Assignment 1:

Task 1)
Allan Y. He Plan103

Defining the term 'waste' can be largely subjective; as expressed by the saying
- “One man's rubbish is another's treasure”. Therefore all countries would have
a strict legal definition. In New Zealand, this is defined as “any material, solid,
liquid or gas, that is unwanted and or unvalued,
and discarded or discharged by its owner”. by the 'New Zealand Waste
Strategy (NZWS) 2002. Different types of waste are then categorised in detail
along with proposed treament of them. As human populations rose and came
to congregate together in larger communities; a need for a good waste
management system became apparent. With improper disposal of waste,
environmental or ecological issues may arise. These impacts which affect air,
land and water quality will be conveyed through the example of poor landfill
waste management. By understanding biological, chemical and geological
cycles through planning; good waste management also is achieved in
landfilling. Targeting and reducing the source of waste, can result in many
benefits, including reduced environmental costs. A 'hierarchy of waste
management' is generally employed to target all aspects of waste treatment
and disposal.

The foremost option in this 'hierarchy' strategy is

the initial reduction of waste that is produced.
By implementing
cleaner technologies and processes; less
resources are used while less waste is produced in
manufacturing. The development of newer and
more efficient technology can also achieve
waste reduction. Another method is to
manufacture longer lasting products, as well as
products which result in less waste. There are
significant environmental and economic benefits
which proceeds from
minimizing waste. For example, the carbon footprint and
energy consumption on the transportation of raw materials and waste can also
be lowered. Savings in costs for raw source: http://reuse.ly
materials, production, energy use and waste disposal will be considerable
likewise. This shows why to 'reduce' the volume of waste at the source is the
most sustainable option. However, most firms are reluctant to fully introduce
policies which result in waste reduction as it requires investment and short
term costs. In the long run, the advantages will always overcome the expenses.

The 'reuse' and 'recycling' of waste are the next desireable options before
disposing of waste in the hierarchy. The reuse process involves simply
collecting, reusing waste materials. Tyre retreading would come into this step
as many truck tyres can be retreaded many times throughout their lifetime.
Finding new uses for the waste item is also part of reusage. One example would
be utilizing old tyres for boat fenders and silage covers. Recycling recovers
useful materials from waste and then processes them to new marketable
products. Aluminium cans and glass are some of the main components for
recycling. They are known for net savings in energy costs compared to their
original production. Although reusing and recyling waste material seems to be
logical and advantageous in theory, there are instances where these processes
are not practicable. Environmental and economic costs including emission of
pollutants, recovering, cleaning, and transportation of materials may outweigh
its benefits. When recyling already cheap abundant materials, the means of
reprocessing them may end up costing more than producing them from
scratch. This could also lead to large surpluses of unwanted materials.

The last sections of this waste management system is the disposal of waste.
This includes energy recovery through incineration and the last resort of
landfilling. Most wastes will contain an organic substance which can be burnt in
an incinerator. Energy is then recovered through a boiler with hot water to
provide district heating or high-temperature steam for electricity generation.
The combustion of landfill gases is also part of this process. Landfill gass is
produced from the biodegration of organic components in domestic waste and
sewage sludge; which mainly consists of methane and carbon dioxide. Under
the hierarchy, landfilling is seen as the least desirable option. Biological
processeswithin the landfill ensure that, over a period of time, any
biodegradable waste is neutralised to form an essentially inert material. Where
disposal to landfill occurs, the process is controlled; and with the understanding
of biogeochemical cycles, human health or the environment is not endangered
due to good waste management.

With this knowledge of how elements and molecules travels through the
biosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and atmosphere; drawbacks from
landfilling can be minimized. To accomplish good waste management in
landfills, a proposed site needs to be assessed to appraise geological and
hydrogeological stability. These include surveys and assessments such as aerial
photography, geological mapping and sampling. The geological cycle, which is
the creation, erosion, transportation and deposition of rocks and minerals;
helps determine the types of rocks that are below the surface. Thus their
permeability to possible landfill run-offs can be ascertained. Groundwater
sources could also be located through the geological cycle. With these factors
known; a geological barrier is employed on the base and sides of the landfill to
provide sufficient envrionmental protection of surrounding soil and
groundwater. The hydrologic cycle is also important as it affects the geological
cycle with the movements of water. The trends of processes including
evaporation, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, run-off and subsurface
flow helps plan for likely climates, water balance and treament of leachate
within the landfill.

The biological and chemical cycles which occur in landfills are especially
important in achieving good waste management. Recongising what and how
landfill gases and lechates are formed; assists in implementing policies and
technology to contain them. The two main categories for the biochemical
processes are 'aerobic' and 'anaerobic' simply meaning 'with air' and 'without
air'; where the nitrogen cycle is essential for it to take place. Without bacterial
'fixing' of nitrogen, other organisms that are crucial to the decomposition of
waste; may not be able to use it. There are 5 distinct stages for waste to
become fully inert in landfill. Each stage producing mostly carbon dioxide,
hydrogen and water. Only in the 4th stage of 'methanogenesis', methane
appears after a long period in anaerobic conditions. To control the release of
these greenhouse gases, there are 2 methods which are incorporated into
appropriate stages of the biochemical process. A pumping extraction system is
the solution where the gas passes through a high-permeability vent, through
to the pump. There is also passive venting which recommended only for old
landfills with low gas emissions; or landfills that are well into stage 5, oxidation
as the wastes become inert. Leachate is the resulting liquid composted of
remaining waste and water. Good management and treatment of leachate
requires comprehension of chemicals and substances which are present and
also the pH levels. A clay liner is usually utilized to contain the leachate; which
is collected and treated. With all these factors considered, landfills run cleaner
and more efficiently; minimalizing environment harm while disposing waste
safely.

Poor landfill waste management can result in adverse impacts on the air, land
and water quality. The incineration of wastes long with landfill gases creates a
range of air pollution concerns. It also leaves behind the substantial burden of
toxic ash residues. These emissions including carbon dioxide, methane,
nitrogen oxides and sulphur dioxide are let into the atmosphere with the
absence of good management. This leads to ozone damage, smog, harm to
plants, humans and animals due to the detrimental air quality. Potientally
radioactive or hazardous waste can be taken in to the landfill when there is
poor management and no check in place for dangerous substances. In turn, the
land quality is polluted with no possibility for future utilization. Pesticides and
herbicides can also affect soils and potientally kill plants and creatures. Without
proper containment of leachtes, groundwater sources can be contaminated.
This is highly likely when soil above or below a landfill is permeable. Once the
groundwater is polluted, the pollution may be difficult to detect, let alone
reverse. Through the hydrologic cycle, the contaminated water is discharged
into wetlands streams and lakes. This would then proceed to damage the
ecology of the area as a whole.

Overall, good waste management makes use of the waste hierarchy and
highlights the importance of waste reduction reuse and recyling before
disposal. Through the study of landfills, it is shown that negative impacts on
the environment are minimized through planning and management from
understand biogeochemical cycles that takes place. For if this wasn't the case,
landfills would become polluted dumps of waste as there are no precautions to
administer and manage it.
Task 2)

The Production Process of Plastic Bags

The plastic bag is an item that is used and seen everyday due to its
convienence, utility and low cost to manufacture. However, there are many
negative factors associated with the plastic bag which most consumers are
unaware of. One main factor is the waste and the environmental issues
regarding it. The two key ingredients required to produce plastic bags are
petroleum and coal. Petroleum or crude oil is generally extracted from
reservoirs while coal is obtained from underground shaft mining. These raw
materials are then transported to factories that manufacture the plastic bags.
high-density polyethylene is then created from hydrocarbon polymers in this
process which plastic bags are made from. A significant amount of pollution is
generated from plastic bag production. These emissions include carbon dioxide
as well as potientally toxic chemicals. Two plastic bags results in 1.1kgs of
atomsperic pollution (Lifecycle Environmental Assessment 1990) which can
lead to acid rain and smog. Additionally, the same 2 plastic bags produces 0.1
g of waterborne waste which may harm ecosystems if they are not disposed of
properly.

The Storage and Distribution of Plastic Bags

Plastic bags are usually stacked together flat as it is most compact in that form.
Transportation is required to move them to comercially to businesses. Trucks as
well as ships are employed to distribute massive numbers of plastic bags. As
much as 5 trillion plastic bags were made in 2002 (Wordwatch State of the
World 2004 ). These types of transport use fuel which also emit much air
pollutants which would be substaintal, considering the volume of plastic bags
produced.

The Usage and Disposal of Plastic Bags

Daily life with plastic bags has been typical since it was first introduced in
supermarkets in 1977. 870 million single-use plastic bags were handed out in
the UK in May 2006 (Guardian 2009) while 20 billion was consumed by Taiwan
in 2005. In the US, 100 billion bags are thrown away after use anually
(Geographical, 2005). With nearly all of them ending up in the garbage,
countless plastic bags are found in landfills. A wide range of environmental
impacts are related to the usage and disposal of plastic bag as they become
waste. Land pollution is most obvious as they take up to 1000 years to break
down. Due to their light weight, plastic bags are prone to be blown around and
can travel to most areas. Wildlife are often killed from ingesting these plastic
material from these bags. Plastic bags are able to be recycled although only up
to 3% are done so. Due to its nature, it is a long complex process for it to be
recycled; which includes sorting, cleaning and reprocessing.

Reducing Waste Impacts of Plastic Bags

The first possibility in lowering the waste produced from plastic bags is to use
biodegradable plastics. There are currently 2 types of biodegradable plastics:
'Oxo-biodegradable' and 'Hydro-biodegradable'. An oxo-biodegradable plastic is
formed from a normal polymer with an extra additive. This additive accelerates
the breakdown of molecular bonds via exposure to sunlight and air which
results in absorption into the biochemical cycle. In landfill conditions, this type
of biodegradable plastic decompose within 18 months. On the other hand,
Hydro-biodegradable plastic is starch-based which can come from plants. Since
4-5 trillion plastic bags are produced every year, if the same amount was
produced in biodegradable plastics; by the time it takes for the first 5 trillion
plastic bags to breakdown; around 3333 trillion biodegradable plastics would
have already done so. It is approximately 666 times faster for these plastics to
decompose; reducing plastic waste by around two thirds. If normal plastic take
1000 years to breakdown that is. Although pollutate emissions may remain or
increase because of new substances required in the manufacture process.

The second option is employing re-useable grocery bags. They can be made of
synthetic material or polypropylene. Their lifespan is around 3 years which is
much longer than the one off use of plastic bags. On average, one reuseable
bag is equiviliant to over 700 disposable plastic bags. This means that
approximately 7.14 million reusable bags can make up for the whole 5 trillion
plastic bags.

Barriers/Limitations

To fully implement biodegradable plastics into the plastic bag industry, new
technology and processes must be incorporated into production. There also
likely delays to do this such as installation and training of workers to use new
machinery. These plastic bags often become unsuitable for long term storage.
Hydro-biodegradable plastics are expense to make and weaker too. An
bacterial filled environment is required for the full decomposition of the plastics
as well.

Reuseable bags require significantly more material and energy to manufacture.

Many consumers still may not switch to reuseable bags as they do not know
the full benefits of it. Factories may also keep producing plastic bags as it is
much cheaper and well established.

Bibliography

Books
Solid and Hazardous Waste Management (2007) Bhatia S.C.
Waste Treatment and Disposal (2005) Williams, Paul T.
Opposing Viewpoints Garbage and Recycling (2007) Thomas Gale
Degradable Polymers, Recycling and Plastics Waste Management (1995) Marcel
Dekker

Websites
http://www.ecan.govt.nz/advice/sustainable-living/waste/pages/managing-
waste-sustainably
www.p2pays.org/ref/32/31760.pdf
http://newglobalwarmingeffects.com/2008/12/21/landfill-problems-and-global-
warming-effects/
www.zerowasteamerica.org/landfills.htm
www.blurtit.com/q952335.html
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cycles
homepages.nyu.edu/~pet205/biogeochem1.html
www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Biogeochemical_cycle
http://inspirationgreen.com/plastic-bag-stats.html
http://www.vipirg.ca/publications/pubs/
www.learnaboutenergy.org/gbags/facts.doc
www.americanchemistry.com/s_plastics/doc.asp?CID
http://www.greenlivingtips.com/articles/14/1/Earth-friendly-plastic-bags.html
http://www.articlesfactory.com/articles/business/the-manufacturing-process-of-
polypropylene-reusable-shopping-bags.html
http://www.europeanplasticfilms.eu/docs/Jamesandgrant1.pdf
http://www.reusethisbag.com/25-reasons-to-go-reusable.asp