2.

DEFINITION
According to Russel (1960),"Soil organic matter consist of a whole series of products
which range from undecayed plant and animal tissues through ephemeral products of
decomposition to fairly stable brown to black material bearing no trace of the anatomical
structure from which it was derived; (it is the latter material that is normally defined as
humus)" (Russel, 1988). The term soil organic matter is generally used to represent the organic
constituents in the soil, excluding undecayed plant and animal tissue, their partial
decomposition products and the' soil biomass. The end product of organic matter
decomposition is humus (Gupta, 1999).
Soil Organic matter, defined as the totality of the organic matter in soil, also includes
the organisms that live in soil, the soil biomass, although they usually account for less than 5%
of the soil organic matter (Russel, 1988).
Soil organic matter - non-living components which are a heterogeneous mixture
composed largely of products resulting from microbial and chemical transformations of
organic debris. Soil organic matter can exist in different morphological patterns, which are the
bases of the classification of so called forms and types of humus (Googlee. Com. ).
3. SOURCES OF SOIL ORGANIC MA TTER:
Organic matter in the soil comes from remains of plants and animals (Sahai,1999). The
plants and animals (both macro and micro) grow in weathered materials and the organic
residues left behind decay with time and become an integral part of the soil (Rai, 1995). As
new organic matter is formed in the soil, a part of the old becomes mineralized (mineral form
such as sulphur, phosphorus etc.) (Sahai, 1999).
So, mainly the sources of organic matter are of two types: 3.1 Primary
Source (Plant tissue) and
3.2 Secondary Source (Animals) They are
described below
3.1 Primary Source: Plant tissue is the main or original source of soil organic matter. Under
natural condition, trees, shrubs, grasses and other native plants supply large quantities of
organic residues annually by way of their roots and tops (Rai, 1995). Even with harvested
crops, one tenth to one third of the plant tops commonly fall to the soil surface and remain
there or are incorporated into soil. Naturally, all the roots remain in the soil (Brady, 1999).
These residues serve as a source of nutrients and energy for the life processes of the
microorganisms (Frederick and Thompson, 1993). As these organic materials are decomposed
and digested by soil' organisms they become part of the underlying soil by infiltration.
Accordingly, the residues of higher plants provide food for soil organism, which in turn create
stable compounds that help to maintain the soil organic levels (Brady, 1999).
3.2 Secondary source: Animals are the subsidiary or secondary source of soil organic matter.
When they consume plants as their feed, they excrete their waste products as excreta, besides
contributing their own bodies after completing their life cycle (Rai, 1995). Certain forms of
animal life, especially the earthworms, termites and ants, also play an important role in the
translocation of soil and plant residues (Brady, 1999).
The third source of organic matter is microorganism.
3.3 Microorganisms: In the process of decomposition of biomass leading to the mineralization
and the neoformation of humic compounds, the soil microorganisms play a leading role while
the chemical processes are of subsidiary nature. The soil microorganisms may be grouped into
two types, as microflora and microfauna. The soil microflora are relatively more in population,
depending on the condition of habitat. The soil microflora are mainly responsible for the
process of biomass decomposition while the microfauna play a subsidiary role in the process
(Bhattacharjee, 1997).
Table-1 summarizes common sources of organic matter, their advantages and disadvantages,
and considerations for use. List of information in Table-1 can be used to select an organic
matter source based on its cost, and availability.
Table-1: Common organic matter sources, their advantages and disadvantages, and special
considerations for use (Googlee.Com.).
, - Disadvantage Consideration
Source
Livestock Advantage
High in nutrient High-in salts and Apply no more than I
manure ' weed seeds inch annually
Composted High in nutrients High in salts and '
manure ~ ~ weed seeds , inch annually
Composted Recycles a waste Rapid
urban green decomposition
 waste
Wood residues Long lasting Immobilize (tie Apply 1 Ib of nitrogen
(bark, chips up) nitrogen in per 100 1b of material
sawdust) soil
I Green waste Readily available: Rapid
(grass, clipping, i recycles a I
waste decomposition
leaves)
Peat and peat Acidic; lowers ~ Expensive , Incorporate thoroughly
moss soil P"
Straw Readily available immobilize (tie apply 1 lb of nitrogen
up) nitrogen in per 100 lb of material
soil '
Shredded paper recycles waste; , immobilize (tie apply 1 Ib of nitrogen
I
or cardboard recycles a waste
up) nitrogen in per 100 lb of material
soil
4. COMPOSITION OF ORGANIC MA TTER:
Green plant tissues contain 60% to 90% water by weight is shown in Figure-1. The dry
matter content is only about 25%.
4.1 Elemental composition: If dry matter is burned (oxidized) carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
become CO2 and H2O. Of course, some ash and smoke
will be formed upon burning that are 5 to10% of the dry matter. Even though these
elements are present in small quantities, they play a vital role in plant and animal nutrition
and in meeting the requirements of microorganisms (Brady, 1999). Carbon atoms joined
together into carbon chains of many lengths and linkages are the basic "skeleton" of
organic compounds (Donahue et al., 1983).
Fats and waxes 2%

Fig-1:Typical composition of representative green material (Brady, 1999).

4.2 General composition of compounds: The remaining elements fill out the skeletons
to make different groups of organic matter substances called protein, lignins, carbohydrates,
 oils, fats, waxes, and many other materials (Donahue et al., 1983). Carbohydrates, which
range in complexity from simple
sugars and starches to cellulose, are usually the most plentiful of plant organic compounds.
Lignin which are complex compounds with multiple ring-type or phenol structures, are
components of plant cell walls and it increases as plant mature and is high in woody tissues.
Other polyphenols, such as tannins may comprise as much as 6 or 7% of the leaves and bark of
certain plants. Lignins and polyphenols are notoriously resistant to decomposition. Certain
plant parts, especially seed and leaf coatings, contain significant amounts of fats, waxes and
oils, which are more complex than carbohydrates but less so than lignin. Protein contain about
16% nitrogen and smaller amount of sulfur, manganese, copper and iron. Simple proteins
decompose and release their nitrogen easily, while complex crude proteins are more resistant to
break down (Brady, 1999).
There are a number of compounds that occur in plant tissues. The composition of
mature and dry plant tissue is given in Table-2.
Table-2: Composition of a mature and dry plant tissue (Rai, 1995).

I Compounds Percentage
Sugars and starches 1-5
Carbohydrates Cellulose 20-50
Hemi cellulose 10-28
Protein Simple water soluble and crude 1-15 I
Fats, oils, waxes, tannins etc, -1-8 '
Lignins 10_30
l_ I
4.3 Composition based on types of compound: On the basis of their chemical nature plant
tissues (organic residues) may be divided into
A. Organic and B. Inorganic (elemental) composition
A list of compounds constituting the plant residues or undecomposed soil organic
matter is shown in the following diagram (Sahai, 1999):
Organic Residues [Undecomposed organic matter]
.0

Organic
Inorganic
(mineral matter or ash)
S, P, Cl, C03, Ca, Mg, Na, K, Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn etc.
Nitrogenous
Insoluble: Protein, peptides, peptones etc. Water soluble: Nitrates, ammonical, compounds etc.
Non nitrogenous Carbohydrates: Cellulose (insoluble), starch, hemicelluloses, pectin,
mucilage etc. (hydrolysable); sugars (soluble)
Ether soluble: Fats, oils, waxes, resins, steroid etc.
Miscellaneous: Lignin, tanin, essential oils, organic acids
S. DECOMPOSITION OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS:
5.1 Rate of decomposition: Organic compounds vary greatly in their rate of decomposition. They
may be listed in terms of ease of decomposition as follows.
1. Sugars, starches, and simple proteins 2. Crude proteins
3. Hemicellulose 4. Cellulose
5. Fats, waxes, etc. 6. Lignins
Rapid decomposition
Very slow decomposition
When organic tissue is added to soil, three general reactions take place.

y•(- •~.w o 3a G ) t' V;\'

\\'c ~: ~~ 0

8
A. The bulk of the material undergoes enzymatic oxidation with CO-2, water, energy and
heat as major products.
B. The essential elements such as nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur are released and/or
immobilized by a series of specific reactions relatively unique
for each element.
C. Compounds very resistant to microbial actions are formed either through modification
of compounds in the original plant tissue or by microbial synthesis (Collectively these resistant
compounds comprise soil humus.) (Brady, 1999).
Organic matter does not add any "new' plant nutrients but releases nutrients in a plant
available form through the process of decomposition. In order to maintain this nutrient cycling
system, the rate of addition fi-oin crop residues and manure must equal the rate of decomposition.
 If the rate of addition is less than the rate of decomposition, soil orgaru~ matter will
decline and , conversely if the rate of addition is greater than the rate of decomposition , soil
organic matter will increase. The term steady slate is a condition where the rate of addition is
equal to the rate of decucuposion (Googlee.com. ).
When organic substances are manufactured by plants, energy from the sun through the
process of photosynthesis is stored in these substances. When the substances are decomposed,
thG stored energy is again released. However, the decomposition process has an energy barrier,
called activation energy, which must be overcome. When wood is burned, the activation energy
is the elevated heating provided by the match or flame. In nature, few reactions such as lighting
are available to provide this heat energy. Most biological processes require a means to reduce
this activation energy so that the process can uccur in natural condition; enzymes, which do
lower the activation energy between chemical bonds, provide this means (Donahue et al.. 1983 ).

6. ENZYMES AND THE BIOLOGICAL REACTION:

An enzyme is a substance, composed mostly of protein that is able to lower the activation
energy of other selective compounds enough to allow the breaking of a particular bond in a given
natural environment. Such enzyme
influenced reactions are called biological reactions.
The action of the enzyme to make a split easier does not "use up" the enzyme. When one reaction
is completed, the changed molecule diffuses into solution and the enzyme then can split another
similar bond. An activator that is not consumed or changed by such a process is called catalyst.
There is a different enzyme for breaking each kind of bond; each enzyme is given a name
descriptive of the particular reaction it does, plus the ending-ase.Table-3.lists a number of common
enzymes and their particular reactions (Donahue et al., 1983).
Table-3: Some common enzymes and the reactions they influence.
Enzyme Foaction
Cellulase Breaks celluloses (cell-wall fibers,"wood"),which are long, chains
hundreds of sugar unit long, into those component sugars. Important in
organic matter decay.
Urease Breaks down urea (H4NzC0) in water to COz and NH4. Makes animal
 urine and urea fertilizer nitrogen more available to plants.
Phosphatase I O
By involving water, it breaks the "humus-O-P-(OH)2" bond to produce
"humus-OH" and H3POa, which helps to decompose humus, making P
available to plants.
Sulfatase __
I II
By involving water, it breaks the "humus-O-S-OH" bond to produce
i

"humus-OH" and HZSO4. li

Protease By involving water, it breaks the bond linking two amino acids
OO
II II
[R,-(NH)-C'-R2] to form separate amino acids (RI-NHZ and HO-C-R2)
arts of to cic-401M wrocess of living tissues.
7. DECOMPOSION OF ORGANIC MA TTER:
The organic materials (Plant and animal residues) when incorporated in
the soil, at once attacked by organism and converted (decomposed) into new
substances.
7.1 Decomposition of soluble substances
(a) Sugar + Starches aerobic -0 COZ + Water condition
(b) Ammonification (Sahai, 1999):
Organic N-* NH3 or Protein-o. Polypeptides* Amino acids~NH3 or salt (c) Nitrification:

2NH4+ + 302 Nitrosomona.s 2N02- +2H20 +4H+

'
(-3)
(+3) increasing oxidation state of N
2N02- +OZ Nitrobacter 1
N03 _

(+3) -- '
(d) Denitrification: (+5) increasing oxidation state of N

2N03--op 2N02- 2N0-10 NZ01-* Nz

-~ 1
+5 +3 +2 +l 0 N oxidation state
The bacteria responsible for denitrification belong to the genera Yseudomonas,
Bacillus, and Parcrcoccuc. Several autotrophs also involved in denitriftcation include
7hibacillus denitrificans and T. thioparu.s (Havlin, 2003).
 7.2 Decomposition of insoluble substances: (a) Break
down of protein:
Proteins hydrolysis i peptone, peptidase, proteases - , amino acids
0 ONH3
(b) Break down of cellulose:
Cellulose hydrolysis Cellobiose hydrolysis Glucose cellulase cellobiase oxidation oxidation
Glucose Organic acids - - --- - COZ H20
+

(c) Break down of hem] cellulose:

Hemi cellulose hydr-°lysi.sb Sugar + Uronic acids gly cos idase
Sugar -: alcohol, CO2 -P, organic acids (d) Break down of starch:
Starch h y d r o l y s i s v- Maltose
/3 - amylase •~
Maltose - Glucose a - amylase
,
7.3 Decomposition of ether soluble substances: Fat Lipase P Glycerol + Fatty acids

Glycerol l pa ' se i Organic acids

7.4 Decomposition of lignin:

Lignin on dati°" -r COZ + HO l ignase
7.5 Simple decomposition products: As the enzymic changes of the soil organic matter
proceed, simple products begin to manifest themselves. Some of these, especially COZ and
water, appear immediately. Others such as N0 3 nitrogen accumulate only after the peak of the
vigorous decomposition is over (table- 4). The more common simple products resulting from
the activity of the soil microorganisms are as follows:
Carbon: COZ, C03--, HC03 , elemental carbon Nitrogen:
NH4+, N02-, N03-, gaseous nitrogen Sulphur: S, H2S,
S03--, S04--, CS2 Phosphorous: H2PO4-, HPO4-
Others: HZO, 02, H2, H+, OH-, K+, Ca++, Mg++ etc. (Sahai, 1999).
One example of nutrient release by decomposition is the release of nitrogen. Table-4
illustrates the amount of nitrogen released annually from soils of different textures and
different organic matter contents. Usually decomposition is more rapid in the sandy soils
(Donahue et al., 1983).
 The ``humic compounds " are involved in more or less close bonding with mineral
compounds (clay minerals and oxides); they are in turn mineralized, but more slowly than
fresh organic matter (Secondary mineralization, Fig-2).
Fresh Organic Matter (litter)

primary
Mineralization
Humus
~ COZ_ S042-, PO4'-, NH4+, N03~, etc.

Reorganization
Secondary
Mineralization
rCO2, SO:,
NHa+, N03-, etc.
Fig-2: Decomposition of fresh organic matter, humification and mineralization (Duchaufour,
1998).
The humic and non-humic compounds collectively make up humus.
The humic substances comprise about 60-80% of the soil organic matter. Two more
complex substances polyphenols and polyquinones are formed by decomposition, synthesis
and polymerization. Humic substances are dark in color, amorphous and have high molecular
weight.
The non-humic group make up about 20-30% of the organic matter in soils. The non-
humic substances consist of polymers, polysaccharides, and polyuronides. Non-humic group
also have some simpler compounds such as organic acids and some protein-like materials.
Non-humic substances are less complex and less resistant to microbial attack than humic
substances (Sahai, 1999).
14
10. ENERGY OF ORGANIC MA TTER:
The quantity of energy soil organisms use for digesting plant residues and humus is
remarkably high. For example: The application of 20 Mg (metric tons) of farm manure
containing 5000 Kg of dry matter embodies about 105 million kilojoules (kj) [25 million
kilocalories (kcal)] of latent energy. This is equivalent to the energy in more than 3Mg of
anthracite coal. In the digestion process, most of the energy released is lost as heat, with only a
small amount being used for activities of the organisms. The elevated temperature of a compost
pile is a practical illustration of the dissipated heat (Brady, 1999)
11. IMPORTANCE OF ORGANIC MATTER:
Organic matter is the vast array of carbon compounds in soil. Originally created by
plants, microbes, and other organisms, these compounds play a variety of roles in nutrient,
water, and biological cycles (Googlee.Com. ). The organic matter content of a soil is intimately
related to its productivity. Some of the functions of organic matter are as follows:
1. Organic matter is the source of 90-95% of the nitrogen in unfertilized soils.
2. Organic matter can be the major source of both available phosphorus and available
sulfur when soil humus is present in appreciable amounts (about 2% or more).
3. Organic matter supplies directly or indirectly through microbial action the major soil
aggregate-forming cements, particularly the long sugar chains called polysaccharides.
4. Organic matter is a carbon supply for many microbes that perform other beneficial
functions in soils (e.g. free dinitrogen fixers, denitrifiers).
5. When left on top of soil as a mulch, organic matter reduces erosion and surface runoff,
shades the soil (which prevents rapid moisture loss) and keeps the soil color in very hot
weather and wormer in winter (Donahue et ah, 1983).
6. Aids growth of crops by improving the soil's ability to store and transmit

17
air and water, as measured by improved porosity; water holding capacity, and
drought resistance.
 7. Provides a source of carbon and energy for soil microbes which cycle nutrients and
fight plant diseases.
8. Reduces the negative environmental effects of pesticides, heavy metals and other
pollutants by binding contaminants (Googlee.Com.).
9. Organic matter binds soil particles into structural units called aggregates. These
aggregates help to maintain a loose, open, granular condition Water infiltrate and
percolate readily. The granular condition of soil maintains favorable condition of
aeration and permeability.
10. Organic acids released from decomposing organic matter help to reduce alkalinity in soils.
11. Fresh organic matter supplies food for such soil life as earthworms, ant and rodents. This microorganism
improves drainage and aeration (Sahai, 1999). Influence of organic matter on soil properties are given in Table-5.
Table-5: General properties of soil organic matter and associated effects on soil properties (Tisdale et al., 2002).
1 Remarks Effect . .
Color The ypical dark color of many soils is on sail
May facilitate warming.
caused ba ortj~,anic matter.
Water retention Organic matter can hold up to 20 times Helps prevent drying and shrinking. May
its weight in water. significantly improve the moisture-retaining
vzv verties of sandy soils.
Combination with Cements soil particles into aggregates. Permits exchange of gases stabilizes
clav minerals structure, increases vermeabilitv.
Chelation ' May enhance the availabiliy of
', Mnz . Zn2', and other i~olvvalent cations. micronutrients to hit~her vlants.
Solubility in water Insolubility of organic matter is because Little organic matter is lost by leaching.
' of its association with clay.
Buffer action ' Organic matter exhibits pH buffering Helps to maintain a uniform reaction in the
soil.
Cation exchange Total acidities of isolated fractions of I May increase the soil CEC. From 20 to 70%
humus ~ of CEC of many soils (e.g. Mollisols) is due
140(1me,!/1(>U~. to organic matter.
Mineralization ', Decomposition of organic matter vields ~ A source of nutrients elements for plant
C02, NH,', N03-, H 2P04, and SO4Z-. F~~owth.
Combines with Affects bioactivitti-, persistence and Modifies application rate of pesticides for
'
organic molecules effective control.
biodegradability of pesticides. I
12. STRUCTURAL CHEMISTR Y OF ORGANIC MA TTER:
Several hypotheses have been reported on the structural chemistry of humic acids, but
apparently the hypotheses lack desirable uniformity and much disagreement still exists.
Kononova (1961) is of the opinion that at least 3 basic steps are involved in formation
of humic acids:
(1) Formation of structural units from the decomposition of plant tissues, (2)
Condensation of these units, and
 (3) Polymerization of the condensation products.
The concept of Schnitzer and Khan (1972) is based on information obtained from
chemical degradation of fulvic acids. On the basis of the predominant findings of benzene
derivatives, Schnitzer and Khan (1972) assume that fulvic acid is composed of phenolic and
benzene carboxylic acids, joined together by hydrogen bonds to form a polymeric structure.
Flaig and coworkers (Flaig et al., 1975) suggest lignin to be the source, starting point, for the
formation of humic and fulvic acids.
Among different opinions existing on the origin and structure of humic matter, an
agreement is present indicating that phenolic groups and nitrogen compounds are the building
blocks for humic matter. The latter concept is reflected in the lignoprotein theory, which
differs only slightly from hypotheses derived from oxidation and degradation research on
humic compounds. Results of 1'C-NMR analyses suggest the presence of a consistent structural
composition including aliphatic, aromatic and carboxyl compounds. Infrared spectroscopy also
provides evidence for only one basic structure related to the presence of aliphatic C-H,
carboxyl and phenolic-OH functional groups. In, addition, the elemental composition is fairly
consistent with carbon content varying only from 40 to 50%, hydrogen from 4 to 5°,%.
Nitrogen from 1 to 5% and sulfur from 0.2 to 0.3%. In the light of the above discussion, the
modern view of humic acid is given in fig-4 (Tan, 1993).
Modern view of humus formation:
Lignin and other plant I I Organic residues in
Polyphenolic compounds I I general
Microbial I Degradation Microbial I Degradation
Small Sugars, organic acids
units,
polyphenolic I and other simple
and
methoxypheno - organic compounds
intermediate Microbial Smthesis Degradation
I Microbia~ Synthesis
Oxidation of side chains and Transformation
HydroN,lation of Rings C02, H20, NH3, and
And Decarborvlation other simple inorganic Microbial
cells and
compounds products
Ring Cleavage Rele e and Alteration of
Oxidation /Microbial Phenolic Polymers
Numerous Mo, Cl, and trihydroxy phenols and benzoic acids
Enzvmatic and Autooxidation

Phenolic radicles and hydroxybenzoquinones

Polymerization

Peptides, amino acids, amino sugars and polysaccharides containing amino sugars from
decomposing organic residues and microbial cells
Fig-4: Overall scheme for the formation of humic acid polyphenols derived from lignin and
synthesized by microorganism.
It is now generally excepted that humic acid and fulvic acids are formed by a multiple
stage processes that includes
A. Decomposition of all plant components including lignin, into simpler monomers,

20
B. Metabolism of the monomers with an accompanying increase in the cell biomass,
C. Repeated recycling of the biomass C (and N) with synthesis of new cells, and
D. Concurrent polymerization of reactive monomers into high molecular weight polymers.
Although many different types of reactions can lead to the production of dark-colored
pigments (e.g. humic acids), the main pathway appears to be through condensation reactions
involving polyphenols and quinones.
According to present day concepts, polyphenols derived from plants (e.g. lignin) or
synthesized by microorganisms, (e.g. fungi, or imperferty group), are enzymatically converted
to quinines, which undergo self condensation or combine with carbohydratesy (Sopher and
Baird, 1982).
13. CARBON-NITROGEN RA TIO:
The carbon-nitrogen ratio simply refers to the ratio of carbon to nitrogen in soils and
organic matter. For most stable soils a system, this ratio is around 12:1 (twelve parts carbon to
one part nitrogen). The importance of this ratio lies in the fact that it is a measure of the speed
with which organic materials will decay. Many soil organisms need quite a lot of N to
breakdown organic matter (Sopher and Baird, 1982). The C/N ratio of organic materials is an
indication of the likelihood of a nitrogen shortage and of the competition between microbes and
higher plants for whatever nitrogen is available in the soil (Foth, 1984). Decomposition of
materials with a low C:N ratio like animal manures (less than about 20:1) will release nitrogen,
while the decomposition of high C:N materials such as straw or sawdust will require that soil
microbes use the amendment N for their own metabolic needs. Table-6 lists some average ratios
for common organic by-products. Green materials usually have lower C:N ratios than woody
materials or dead leaves. Animal wastes are more N rich than plant wastes (Googlee.Com.)
and revegetation of depleted soils. Organic matter levels increase rather rapidly during the first
few years of soil formation, the rate subsequently slows down, and an equilibrium level
characteristic of the environment under which that soil was formed is attained (Stevenson and
Cole, 1999).
15.6 Effect of agricultural management and tillage: Cultivated lands contain much lower
levels of both soil nitrogen and organic matter than the lands of natural vegetation. Soil tillage
aerates the soil and breaks up the organic residues, making them more accessible to microbial
decomposition. A rapid
decline in soil organic matter content occurs when a virgin soil is brought under cultivation.
Eventually, the gains and losses of organic matter reach a new equilibrium and the soil organic
matter content stabilizes at a much lower value. Conservation tillage practices can help to
maintain or restore high surface soil organic carbon levels. Compared to conventional tillage,
practices such as stubble mulching and no-till leave a higher proportion of the residues on or
near the soil surface. These techniques protect the soil from erosion and discourage the rapid
decomposition of crop residues (Brady and Well, 2002).
16. MAINTAINANCE OF ORGANIC MA TTER:
Organic matter levels can be increased either by reducing losses or increasing inputs.
Organic matter losses can be modified to some degree by (Singer and Munns, 1987)
A. Controlling soil erosion to keep soil and organic colloids from washing or blowing
away (Sopher and Baird, 1982).
B. Selecting the kind of organic added (for example, decay is accelerated by small
particle size, low lignin and cellulose content and high nitrogen content).
C. Modifying or choosing environmental conditions for the decay microbes (for example,
decay is accelerated by incorporating material into the soil, choosing or providing
warm moist conditions, adding deficient nutrients such as nitrogen, adding lime to
correct
soil acidity, or enhancing aeration by drainage) (Singer and Munns, 1987).
 The following general principles apply to maintaining soil organic matter in many
situations:
l. A continuous supply of organic materials must be added to the soil to maintain an
appropriate level of soil organic, especially in the active fraction.
2. It is generally not practical to try to maintain higher soil organic matter levels than the
soil-plant-climate control mechanisms dictate.
3. Because of the linkage between soil nitrogen and organic matter, adequate nitrogen
inputs are requisite for adequate organic matter levels. 4. Maximum plant growth will be
increasing the amount of organic matter added to soil from crop residues.
5. Because tillage accelerates organic matter losses both by increased oxidation of soil
organic matter and by erosion, it should be limited to that needed to control weeds and
to maintain adequate soil aeration.
6. Perennial vegetation, especially natural ecosystems, should be encouraged and
maintained wherever feasible (Brady and Well, 2002).
Plants depend on microbes to break down organic matter and make the nutrients
available to them. Most microbes get energy from carbon compounds such as sugars,
carbohydrates, fats, and other substances. To grow, microbes need carbon for energy and
nitrogen to build proteins. For every twenty to thirty carbon atoms they consume, they use
about one nitrogen atom. If that nitrogen is not available from the newly-added organic
material, microbes will take it from the soil, and deprive growing plants of nitrogen
(Googlee.Com.).
In a consideration of the maintenance of soil organic matter, the amount of crop
residues that must be returned to maintain a given organic matter content depends on soil and
climatic conditions. For example, 4000 kilograms per hectare of crop residues are needed
annually to maintain the organic matter content of Black land soils near Dallas, Texas (Foth,
1984).

27
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