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• It is well known that improper gating practice can result in defects like
CEROXIDE, INCLUSIONS, COLD SHUTS, MISRUNS, HOT TEARS,
LOCAL SHRINKAGES, and GAS CAVITIES in a steel casting.
• In addition to these, the gating system should be of such simple design as to facilitate
molding, particularly with mechanical methods, at the same time involving minimum
fettling cost and affording maximum casting yield.
• Many of these requirements and functions are conflicting with each other. Effort
should be to harmonize these so as to create conditions conducive to the production
of a defect free casting.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF FLOW
• When considering the running systems, it is instructive to bear in mind a few idealized
conditions of flow. It is true that the conditions prevalent in a mold are more complex.
However, certain basic patterns of flow are fundamental and the gating system can be
fully “engineered” from these.
• The requirements of a gating system are the opposite of a hydraulic system. In the
later case, every effort is made to reduce all frictional and kinetic losses to minimum
so as to conserve power. In designing a running system of a casting, the reverse is the
case. The metal entering the mold should have the lowest possible velocity, and yet,
should fill up the same at a rate first enough before the loss of temperature renders
this impossible.
• The law of continuity states that the flow rate must be the same at a
given time in all portions of a fluid system. It may be written as:-
• Q = A1V1 =A2V2
where Q = metal flow rate in cu.ft/sec
A1 & A2 = cross-sectional area of flow channel at two different
points 1 & 2 in sq.ft.
V1 & V2 = metal velocity at points 1 & 2 in ft/sec.
• This would mean that if the flow channel narrows down to half its
original cross-section, the metal velocity would be double, and vice
versa. The law of continuity, therefore, can be used to predict
quantitatively the effect of variation in channel size on the metal
velocities and flow rates in a gating system.
BERNOULLI’S THEOREM
• Bernoulli’s theorem states that the energy of a liquid at a given point can be separated
into three parts: energy of velocity, ( v2/2g) energy of pressure, (P1/ρ) and energy of
position, (h). In the ideal case ( with no energy loss ), when liquid moves from point 1
to point 2, it neither gains nor looses energy. Thus, setting the energies equal for two
positions, yields the equation as below:-
• A1/A2=√Z2/Z1
• In addition to its shape, the height of the sprue also effects its
filling. It has been shown that short sprue tend to fill up
completely, when the sprue: runner is1:1. The precise sprue
height at which incomplete filling begins, is determined by the
choke area.
SPRUE BASE
• Although little is known of the optimum radii required to suppress this type of
contraction, an enlarged sprue base goes long way in meeting the above problem.
Also to reduce appreciably the velocity of the metal leaving the sprue or spue base,
the cross-sectional area of the runner must be larger than that of the sprue exit. As
mentioned earlier, short sprues tend to fill completely, the reverse is, however, true
for runners. As the metal stream proceeds along the runners, it expands as its
velocity falls off, and eventually, completely fills the runners. Therefore it may be said
that short sprues, and long runners are an ideal combination in a running system.
• To ensure that only clean metal enters the gates, and thereby, the mold cavity, the
runners should be filled before the gates. It is, therefore, best to place runners in the
drag and gates in the cope.
• The molten metal that first enters the running system is usually contaminated due to
turbulence, aspiration and eroded sand. Runner bar extensions are, therefore, used
with advantage to prevent this metal from entering the mold cavity. The runner
extension must, however, be extended far enough beyond the last gate to prevent the
backwash of unclean metal from entering the gate.
GATES
• Similar conditions of flow exist at the junction of each
gate and runner bar as the junction of sprue and
runner. The resulting contraction that takes place in
the former is shown in Fig:-8.
• Following Newton’s First Law of Motion, a moving object, in this case the
stream of metal, tends to continue moving in the same direction until
some outside force is exerted to change it. The reduction of the cross-
sectional area of the runner just beyond the first gate, acts as that force.
It restricts the flow of metal to a certain extent and builds up a slight back
pressure, thereby making the stream of metal turn and flow through the
first gate. The amount by which the cross-sectional area must be
reduced at each gate is dictated by the gating ration being used.
1. When gating ratio is 1:1:1, decrease area of runner by the area of gate.
• Theoretically, the best way to fill a mould with liquid metal is to pour the
metal straight through the riser. This will create the ideal conditions for
directional solidification of castings. However, the method is not applicable
in its entirety, particularly to steel castings made in sand mould for obvious
reasons. Hence, the need for a gating system. Some of the gates commonly
used in steel foundry are described below:-
TOP GATE
• Top gates are usually limited to relatively small castings of simple design.
The turbulence of metal as it enters the mould cavity causes erosion, which
is a major problem in the manufacture of steel castings. As such, top gates
are used in steel foundries only for broad shapes of low heights.
BOTTOM GATE
• This gate, so called because of its shape, is a variety of bottom gating. The
main objection to its use is that the metal enters mould in a fountain like jet,
causing turbulence, aspiration of air etc. Horn gate is probably the greatest
single cause of gas cavities resulting from trapped air, and is not
recommended for gating steel castings. Experiments have shown that the
above fountain effect can be considerably reduced by enlarging the cross-
sectional area of the exit end of the horn gate into the mould to twice the
area of its entrance from the runner.
PARTING LINE GATE
2) Optimum whirl gate basin diameter appears to be between three to five times the ingate width,
and the height about 1.5 the ingate height.
i) The gating system is kept full of metal. The back pressure due to the restriction of at the
gates tends to minimize the danger of the metal pulling away from the mold walls, causing
the consequent aspiration, turbulence and sand erosion.
ii) In case of multiple gating system, the flow from the gates of equal area is uniform. Since
the kinetic effect of the metal stream is dampened by the back pressure created.
A non-pressurized gating system, wherein the area of runners and gates is larger than that
of the sprue i.e.. 1:2:2 or 1:4:4, offers a rapid filling, the low velocity metal stream resulting
in materially reduced mold erosion. Such systems, however, favor oxidation of metal and
may be partially responsible for the formation of ceroxide defect. Also metal flow is non-
uniform, when the gate area equals the runner area. A slight change in in the non-
pressurized system of 1:2:2 to the gating ration of 1:2:1.5 will produce steel castings nearly
free from sand erosion, will minimize oxidation in the gating system and will produce
uniform flow. It is reported that general application of this ratio reduced the percentage of
steel castings requiring welding from about 10 to 2%.
GATING CALCULATION
It has been reported that the following values for coefficient ‘S’ have found
to be suitable in actual production condition of steel castings over a
considerable long period.
Table-2
Below 4 1
6 to 10 2
10 to 40 1
Above 40 0.8
• Having determined the optimum pouring time of the casting, the cross-sectional
area of the ingate may be calculated according to the following formula:-
F = G ÷(0.31u√hst.t)
where F = Cross-sectional area of ingate, cm2
G = Weight of the casting and risers, Kg
u = Flow coefficient
t = Optimum pouring time
hst = Mean ferro static pressure during pouring, cm
The flow coefficient ‘u’ represent the inverse value of the resistance offered
by the mould and the running system. Values applicable to steel castings are
given in Table-3.
Table-3
hst = H0 – (P2÷2C)
where
H0 is Height of sprue ( from top of metal level in
pouring basin to the ingate level) in cm.
• Calculate Mean ferro static pressure ‘hst’ where ‘H0’ is 25cm, ‘P’ is 0 as total height
of the casting is below the ingate level and ‘C’ is 7.5cm:-
Calculate ingate area ‘F’ where ‘G’ is 145Kgs, Flow coefficient ‘u’ is 0.6, Mean ferro
static pressure ‘hst’ is 25cm and Pouring time ‘t’ is 31sconds :-
There are two ingates for the casting and as such cross-sectional area of each
ingate will be 14cm2 i.e.. 54mm wide and 26mm thick.
• Calculate area of runner and sprue :-
A gating ratio i.e.. Sprue area: Runner area:Ingate area =1:2:1.5 to be used
for steel castings.
In case of sprue area, since it is feeding both the ingates, total area of
ingates i.e. 28cm2 to be taken into account,
2. Short, tapered sprues and long runners with a large well at sprue base, ensure the complete filling of
the system with minimum turbulence, aspiration etc, thereby causing less mould erosion.
3. Runner bar extensions, whirl gate and runners in drag & gates in cope, are
effective dirt trap.
4. Faster flow rates with low metal stream velocities ensure castings with least mould
erosion.
5. Horn gate cause more air entrapment in steel castings and, therefore, are not
recommended.
6. Step gates do not function as expected. In practice, most of the metal tends to flow
from the bottom gate unless means are employed to obviate the above condition.
7. Multiple gating produces less mould erosion than a single ingate system.
8. A mildly pressurizes system with a gating ratio of 1:2:1.5 has been found to give
very satisfactory results in steel castings.
GATING & CASTING QUALITY
Before any of the studies on gating can be applied in production, the following
fundamental precautions must be observed. It has been found that more
sand inclusions in castings result following improper moulding practices, than
from the failure to apply scientific gating system.
1. New facing sand must be used for forming the gates, since the latter has to
withstand more erosive forces than any other portion of the mould.
2. The gates must be rammed at least as hard as the mould cavity, harder if
possible. This is particularly applicable to sprue.
3. Rather than the gates cut by moulder, the gating system should form a part of
the pattern equipment, wherever possible, as the former practice give rise to
easily eroded sand surface.
4. Various portions of the gating system must be fully matched, for if they are
not, the projections coming in the path of the stream are continually washed
away into the mold cavity.
5. Most of all, the gating system must be free from loose sand prior to the entry
of the molten metal. The practice of aspirating dirt with compressed air after
mold assembly and placing of coverings over risers and sprue openings are
excellent quality control operation.
A summery of what had been said earlier would show that, in order to minimize the mould
erosion, the best gating system would be a double ingate with a central sprue, a rapid filling,
low velocity system of properly proportioned runners and gates and short sprues with an
enlarged well base.
Besides, dirt trap in the form of whirl gates, runner bar extensions and provision of runners on
the drag and ingate in the cope are effectively used by most steel foundries to ensure that, as
far as possible, only clean metal enters into the mold cavity.
POROSITY
Too slow a rate of flow, as well as rate of rise of steel in the mould, results
in misrun castings with wrinkles and cold-shut surfaces. Under the above
conditions, temporary solidification takes place and further flow of metal is
not sufficient to erase the cold-shuts by re-melting these surfaces.
Therefore to avoid shrinkage cavities and hot tears, multiple gating should
be used so as to provide a flatter temperature gradient in the casting. Two
rules of thumb employed by steel foundries to minimize the above defects
are: to keep the cross-sectional area of the ingate smaller than that of the
casting and to cut ‘cracker ribs’ in the mold or core surface in front of the
ingates.
• A word about the inter-relationship of riser and ingate
positioning in steel casting. Control directional solidification
along the casting towards the riser should not be disturbed
by improperly placed ingates, since the feeding range of
risers may be reduced materially on account of the
suppression of end effect by the ingates.
REFERENCES
1. S. Bharadwaja, Indian Foundry Journal’1969
8. SFSA Research report No.31: The performance of whirl gate with liquid steel. December,1953