installation is limited to 1.5 degrees.
- If a loop forms in the rope, ensure that it does not
tighten to form a kink.
A kink can severely affect the strength of a six-strand rope and
can result in distortion of a rotation-resistant rope leading to its
immediate discard.
Ensure that the reel stand is mounted so as not to create
a reverse bend during reeving (i.e., for a winch drum with
an overlap rope, take the rope off the top of the reel).
4.9 Ensure that any equipment or machinery to be roped is
correctly and safely positioned and isolated from normal
usage before installation commences. Refer to the OEM’s
instruction manual and the relevant code of practice.
4.10 When releasing the outboard end of the rope from
a reel or coil, ensure that this is done in a controlled
manner. On release of the bindings and servings used for
packaging, the rope will want to straighten itself from its
previously bent position. Unless controlled, this could be
a violent action. Stand clear.
Failure to control could result in injury.
56 BRIDON North American Catalog
Ensure that the as-manufactured condition of the rope is
maintained during installation.
If installing the new rope with the aid of an old one, one
method is to fit a wire rope sock (or stocking) to each of
the rope ends. Always ensure that the open end of the
sock (or stocking) is securely attached to the rope by a
serving or alternatively by a clip. Connect the two ends
via a length of fiber rope of adequate strength in order
to avoid turn being transmitted from the old rope into the
new rope. Alternatively a length of fiber or steel rope of
adequate strength may be reeved into the system for use
as a pilot/messenger line. Do not use a swivel during the
installation of the rope.
4.11 Monitor the rope carefully as it is being pulled into the
system and make sure that it is not obstructed by any
part of the structure or mechanism, which may cause the
rope to come free.
Failure to monitor during this operation could result in injury.
This entire operation should be carried out carefully and
slowly under the supervision of a competent person.
4.12 Take particular care and note the manufacturer’s
instructions when the rope is required to be cut. Apply
secure servings on both sides of the cut mark.
Ensure that the length of serving is at least equal to two
rope diameters.
(Note: Special servings are required for spiral ropes, i.e.,
spiral strand and locked coil.)
One serving either side of the cut is normally sufficient for
preformed ropes. For non-preformed ropes, (i.e., rotation-
resistant ropes) a minimum of two servings each side of
the cut will be necessary.
Arrange and position the rope in such a manner that at
the completion of the cutting operation the rope ends
will remain in position, thus avoiding any backlash or any
other undesirable movement.
Cut the rope with a high-speed abrasive disc cutter. Other
suitable mechanical or hydraulic shearing equipment may
be used although not recommended when a rope end is
required to be welded or brazed.
When using a disc cutter be aware of the danger from sparks, disc
fragmentation and fumes.
Ensure adequate ventilation to avoid any build-up of
fumes from the rope and its constituent parts including
any fiber core (natural or synthetic), any rope lubricant(s)
and any synthetic filling and/or covering material.
Rope produced from carbon steel wires in the form
shipped is not considered a health hazard. During
subsequent processing (e.g., cutting, welding, grinding,
cleaning) dust and fumes may be produced that contain
elements that may affect exposed workers.
 The products used in the manufacture of steel wire ropes The direction of coiling of the rope on the drum is
for lubrication and protection present minimal hazard to important, particularly when using plain barrel drums,
the user in the form shipped. The user must, however, and should be related to the direction of lay of the rope in
take reasonable care to minimize skin and eye contact order to induce close coiling.
and also avoid breathing their vapor and mist.
(See Fig. 2 for proper method of locating rope anchorage
4.13 Ensure that any fittings such as clamps or fixtures are point on a plain drum.)
clean and undamaged before securing rope ends.
proper method of locating rope anchorage point on a plain drum
Make sure that all fittings are secure in accordance
with the OEM’s instruction manual or manufacturer’s
instructions and take particular note of any specific safety RIGhT hAND
LAy RoPE-
requirements, e.g., torque values (and frequency of any UNDERWIND
reapplication of torque).

When terminating a rope end with a wedge socket,

ensure that the rope tail cannot withdraw through the
socket by securing a clamp to the tail or by following the
manufacturer’s instructions. The tail length should be a
minimum of 20 rope diameters for all rotation-resistant
wire rope and a minimum of six rope diameters for 6- and
8-strand ropes. START RoPE AT RIGhT hAND
LEFT FLANGE LAy RoPE-
RIGhT hAND ovERWIND
(See Fig. 1 for two recommended methods of securing
the rope tail of a wedge socket termination).

The loop back method uses a

rope grip and the loop should be
lashed to the live part of rope by a
soft wire serving or tape to prevent
flexing of the rope in service.

The method of looping back should LEFT

LEFT hAND
LAy RoPE-
not be used if there is a possibility hAND
UNDERWIND
of interference of the loop with the
mechanism or structure.

Failure to secure in accordance with

instructions could lead to loss of the
rope and/or injury.

4.14 When coiling a rope on a

plain (or smooth) barrel
drum ensure that each LEFT LEFT hAND
hAND LAy RoPE-
lap lies tightly against ovERWIND
the preceding lap. The
application of tension in the
rope greatly assists in the
coiling of the rope.
Fig. 2
Any looseness or uneven winding will
When multi layer spooling has to be used it should be
result in excessive wear, crushing and
realized that after the first layer is wound on a drum, the
distortion of the rope.
rope has to cross the underlying rope in order to advance
With plain barrel drums it is difficult across the drum in the second layer. The points at which
to achieve satisfactory multi-layer the turns in the upper layer cross those of the lower layer
coiling beyond are known as the cross-over points and the rope in these
three layers. areas is susceptible to increased abrasion and crushing.
Care should be taken when installing a rope on a drum
and when operating a machine to ensure that the rope is
Fig. 1 spooled and layered correctly.

BRIDON North American Catalog 57

 Product Safety: Instructions and warnings on
the use of steel wire rope
4.15 Check the state of reusable rope end terminations
for size, strength, defects and cleanliness before use.
Non-destructive testing may be required depending
on the material and circumstances of use. Ensure that
the termination is fitted in accordance with the OEM’s
instruction manual or manufacturer’s instructions
When reusing a socket and depending on its type and
dimensions, the existing cone should be pressed out.
Otherwise, heat may be necessary.
When melting out sockets that have previously been filled with hot
metal, the emission of toxic fumes is likely. Note that white metal
contains a high proportion of lead.
Correctly locate and secure any connection pins and
fittings when assembling end terminations to fixtures.
Refer to manufacturer’s instructions.
Failure to pay attention to any of the above could result in unsafe
operation and potential injury.
4.16 Limit switches, if fitted, must be checked and re-adjusted,
if necessary, after the rope has been installed.
4.17 Record the following details on the certificate after
installation has been completed: type of equipment,
location, plant reference number, duty and date of
installation and any re-rating information/signature of
competent person. Then safely file the certificate.
4.18 Run in the new rope by operating the equipment slowly,
preferably with a low load, for several cycles. This permits
the new rope to adjust itself gradually to
working conditions.
Note: Unless otherwise required by a certifying authority, the
rope should be in this condition before any proof test of the
equipment or machinery is carried out.
Check that the new rope is spooling correctly on the
drum and that no slack or cross laps develop.
Apply as much tension as possible (2% — 5% of the MBF
of the rope) to ensure tight and even spooling, especially
on the first layer.
Where multi-layer spooling is unavoidable, succeeding
layers should spool evenly on the preceding layers
of rope.
Irregular spooling usually results in severe surface wear and rope
malformation, which in turn is likely to cause premature rope failure.
4.19 Ensure that the as-manufactured condition of the rope
is maintained throughout the whole of the handling and
installation operation.
4.20 If samples are required to be taken from the rope for
subsequent testing and/or evaluation, it is essential that
the condition of the rope is not disturbed. Refer to the
instructions given in 4.12 and, depending on the
rope type and construction, any other special
manufacturer’s instructions.
58 BRIDON North American Catalog
5. Inspection
5.1 Inspect the rope and related equipment at the beginning
of every work period at least daily in most instances
and particularly following any incident which could have
damaged the rope or installation.
The entire length of rope should be inspected and
particular attention paid to those sections that experience
has proven to be the main areas of deterioration.
Excessive wear, broken wires, distortion, and corrosion
are the usual signs of deterioration.
In the case of ropes working over drums or sheaves it is
particularly necessary to examine those areas entering or
leaving the grooves when maximum loads (i.e., shock loads)
are experienced, or those areas that remain for long periods
in exposed places such as over a jib head sheave.
On some running ropes, but particularly relevant to
standing ropes (e.g., pendant ropes) the areas adjacent to
terminations should be given special attention.
Note: Shortening the rope repositions the areas of maximum
deterioration in the system. Where conditions permit, begin
operating with a rope that has a slightly longer length than
necessary in order to allow for periodic shortening.
When a non-preformed rope or multi-layer rope is used
with a wedge socket and is required to be shortened, it is
essential that the end of the rope is secured by welding or
brazing before the rope is pulled through the main body
of the socket to its new position.
Slacken the wedge in the socket. Pass the rope through
the socket by an amount equivalent to the crop length
or sample required. Note that the original bent portion of
the rope must not be retained within the wedge socket.
Replace the wedge and pull up the socket. Prepare and
cut in accordance with section 4.12. Ensure that the rope
tail cannot withdraw through the socket, see section 4.13.
Failure to observe this instruction will result in a significant
deterioration in the performance of the rope and could render the rope
completely unfit for further service.
In cases where severe rope wear takes place at one
end of a wire rope, the life of the rope may be extended
by changing round the drum end with the load end,
i.e., turning the rope end-for-end before deterioration
becomes excessive.
5.2 Remove broken wires as they occur by bending backwards Failure to take adequate precaution could result in injury or
and forwards using a pair of pliers until they break deep damage to health.
in the valley between two outer strands. Wear protective
Only use compatible cleaning fluids that will not
clothing such as overalls, industrial gloves, helmet, eye
impair the original rope lubricant nor affect the
protectors, and safety footwear during this operation.
rope-associated equipment.
Do not shear off the ends of broken wires with pliers as this will leave
The use of cleaning fluids (particularly solvent-based) is likely to cut
an exposed jagged edge that is likely to damage other wires in the rope
back the existing rope lubricant leading to a greater quantity of lubricant
and lead to premature removal of the rope from service. Failure to wear
accumulating on the surface of the rope. This may create a hazard in
adequate protective clothing could result in injury.
appliances and machinery that rely on friction between the rope and the
Note: Broken wires are a normal feature of service, more drive sheave (e.g. elevators, friction winders and ski lifts).
so towards the end of the rope’s life, resulting from bending
5.8 Lubricants selected for in-service dressing must be
fatigue and wear. The local break-up of wires may indicate
compatible with the rope manufacturing lubricant and
some mechanical fault in the equipment.
should be referenced in the OEM’s instruction manual or
Record the number and position in the rope of any other documents approved by the owner of the appliance.
removed broken wires.
If in doubt contact Bridon.
5.3 Do not operate an appliance if for any reason (e.g., rope
5.9 Take particular care when applying any in-service
diameter, certified breaking force, rope construction, length
lubricant/dressing. Application systems which involve
or strength, and type of rope termination) the wire rope and
pressure should only be operated by trained and
its termination is considered unsuitable for the required duty.
authorized persons and the operation carried out strictly
5.4 Do not operate an appliance if the wire rope fitted has in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions.
become distorted, been damaged, or has deteriorated to
Most wire ropes should be lubricated at regular intervals
a level such that discard criteria has been reached or is
(including cleaning) in order to extend safe performance.
likely to be reached prior to normal expected life based
on historical performance data. Ensure that any in-service lubricant dressing penetrates
into the core of the rope.
Rope distortion is usually a result of mechanical damage and can
significantly reduce rope strength. Ensure that the in-service lubricant dressing is not applied
excessively so that the amount of lubricant on the rope
5.5 An authorized competent person must examine the rope
will hinder rope examination.
in accordance with the appropriate regulations.
A dry rope unaffected by corrosion but subject to bend fatigue, is likely
5.6 Do not carry out any inspection, examination, dressing/
to achieve only 30% of that normally attained by a lubricated rope.
lubrication, adjustment or any other maintenance of the
rope while it is suspending a load, unless otherwise Note: The authorized person carrying out a rope inspection
stated in the OEM’s instruction manual or other relevant must be capable of recognizing the potential loss of safe
documents. performance of such a rope in comparison with lubricated rope.

Do not carry out any inspection or maintenance of the Clean the rope before applying a fresh dressing/lubricant
rope if the appliance controls are unattended unless the if it is heavily loaded with foreign matter, e.g., sand, dust.
surrounding area has been isolated or sufficient warning
5.10 The authorized person responsible for carrying out wire
signs have been posted within the immediate vicinity.
rope maintenance must ensure that the ends of the rope
If the appliance controls are attended, the authorized person are secure. At the drum end this will involve checking the
must be able to communicate effectively with the driver or integrity of the anchorage and ensuring that there are at
controller of the appliance during the inspection process. least three dead wraps tightly spooled. At the outboard end
the integrity of the termination must be checked to ensure
5.7 Never clean the wire rope without recognizing the potential
that it is in accordance with the OEM’s manual or other
hazards associated with working on a moving rope.
documents approved by the owner of the appliance.
Failure to pay attention or take adequate precaution could result in injury.
Adjust the lengths of ropes in multi-rope systems in order
If cleaning by cloth/waste, the material can be snagged that equal forces (within approved limits) are evident.
on damaged surfaces and/or broken wires. If cleaning
by brush, eye protectors must be worn. If using fluids
it should be recognized that some products are highly
inflammable. A respirator should be worn if cleaning by a
pressurized spray system.

BRIDON North American Catalog 59

 Product Safety: Instructions and warnings on
the use of steel wire rope
5.11
Damage to, or removal of component parts (mechanical or structural)
caused by abnormal contact with wire rope can be hazardous to the safety
of the appliance and/or the performance of the rope (e.g., damage to the
drum grooving, such that spooling is erratic and/or the rope is pulled
down into underlying layers, which might cause a dangerous condition or,
alternatively, cause localized rope damage at crossover positions, which
might then radically affect performance; loss/removal of wear plates
protecting the structure leading to major structural damage by cutting
and/or failure of the wire rope due to mechanical severance).
5.12 Following any periodic examination or routine or special
inspection where any corrective action is taken the
certificate should be updated and a record made
of the defects found, the extent of the changes and
the condition of the rope.
5.13 Apply the following procedures for the selection and
preparation of samples, from new and used lengths
of rope, for the purpose of examination and testing
to destruction.
Check that the rope end, from which the sample will be
taken, is secured by welding or brazing. If not, select
the sample length further away from the rope end and
prepare new servings.
Handle the rope in accordance with the instructions
given in section 4. Serve the rope, using the buried wire
technique and apply a rope clamp or grip as close to the
cut mark as practically possible. Do not use solder to
secure the servings.
Ensure that the sample is kept straight throughout the
whole procedure and ensure that the minimum sample
length is 10' unless otherwise specified.
The rope should be cut with a high speed abrasive disc
cutter or an oxyacetylene torch. Weld the rope ends of
the sample as described in section 4.12, after which the
clamp or grip can be removed.
The identification of the rope must be established and the
sample suitably marked and packed. It is recommended
that the 10' sample is retained straight and secured to a
wood pallet for transportation.
Failure to comply with these procedures will result in measured
breaking force values which are not truly representative of the actual
strength of the rope.
60 BRIDON North American Catalog
6. Wire Rope Discard
6.1 Discard the wire rope in accordance with current
Regulations and in accordance with the OEM’s
instruction manual.
Note: The authorized competent person should also be familiar
with the latest versions of ANSI, ASME, or ISO Standards. Other
standards and instructions covering rope discard may also
be applicable. In the case of synthetic sheaves (or synthetic
linings) refer to the OEM’s instruction manual or contact the
sheave (or lining) manufacturer for specific discard criteria.
6.2 If a wire rope is removed from service at a level of
performance substantially different to historically
established performance data and without any
obvious reason(s), contact Bridon for further guidance.
6.3 Only qualified and experienced personnel, taking
the appropriate safety precautions and wearing the
appropriate protective clothing, should be responsible for
removing the wire rope.
Take particular care when removing ropes with
mechanical damage as they may fail abruptly during
the change-out procedure.
Take the utmost care when removing exhausted/failed
ropes from drums and sheaves as they may be grossly
distorted, lively, and tightly coiled.
Failure to take adequate precautions could result in injury.
6.4 Store discarded rope in a safe and secure location
or compound and ensure that it is suitably marked to
identify it as rope which has been removed from service
and not to be used again.
Discarded rope can be a danger (e.g., protruding broken wires,
excessive grease/lubricant, and rope mass) to personnel and equipment
if not handled correctly and safely during disposal.
6.5 Record the date and reason for discard on the certificate
before filing for future reference.
6.6 Pay attention to any regulations affecting the safe
disposal of steel wire rope.
 WARNINg
Wire rope will fail if worn out, shock loaded, overloaded,
misused, damaged, improperly maintained, or abused.
• Always inspect wire rope for wear, damage,
or abuse before use
• Never use wire rope that is worn-out, damaged
or abused
• Never overload or shock load a wire rope
• Inform yourself: Read and understand the guidance on
product safety given in this catalogue; also read and
understand the machinery manufacturer’s handbook
• Refer to applicable regulations, standards,
and codes concerning inspection, examination,
and rope removal criteria
Protect yourself and others — failure of wire rope may
cause serious injury or death!

BRIDON North American Catalog 61

 Rope Terminology
Wires
Outer wires: All wires positioned in the outer layer of wires in a
spiral rope or in the outer layer of wires in the outer strands of a
stranded rope.
Inner wires: All wires of intermediate layers positioned between
the center wire and outer layer of wires in a spiral rope or all
other wires except center, filler, core, and outer wires of a
stranded rope.
Core wires: All wires of the core of a stranded rope.
Center wires: Wires positioned either at the center of a spiral
rope or at the centers of strands of a stranded rope.
Layer of wires: An assembly of wires having one pitch circle
diameter. The exception is a Warrington layer comprising
alternately laid large and small wires where the smaller wires
are positioned on a larger pitch circle diameter than the larger
wires. The first layer is that which is laid immediately over the
strand center.
Note: Filler wires do not constitute a separate layer.
Tensile strength grade of wires: A level of requirement of
tensile strength of a wire and its corresponding tensile strength
range. It is designated by the value according to the lower
limit of tensile strength and is used when specifying wire and
when determining the calculated minimum breaking force or
calculated minimum aggregate breaking force of a rope.
Wire finish: The condition of the surface finish of a wire,
e.g., bright, zinc coated.
Strands
Strand: An element of rope usually consisting of an assembly of
wires of appropriate shape and dimensions laid helically in the
same direction in one or more layers around a center.
Round strand: A strand with a cross-section which is
approximately the shape of a circle.
Triangular strand: A strand with a cross-section which is
approximately the shape of a triangle.
Note: Triangular strands may have built-up centers (i.e., more than one
wire forming a triangle).
62 BRIDON North American Catalog
Compacted strand: A strand that has been subjected to
a compacting process such as drawing, rolling or swaging
whereby the metallic cross-sectional area of the wires remains
unaltered and the shape of the wires and the dimensions of the
strand are modified.
Note: Bridon’s brands of Dyform rope contain strands that have
been compacted.
Single lay strand: Strand which contains only one layer of
wires, e.g., 6-1.
Parallel lay strand: Strand which contains at least two layers
of wires, all of which are laid in one operation (in the same
direction), e.g., 9-9-1; 12-6F-6-1; 14-7+7-7-1. Each layer of wires
lies in the interstices of the underlying layer such that they are
parallel to one another, resulting in linear contact.
Note: This is also referred to as equal lay. The lay length of all the wire
layers are equal.
Seale: Parallel lay strand construction with the same number of
wires in each wire layer, each wire layer containing wires of the
same size, e.g., 7-7-1; 8-8-1; 9-9-1.
Warrington: Parallel lay strand construction having an outer
layer of wires containing alternately large and small wires,
the number of wires in the outer layer being twice that in the
underlying layer of wires, e.g., 6+6-6-1; 7+7-7-1.
Filler: Parallel lay strand construction having an outer layer of
wires containing twice the number of wires than in the inner
layer with filler wires laid in the interstices of the underlying layer
of wires, e.g., 12-6F-6-1; 14-7F-7-1.
Combined parallel lay: Parallel lay strand construction having
three or more layers of wires, e.g., 14-7+7-7-1;
16-8+8-8-1; 14-14-7F-7-1; 16-16-8F+8-1.
Note: The first two examples above are also referred to as Warrington-
Seale construction. The latter two examples are also referred to as
Seale-Filler contruction.
Multiple operation lay strand: Strand construction containing
at least two layers of wires, at least one of which is laid
in a separate operation. All of the wires are laid in the
same direction.
Cross-lay: Multiple operation strand construction in which the
wires of superimposed wire layers cross over one another and
make point contact, e.g., 12/6-1.
Compound lay: Multiple operation strand which contains a
minimum of three layers of wires, the outer layer of which is laid
over a parallel lay center, e.g., 16/6+6-6-1.
Ropes
Spiral rope: An assembly of two or more layers of shaped and/
or round wires laid helically over a center, usually a single round
wire. There are three categories of spiral rope, i.e., spiral strand,
half-locked coil, and full-locked coil.
Spiral strand: An assembly of two or more layers of round
wires laid helically over a center, usually a single round wire.
Half-locked coil rope: A spiral rope type having an outer layer
of wires containing alternate half lock and round wires.
Full-locked coil rope: A spiral rope type having an outer layer
of full lock wires.
Stranded rope: An assembly of several strands laid helically
in one or more layers around a core or center. There are three
categories of stranded rope, i.e., single layer, multi-layer and
parallel-closed.
Single layer rope: Stranded rope consisting of one layer of
strands laid helically over a core.
Note: Stranded ropes consisting of three or four outer strands may, or
may not, have a core. Some three- and four-strand single layer ropes
are designed to generate torque levels equivalent to those generated by
rotation-resistant ropes.
Rotation-resistant rope: Stranded rope designed to generate
reduced levels of torque and rotation when loaded and
comprising an assembly of two or more layers of strands laid
helically around the center, the direction of lay of the outers
strands being opposite to that of the underlying layer.
Rotation-resistant rope: Category 1:
Stranded rope constructed in such a manner that it
displays little or no tendency to rotate, or, if guided,
transmits little or no torque, has at least 15 outer strands
and comprising an assembly of at least three layers of
strands laid helically over a center in two operations, the
direction of lay of the outer strands being opposite to that
of the underlying layer.
Rotation-resistant rope: Category 2:
Stranded rope constructed in such a manner that it has
significant resistance to rotation, has at least 10 outer
strands and comprising an assembly of two or more
layers of strands laid helically over a centre in two or three
operations, the direction of lay of the outer strands being
opposite to that of the underlying layer.
Rotation-resistant rope: Category 3:
Stranded rope constructed in such a manner that it has
limited resistance to rotation, has no more than nine outer
strands and comprising an assembly of two layers of
strands laid helically over a center in two operations, the
direction of lay of the outer strands being opposite to that
of the underlying layer.
Compacted strand rope: Rope in which the outer strands, prior
to closing of the rope, are subjected to a compacting process
such as drawing, rolling or swaging.
Note: Bridon’s products containing compacted strands are identified by
Dyform, e.g., Endurance Dyform 6; Endurance Dyform 34LR; etc.
Compacted swaged rope: Rope which is subjected to a
compacting process after closing, thus reducing its diameter.
Plastic (solid polymer) filled rope: Rope in which the free internal
spaces are filled with a solid polymer. The polymer extends to, or
slightly beyond, the outer circumference of the rope.
Cushioned rope: Stranded rope in which the inner layers, inner
strands or core strands are covered with solid polymers or fibers to
form a cushion between adjacent strands or layers of strands.
Cushion core rope: Stranded rope in which the core is covered
(coated) or filled and covered (coated) with a solid polymer.
Solid polymer covered rope: Rope which is covered (coated)
with a solid polymer.
Solid polymer covered and filled rope: Rope which is covered
(coated) and filled with a solid polymer.
Rope grade (Rr): A number corresponding to a wire tensile
strength grade on which the minimum breaking force of a rope
is calculated.
Note: It does not imply that the actual tensile strength grades of the
wires in a rope are necessarily the same as the rope grade.
Preformed rope: Stranded rope in which the wires in the strands
and the strands in the rope have their internal stresses reduced
resulting in a rope in which, after removal of any serving, the wires
and the strands will not spring out of the rope formation.
Note: Rotation Resistant stranded ropes should be regarded as non-
preformed rope even though the strands may have been partially (lightly)
preformed during the closing process.
Rope class: A grouping of rope constructions where the
number of outer strands and the number of wires and how they
are laid up are within defined limits, resulting in ropes within the
class having similar strength and rotational properties.
Rope construction: System which denotes the arrangement of
the strands and wires within a rope, e.g., 6x19S; 6x36WS; 18x7;
34x7.
Cable-laid rope: An assembly of several (usually six) single
layer stranded ropes (referred to as unit ropes) laid helically
over a core (usually a seventh single layer stranded rope).
Braided rope: An assembly of several round strands braided
in pairs.
Electro-mechanical rope: A stranded or spiral rope containing
electrical conductors.
BRIDON North American Catalog 63
 Rope Terminology

Strand and Rope Lays Rope Characteristics and Properties

Lay direction of strand: The direction right (Z) or left (S)
corresponding to the direction of lay of the outer layer of wires
in relation to the longitudinal axis of the strand.
Lay direction of rope: The direction right (Z) or left (S)
corresponding to the direction of lay of the outer strands
in relation to the longitudinal axis of a stranded rope or the
direction of lay of the outer wires in relation to the longitudinal
axis of a spiral rope.
Regular lay: Stranded rope in which the direction of lay of the
wires in the outer strands is in the opposite direction
to the lay of the outer strands in the rope. Right regular lay is
designated zZ and left regular lay is designated zS.
Note: This type of lay is sometimes referred to as ordinary lay.
Lang lay: Stranded rope in which the direction of lay of the
wires in the outer strands is the same as that of the outer
strands in the rope. Right lang lay is designated zZ and left lang
lay is designated sS.
Alternate lay: Stranded rope in which the lay of the outer
strands is alternatively lang’s lay and regular lay. Right hand
alternate lay is designated AZ and left hand alternate lay is
designated AS.
Fill factor: The ratio between the sum of the nominal cross-
sectional areas of all the load bearing wires in the rope and the
circumscribed area of the rope based on its nominal diameter.
Spinning loss factor: The ratio between the calculated
minimum breaking force of the rope and the calculated
minimum aggregate breaking force of the rope.
Minimum breaking force (T min): Specified value, in tons or
kN, below which the measured breaking force is not allowed to
fall in a prescribed test.
Rope torque: Value, usually expressed in ft-lb or Nm, resulting
from either test or calculation, relating to the torque generated
when both ends of the rope are fixed and the rope is subjected
to tensile loading.
Rope turn: Value, usually expressed in degrees per foot/meter,
resulting from either test or calculation, relating to the amount of
rotation when one end of the rope is free to rotate and the rope
is subjected to tensile loading.
Initial extension: Amount of extension which is attributed to
the initial bedding down of the wires within the strands and the
strands within the rope due to tensile loading.
Note: This is sometimes referred to as constructional stretch.

Contra-lay: Rope in which at least one layer of wires in
a spiral rope or one layer of strands in a stranded rope is
laid in the opposite direction to the other layer(s) of wires
or strands respectively.
Elastic extension: Amount of extension that follows Hooke’s
Law within certain limits due to application of a tensile load.
Permanent rope extension: Non-elastic extension.

Note: Contra-lay is only possible in spiral ropes having more than one
layer of wires and in multi-layer stranded ropes.

Rope lay length (stranded rope): That distance parallel to the

axis of the rope in which the outer strands make one complete
turn (or helix) about the axis of the rope.

Cores
Core: Central element, usually of fiber or steel, of a single layer
stranded rope, around which are laid helically the outer strands
of a stranded rope or the outer unit ropes of a cable-laid rope.

Fiber core: Core made from either natural (e.g., hemp, sisal)
or synthetic fibres (e.g., polypropylene) and designated by its
diameter and runnage.

Steel core: Core produced either as an independent wire rope

(e.g., 7x7) or wire strand (e.g., 1x7).

Solid Polymer Core: Core produced as a single element of

solid polymer having a round or grooved shape. It may also
contain internal elements of wire or fiber.

Insert: Element of fiber or solid polymer so positioned as to

separate adjacent strands or wires in the same or overlying
layers and fill, or partly fill, some of the interstices in the rope.

64 BRIDON North American Catalog