Working Paper Series

British Airways and Balmer’s AC3ID Test of Corporate Brand Management

Professor John M T Balmer

Dr Helen Stuart

Working Paper No 04/26

July 2004

The working papers are produced by the Bradford University School of Management and are to be circulated for
discussion purposes only. Their contents should be considered to be preliminary. The papers are expected to be
published in due course, in a revised form and should not be quoted without the author’s permission.
W O R K I N G PA P E R S E R I E S

BRITISH AIRWAYS AND BALMER’S AC3ID ABSTRACT

TEST OF CORPORATE BRAND MANAGEMENT There can be few organizations that have received
as much media attention as British Airways (BA).
Professor John M. T. Balmer This is particularly in regard to its various changes
Professor of Corporate Identity of identity/corporate brand that have been key
Bradford School of Management elements of its changing strategy. As a
Emm Lane consequence, BA has been the subject of
Bradford considerable international interest. As such, its
West Yorkshire changing corporate identity and corporate
BD9 4JL branding strategies have received many plaudits,
England and sometimes censure. In this article the
U.K. wisdom of the BA’s various changes of corporate
identity is assessed using the Balmer’s AC3ID Test
and of Corporate Brand Management. The test is a
diagnostic tool for examining the relationships
Dr Helen Stuart (and possible misalignments) between the six
Lecturer identities that are found within many
School of Business and Informatics organizations.
McAuley Campus
Australian Catholic University Our analysis confirms the efficacy of Balmer’s
PO Box 456 Virginia AC3ID test for its diagnostic ability in detecting
Brisbane 4014 QLD, key identity issues, given that the test
Australia. encapsulates multiple disciplinary roots and time
frames. As we will show in the article, the early
changes to the BA identity brought into
alignment some key dimensions described by the
AC3ID test. One subsequent change, the
unsuccessful graphic-design-driven ‘ethnic tails
fins’ identity change was narrowly conceived.
Although highly creative and ambitious, and
although it had a degree of logic, it was,
ultimately, unsuccessful owing to crucial identity
misalignments.

The importance of considering multiple

perspectives regarding corporate identity/
corporate branding and the inextricable link
between identity and corporate brand are some of
the main implications derived from this article.
These implications have particular relevance in
light of the growing numbers of organisations
that have recently undergone a change in their
corporate branding. The British Airways case
study is, for these organizations, a salutary tale.
However, it would appear that BA has adopted a
mature approach in the management of identity
in more recent years and has learnt from the
debacle that accompanies its latest corporate
rebranding exercise. In short, it has brought its
corporate brand into alignment with key identity
elements of the organization.

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 W O R K I N G PA P E R S E R I E S
INTRODUCTION
There can be few organizations that have received
as much media attention as British Airways (BA).
Over the past two decades the corporate identity
and corporate branding strategies of BA have
been the subject of considerable public interest.
For the main, such strategies have received
numerous plaudits but in one, ill conceived
change of strategy, British Airways received
widespread censure. In considering the period
from the 1970s to the present, our analysis
revealed that the corporate identity of BA has
undergone six identifiable periods of change. We
label these periods as Appalling (pre 1981),
Adjusting (1981-1983), Appealing (1984-1987),
Adoring (1988-1996), Astonishing (1997-2000)
and Affirming (2001 to the present).
As such, the history of BA over the last three
decades has been one of dramatic and sometimes
turbulent change. Change, which for the most
part, has served the airline well. The airline has
metamorphosed from a state-owned, loss-making
organization, to a streamlined, focused and highly
profitable entity. It then became a more business-
focused, less British, less profitable company.
More recently, the airline has re-affirmed its
traditional British identity: this is part of its
EXHIBIT ONE – THE AC3ID TESTTM
C3
THE AC3ID TESTTM
A
C3 ACTUAL
C C2
COMMUNICATED
C3 = Covenanted Identity
I D
IDEAL DESIRED
C3
4
strategy which draws on the airline’s historical
roots and is felt to be a strategy that will serve BA
well during the present period of considerable
volatility within the airline sector.
These six eras will be the subject of our analysis
using the AC3ID test, which is described in the
next section.
BALMER’S AC3ID TEST OF CORPORATE
BRAND MANAGEMENT
The AC3ID test represents the latest version of a
model that has recently been adapted by Balmer 1.
In this model six, crucially important, identity types
have been identified. This version of the model
introduces the corporate brand as a distinct
identity type (the covenanted identity) and this
represents a significant departure from the earlier
version comprising five identity types 2, 3, 4.. The
latest model is called the AC3ID Test of corporate
brand management and which is represented in
diagrammatic form in Exhibit One. He argues that
all six identities are crucial. It is crucial in terms
of the successful implementation of strategy. In
addition, it is central to the effective management
and maintenance of a positive reputation, and
moreover for the maintenance of a corporate
brand.
EXHIBIT THREE
C3
CONCEIVED
C3 TMBalmer 2002
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The six identities are described below. Each
identity type is descibed in terms of its
(a) dimensions
(b) stakeholders, and
(c) key concepts.
Actual identity
(a) The current attributes of the corporation,
shaped by corporate ownership, leadership
style of management, organizational
structure, business activities and markets
covered, the range and quality of products
and services delivered and overall business
performance. The values held by managers
and employees are also encompassed.
Especially important is employee
identification with the company. In terms of
organizational culture, the organization is
probably best viewed as a cluster of sub
cultures some of which have their roots
outside the organization.
(b) The key stakeholder groups involved tend to
be internal, that is, those who represent or
support the company, deliver its services or
make its products. Increasingly, outsiders are
considered part of the company (business
partners, alliance partners etc)
(c) Concepts: organizational identity, corporate
identity.
Communicated identity
(a) This is most clearly revealed in terms of on
‘controllable’ channels of corporate
communication. This includes advertising,
sponsorship and corporate public relations.
(b) The key stakeholder groups are both internal
(internal marketing programs) and external
(covering a wide spectrum of stakeholder
groups).
(c) Concepts: corporate communications, total
corporate communications, and corporate
public relations.
Conceived identity
(a) This refers to the perceptions held of the
organization by internal and external
stakeholder groups and networks. Some will
boundary-span the organization. There is an
important temporal (time) dimension to the
above in that past, present as well as future
perspectives are important.
(b) There are a variety of important stakeholder
groups and networks and will vary from
organization to organization.
(c) Concepts: corporate reputation and corporate
image (in its various facets).
Covenanted identity
(a) This refers to the covenant (promise) that
relates to the corporate brand. A promise that
underpins that serves as an informal contract
between an organization and its various
publics. The corporate brand covenant is
derived from identity attributes (the corporate
brand needs to be supported by appropriate
behavior.) Once established, a corporate
brand has a life and meaning of its own. For
this reason it is regarded as a distinct (sixth)
identity type.
(b) The corporate brand is of wide relevance to
internal, external stakeholder groups and
networks.
(c) Concepts: the corporate brand.
Ideal identity
(a) Typically, this is articulated in terms of an
organization’s strategic plan. The optimum
positioning of the organization in its market
in a given time frame. The ideal identity is
usually expressed only after careful analysis
of organizational competencies, assets, etc
along with predictions as to the changing
industry, political, economic, ethical, social
and technological environment.
(b) The key stakeholders here are internal
(strategic planners) and external (financial
analysts, regulators/legislative entities).
(c) Concepts: corporate strategy and
environmental analysis.
Desired identity
(a) This lives in the hearts and minds of the
corporate leaders; it is their vision for the
organization within a given time frame.
While this may be the same as the ideal
identity this is not always the case. The
desired identity, in some instances, represents
a powerful and insightful “emergent” strategy
that is gradually revealed by the actions of
senior executives. Major differences between
the ideal and desired identities can be very
damaging indeed.
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(b) The key stakeholders here are internal - the
CEO and Senior Executives (including those
involved in strategic planning formulation)
(c) Concepts: Leadership and strategy.
It is the task of management to manage the six
identities so that they are broadly calibrated. If
not, then potentially harmful misalignments may
occur.
2 3
THE REDS AC ID TEST PROCESS
In operationalizing the framework, Balmer has
devised a five stage process: the so called REDS2
AC3ID Test Process:
R: REVEAL the six identity types
E: EXAMINE key identity interfaces
D: DIAGNOSE the problem areas
S1: SELECT the interfaces that should be brought
in to alignment
S2: STRATEGY - develop a strategy to bring key
identities into alignment
In the next section we examine each of the six
changes of identity of British Airways as outlined
in the introduction. This reveals the saliency of
the AC3ID Test of corporate brand management as
an important diagnostic framework for senior
management.
THE CHANGING FACE OF BRITISH AIRWAYS
Any examination of the airline industry needs to
take cognisance of the fact that country-of-
origin is often a key point of differentiation.
The strong association between country and
airline had its roots in the early 20th century
when airlines were, in effect, seen as instruments
of the state.
British Airways is typical in this regard in that the
airline reflected Britain’s position on the world
stage British Airways roots are to be found in the
halcyon days of the British Empire when, in 1924,
four small British airlines were merged to become
what was known as Imperial Airways.
The name is not without significance. It was at
the behest of the British Government that the
airline was created. It enjoyed a favored position.
Not only was it granted was a national monopoly
but the British Government was jealous of its
6
growing international role (and stature) and was
wary of the emergence of other (state sponsored)
airlines from the Continent. Many of these airlines
received state subsidies. As such, the British
Government, during the first ten years of the
airline’s existence, funded the airline to the tune
of £100,000 (Jeremy 1999, p.31). Imperial
Airways was seen to be linked to Britain’s
international prestige.
As its name suggests, it had a crucially important
imperial role. It provided a critically important link
between Britain’s colonial outposts and London.
Accordingly, it facilitated speedier communication
throughout the Empire’s Dominions, Colonies and
Protectorates. It was particularly important to the
dispatching of the most senior colonial envoys
and administrators to the furthest reaches of the
Imperial Realm. In short, Imperial Airways was
not merely an airline: it was also an important
instrument of Pax Britannica.
The formation of a second international airline,
operating out of Britain in 1935, sought to
consolidate Britain’s aviation interests in South
America and Continental Europe. The new airline
was called British Airways. While the brand
name of British Airways was to temporarily
disappear in 1939 with the nationalization of the
British airline sector, it arose, phoenix like, in 1974
when the state-controlled airline sector was
restructured and which led to the establishment
of single, national, carrier.
The early years of the new airline were far from
auspicious. Among the British public there was a
general consensus that British Airways was over
manned and suffered from bad labor relations
(Green and Vogelsang 1994).
It is at this historic juncture that we start our
analysis of the changing identities of British
Airways using Balmer’s AC3ID test of corporate
brand management. We have drawn from a
number of sources for our analysis including
keynote presentations given by the former and
current chairmen of BA. We also marshal the
relevant literature on the area as well as material
from business and aviation journals, the quality
press and from documentary material produced
by British Airways.
‘Appalling’ Identity - 1974 to 1980
We begin in 1974 with the formation of British
Airways as a result of the merger of Britain’s two
national airlines, British Overseas Airways
Corporation (BOAC) and British European Airways
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(BEA). Internally, there were tensions between
employees from each of the airlines. The former,
who had worked on intercontinental routes,
viewed themselves as superior to their new
colleagues who had served on the less-glamorous
European BEA.
Poor service quality was a particular problem and
was epitomized by the myopic mind-set of pilots,
many of whom were former Royal Air Force (RAF)
pilots who believed that if passengers wished to
join them on a flight “they were welcome” (King
1994). This poor quality was particularly galling
for customers since BA, as a state-controlled
entity, had a monopoly of many routes. For many,
BA did not stand for British Airways but, to use
English colloquialism, for ‘Bloody Awful,’ and this
explains why we have labelled this first period as
appalling.
The airline’s legacy did not augur well for the
organization’s future. The airline was hidebound
by its cultural legacy, and, as a state concern,
suffered from government inertia, rising debt, lack
of strategic focus, ineffective management and,
significantly, a product rather than customer
orientation.
There were, however, some aspects of the airline’s
identity that were positive and unique. These
characteristics had the potential to be exploited
to good effect. Among these identity “assets”
were the flight-deck personnel who were reputed
to perform to exacting standards of safety. In
addition, British Airway’s benefited from Britain’s
imperial past, resulting in a privileged access to
London’s Heathrow Airport - the world’s most
profitable airport for airliners.
Our analysis revealed that the most serious
misalignment was alignment was between the
actual identity and the ideal identity. As we
have demonstrated, poor service and
management were key components of the actual
identity as were cultural and employee tensions.
However, the ideal identity envisioned for the
airline was that of a safe, customer-focussed,
profitable world-class carrier that capitalized on
its inherited assets (as detailed above).
‘Adjusting’ Identity - 1981 to 1983
By 1981, BA had a new chairman. Sir John King
(now Lord King). Prime Minister Thatcher had
given King the task of turning the airline from the
loss-making, state-owned, concern to a profitable
company in the private sector. However, this was
to be done without further financial state aid.
Prime Minister Thatcher, in subsequent meetings
with her new chairman, reiterated her mandate
with the words, “Remember John, there is no
money” (King 1994).
King was confronted with a dire financial
situation. As he told us:
The first, and most important, change I
made at BA was to establish the business on
a stable financial basis. Without cash there
could be no question of improving the
company’s image or changing the company’s
identity. Without cash a company simply
ceases to exist (King 1994).
At the time, BA carried a £1+ billion overdraft
and Sir John King resorted to drastic measures.
He pruned personnel, airline routes, capacity and
the airline’s peripheral activities (Green and
Vogelsang 1994). In addition, King appointed a
new board of directors who, he believed, were
equipped with the skills and experience that were
necessary to prepare the airline for its eventual
privatization.
King understood that staff morale was at a low
ebb after what had been a traumatic period of
change. It was apparent that a prerequisite for
improving service quality was to build staff
morale. In an attempt to address the issue, he
embarked on a range of initiatives. One initiative
was a high profile advertising campaign which
featured the so-called “the Manhattan ad”, which
became a classic of the era. King, in responding to
criticisms about the advertisement’s cost, justified
it terms of the following:
Many thought, ‘what an expensive piece of
marketing’! Well, they missed the point! At
the time BA’s workforce had been cut by one
third, the quality of service was a joke for
many customers, and employees for years
had been reading how much the company
was losing. I wanted an advertisement that
would make my staff feel proud (King 1994).
This period was characterized by the misalignment
between actual and desired identities which Sir
John King sought to bridge.
‘Appealing’ Identity - 1984 to 1987
King was an accomplished communicator and
realized that one pressing task was that of
communication. There was also a need to
communicate the fact that BA was transforming
itself from an appalling to an appealing airline
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and an airline that was commercially orientated.
For this reason, the airline’s corporate
communications strategy had shareholders,
financial analysts and the city media in its sights
and not just customers and employees, even
though both were of crucial importance.
However, in order to achieve this he realized that
he would need a consummate marketer to oversee
this next stage of the airline’s evolution. Colin
Marshall, with a senior management profile in
services industries and having the necessary
marketing credentials was duly appointed as CEO.
Sir John King was appointed to the position of
chairman. As King told us in 1994:
“We started to change the image and self image
of the company”.
Under Colin Marshall change came quickly. The
primary accent was on superior customer service.
The vehicle to effect this was an ambitious and
exhaustive training program entitled “Putting
People First.” Marshall practised what he preached
by being highly visible. For instance, he took care
to mingle with passengers and crew alike (Harper
2000).
This new found confidence and new identity was
reflected in the Saatchi brothers being retained to
produce innovative and highly striking
advertisements for the airline. More noticeable,
however was BA’s introduction of a new system of
visual identification created by Landor Associates:
a US based graphic design consultants. The new
livery made great play of the airline’s British roots
and incorporated elements derived from the
British flag (the union flag) and also assigned a
good deal of prominence to British Airways
armorial bearings: perhaps the most
quintessential of British design features.
“Britishness” does, of course, have several
manifestations. In the hands of Richard Branson
and his Virgin brand, “Britishness” captures
something of the UK’s vibrant youth culture and
draws on contemporary notions relating to British
culture. In the hands of King and Marshall,
however, the airline’s core positioning leveraged
more traditional characterizations of Britishness:
calmness, efficiency and politeness.
Characteristics that are likely to resonant in an
organization having an extremely high service
element.
Having begun the process of aligning the desired
and actual identities in the first stage this era was
characterized by bringing the actual and
8
communicated into alignment.
‘Adoring Identity’ - 1988 to 1995
The successful privatization of the airline in 1997
marked an important milestone in the airline’s
history. Prime Minister Thatcher, noted that Lord
King turned around British Airways by a bold
policy of slimming it down, improving its service
to the customer and giving its employees a stake
in its success. It was sold as a thriving concern in
1987. Green & Vogelsang (1994)
The metamorphosis of British Airways was far
from complete, however. With privatisation came
the need to reaffirm the airline’s commercial
credentials. There was also a need to position the
airline as a major player in international markets.
The exigencies of the industry meant that British
Airways needed to develop the positioning of its
corporate brand. In essence, a corporate brand
covenant is akin to an informal contract between
a corporation and with its key stakeholder groups.
Although corporate branding is closely related to
an organization’s identity, it is not an identical
construct. In effect, it relates to the summation of
the organization’s identity is terms of espoused
set of identifiable values which become shorthand
for recognizing and evaluating a company’s
activities. For staff it provides a standard for
service delivery. For customers and other key
stakeholder groups it represents the organization’s
covenant with them, or what in common parlance
is known as the corporate brand promise.
There was much in British Airway’s identity from
which to distil distinctive brand values. In
particular, its enviable international network, its
privileged position at Heathrow Airport, its history
of innovation (it being one of two carriers offering
supersonic flights on Concorde), its record of
safety, its recently improved customer service and
the positive associations that it garnered from
Britain, made it distinct among other carriers.
Thus, British Airways felt that its claim to be “The
World’s favorite airline” was justified. To a
significant degree this strap line epitomized the
positioning of BA in the post-privatization period.
Great play was made of the airline’s international
credentials in BA’s high-profile advertising
campaigns. This revealed the creativity and élan
of the Saatchi brothers which reached new
heights.
As if to corroborate BA’s claims, the editorial staff
of Air Transport World selected British Airways as
W O R K I N G PA P E R S E R I E S
the Airline of the Year in 1992. By this point the
airline was, unlike many other airlines, profitable.
Not only was 80 percent of its passenger traffic
international but also it was estimated that one in
every fifteen passengers taking an international
flight selected British Airways as their carrier (Air
Transport World 1993).
Moreover, the airline had at last become
profitable. This was no mean achievement. At the
time many other airlines were incurring significant
losses.
In a very real sense BA had turned rhetoric into
reality.
In terms of the AC3ID Test King and Marshall
introducing a clear corporate brand positioning
for the airline. A positioning that brought into
alignment the covenanted identity with the actual
identity (along, it must be said with many of the
other identities.) Of crucial importance here was
that the promise of the corporate brand was
supported by behavior.
‘Astonishing’ Identity - 1996 to 2000
In 1996 Robert Ayling became the new CEO of
British Airways. One writer accurately described
the challenges faced by Ayling:
It was always going to be a hard act to
follow. Lord King and his first co-pilot, Sir
Colin Marshall, took the controls just as
BA was heading down the runway towards
privatisation.... The two turned BA into
what was truly “the world’s airline”...When
Ayling took over the reins, his most
pressing challenge was what on earth to
do for an encore (Harrison 1999, p. 28).
Ayling felt that it was crucial to distance the
company from its role as Britain’s flag carrier and
move towards a positioning as a freestanding
international business. Research showed that 60
percent of British Airway’s customer base was
non-British. As before, a new system of visual
identification was deployed to articulate a major
shift in strategy vis a vis the airline’s identity with
the London graphic design agency, Newell and
Sorrell, being given the commission.
The most prominent feature of the change in
graphic design was the introduction of fifty global
images that were to adorn the tail fins. The
diversity of symbolism was meant to encapsulate
the diverse cultures of British Airways customer
base in an attempt to confirm the airline’s
international credentials. The introduction of a
myriad of visual symbols for a single entity had
never been done before and effecting this change
was a mammoth task. It was an approach that
was highly audacious: something that appears
very much to be part of BA’s psyche. The cost of
the change was £60 million sterling and the
process of change was code-named ‘Utopia’. In
retrospect, the choice of code name was far from
propitious.
It soon became clear that there were problems
with the radical approach adopted by the airline.
However, most writers of the time were critical of
the downplaying of the airline’s Britishness, at
least in terms of visual symbolism. One writer
(Stelzer, 1999) noted that ‘Britishness’ is
associated with calm efficiency, polite service and
a crew that knows their business. However, the
reassurance of a single BA emblem (with strong
British overtones) had been replaced by global
images that appeared to come from a graffiti
spray. The logic of the change was questioned for
other reasons. For instance, why have an image of
foreign country whose native airline you wouldn’t
consider boarding except in an ‘extreme
emergency’ (Stelzer, 1999).
In reference to the change, Curtis (1997, 19)
reflected on the positive and negative associations
of ‘Britishness’. He observed that although there
were negative associations regarding Britishness
such as tradition, conservativeness, insularity and
exclusivity (which might not be so appealing for
an airline), there were an equal number of
positive associations - creativity, ingenuity,
individualism and invention. In short, it appears
that notions of Britishness might have been
narrowly conceived by Ayling as well as by the
design consultants, Newell and Sorrell.
There were other critics of the new BA visual
identity campaign. Margaret Thatcher
communicated her dissent by draping a
handkerchief over a tail fin of a model British
Airways plane at the Conservative Party
conference in 1997. She was not alone in her
disquiet; British travellers, the other 40 percent of
passengers, particularly disliked the non-British
tailfins. More significantly, the move alienated a
core stakeholder group - British businessmen.
Many loathed the new global images and many
saw it an affront to Britishness in that it
undermined British confidence and the UK’s
international profile.
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One competitor seized the opportunity to fill the
void left by British Airways attempts to assert its
global credentials and the downplaying of its
Britishness (at least in terms of graphic design but
not in terms of company name). Richard Branson
at Virgin Atlantic Airlines exploited BA’s mistake
by his announcement that the new livery of Virgin
Atlantic would feature the British flag on its wing
tip and fuselage. Branson claimed that the move
positioned Virgin airline as ‘Britain’s flag carrier’
(Rosler 1999, p. 5).
The furore caused by the change led to a dramatic
volte face on behalf of British Airways. Two years
after the ethnic tail fins were introduced, half
were removed and replaced with the Union flag,
with Ayling stating that he had accepted the
reality of BA as a British-based global airline
(McIllroy and Marston, 1999).
The changes made by Ayling had an effect on the
airline’s balance sheet with £4.2 billion being
wiped off BA’s market value in two years. On
March 10 2000, Ayling finally stepped down as
CEO.
Although the new strategy introduced had a
certain logic it was far too ambitious and was not
adequately supported by a change of the
organization’s actual identity. In introducing the
new strategy and system of visual identification
Ayling had identified the wrong set of identity
types that required alignment, that is, the desired
and communicated identity. What was required
was a change in the actual identity so that it
reflected the new strategy as envisioned in the
ideal identity.
Recourse to the AC3ID Test by Ayling and his
advisors might possibly have avoided the pubic
furore and ultimate demise of his initiative. It was
not so much that it was wrong. It was that it was
inadequately supported and implemented.
Moreover, a too great a reliance was placed on
graphic design in effecting such a momentous
change of strategy (such a reliance had not
characterized previous changes of strategic
direction of the airline.)
We now turn to the last period in our study of BA,
illustrating the present complexities of the
identity issues surrounding British Airways.
‘Affirming’ Identity - 2000 to present
Rod Eddington, an Australian, became chief
executive of British Airways on the 2nd May
2000. His appointment was made in the midst of
10
a new threat to the viability of British Airways -
the success of ‘no frills’ airlines who were proving
to be extremely competitive on short-haul
journeys.
The main issue faced by Eddington was that
British Airlines could no longer afford to be the
‘World’s Favourite Airline’ by being all things to all
people. The decision was made to reposition BA
with a focus on premium service and on business
passengers travelling on long-haul routes.
The previous dilemma, of whether BA should be
perceived as British or not, seems a distant
memory in this present competitive climate in
which British Airways has affirmed its identity
along traditionally “British” lines (in effect
returning to certain aspects of its long-held
strategy as encapsulated in the ideal identity.)
During this period BA brought its actual and
communicated identities into alignment.
INSIGHTS RE BALMER’S AC3ID TEST OF
CORPORATE BRAND MANAGEMENT
An acid test denotes a test of success and value.
In relation to the British Airways case study, the
AC3ID test indicates that while King and Marshall
managed to orchestrate the key identity elements
so that they were broadly congruent, the later
corporate identity campaign initiated by Ayling
(although highly courageous) failed to effect
changes to the actual identity of the organization:
a prerequisite of most changes of identity. Table 1
below summarizes some of the key interfaces that
were involved in relation to the six periods of the
British Airways history. (It should be borne in
mind that there are inevitably multiple
misalignments that require attention at any one
point in time. Here, we outline some of the key
misalignments. Many of the misalignments
involve the actual identity. This is because any
gap between the actual identity and other
identity types is pretentiously dangerous.)
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TABLE 1
THE KEY INTERFACES IN RELATION TO THE CHANGING IDENTITY OF BRITISH AIRWAYS

TIME FRAME IDENTITY CHANGE KEY INTERFACES COMMENTS

DESCRIPTOR

1974-1980 Appalling Actual - Ideal The airline began the process of

changing from an airline that
had a public sector ethos to one
that had a more commercial
character. The change of
strategy (ideal identity) required
change of reality (actual
identity).

1981 - 1983 Adjusting Actual - Desired Sir John King’s wish (desired
identity) was to place BA on a
firm footing prior to
privatization. Building staff
morale was an important part
of this change and as such
entailed changes to the airline’s
activities as well as ethos
(actual identity)

1984 - 1987 Appealing Actual - Communicated Changes to the actual identity

(including superior customer
service) were reflected in a
comprehensive communications
program aimed at key
stakeholder groups. These
included those groups that
would be important in a post-
privatization context.

1988 - 1995 Adoring Actual - Covenanted In this era BA developed a

corporate brand positioning
strategy encapsulated by the
phrase “the world’s favourite
airline.”

1996-2000 Astonishing Actual-Ideal BA pursued an ambitious

(however, senior management
focussed on the
Desired-Communicated
interface)
strategy focussing on the
airline’s global credentials.
However, the strategy ultimately
failed. Not only was the new
strategy too ambitious and had
an overtly graphic-design bias
but such a radical change of
strategy was not underpinned
by changes to the actual
identity). The real priority was
brining the actual and ideal
identities into alignment.

2001-present Affirming Actual -Communicated BA reaffirmed its traditional

identity and British inheritance
and identity. However, the
airline increasingly focussed on
(a) their business customers (b)
offering a premium service and
(c) focussing on their
transcontinental route network

11
 W O R K I N G PA P E R S E R I E S

CONCLUSION
The main aim of this article was to demonstrate
the saliency of the AC3ID Test of Corporate Brand
Management as a means of highlighting key
identity misalignments that can occur over the life
of an organization. The test utilizes multiple
perspectives and multiple time frames. Whilst in
some periods of change, senior management at
BA was able to correctly diagnose the key
misalignments in its identities and effectively deal
with them, in other periods, the misalignments
were not identified, severely hampering the
airline’s ability to handle major challenges in its
history. The test would avoid such difficulties.
As more organizations consider undertaking what
is now known as a corporate rebranding exercise,
the British Airways case study is salutary tale. The
message is clear: consider misalignments between
all identity types and realize that bringing two
identities into alignment may have the opposite
effect on other identity interfaces.
NOTES
1.
Balmer’s original model was discussed in
Balmer and Soenen (1999)
2.
A revised model of the framework (which clearly
delineated the five identity types) appeared in
Balmer (1999)
3.
The revised framework (in 2) was discussed,
making reference to case histories, in Balmer
and Greyser (2002)
4.
The author acknowledges the assistance of
Guillaume Seonen, Professor Balmer’s research
assistant, in the initial stages of the research vis
a vis the ACID test model. He also wishes to
thank Professor Stephen A. Greyser who served
as a special adviser to the research project vis a
vis the ACID test.

The study detailed here also appears to support

the following:
(a) the inextricable link between corporate brands
and identity
(b) the efficacy of adopting multiple perspectives
(disciplines, stakeholders and time frames)
(c) the inseparability between identity and
strategy
(d) the crucial role of senior executives in terms of
identity management
(e) the efficacy of undertaking a regular audit of
various identity types
(f) the realization that an organization’s identities
are dynamic and sclerotic

We conclude that the AC3ID Test of corporate

brand management, as related to British Airways
over three decades, confirms the test to be
comprehensive, effective and dependable.

12
W O R K I N G PA P E R S E R I E S
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Problem: Can Bob Ayling put the wheels back on
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FURTHER READING
Ashworth, J. (2000), “Writing was on the wall for
Ayling”, The Times, 11th March, p.8.
Fund J. H. 1999, ‘The Oscars of Advertising’, Wall
Street Journal, July 12, p. A26.
The Guardian 1998, ‘BA profit slumps as love
affair cools’, November 10, p.5.
Moorman, R. W. (1997), “The Emperor’s new
clothes”, Air Transport World, Vol. 9, pp.93 -95.
Morrocco, J. D. (1997), “British Airways Dons New
Global Image”, Aviation Week & Space
Technology, Vol. 146 No. 25, p.81.
Prokesch, S. E. (1995), “Competing on Customer
Service: An Interview with British Airways, Sir
Colin Marshall”, Harvard Business Review,
November/December, pp.101-112.
Schmidt, C. (1995), The Quest for Identity, Cassell,
London.
Skapinker, H. (2000), “The last ride of Bob
Ayling”, Financial Times, 12th March, p.14.
Williamson J. (1997), “A crisis of identity at BA”,
Marketing, 17th July, p.6.
Wall Street Journal Eastern Edition (1993), “Virgin
Atlantic files suit against British Airways”, 22nd
October, p. A11.
13
 W O R K I N G PA P E R S E R I E S
LIST OF WORKING PAPER TITLES
2004
04/26 – Professor John M T Balmer & Dr Helen Stuart
British Airways and Balmer’s AC3ID Test of Corporate Brand Management
04/23 – Nur Naha Abu Mansor, Mike Tayles & Richard Pike
The Role of Team-Realated Factors in Implementations Success of
Activity-Based Costing Systems
04/22 – Musa Mangena
On the Perceived Importance of Disclosure Items in UK Interim Financial
Reports: Evidence from the Investment Analysis
04/21 – Arvid Falgestad & Christine A Hope
Stakeholders in a Winter Sports Destination:
Identification and Prioritisation
04/19 – Michael Baum, Sandra Hogarth-Scott & Devashish Pujari
The Auction Flow: Goal-Directed and Experimental Flow Effects on User
Experience in Online Auctioning
04/18 – Hong-We He & John MT Balmer
The Saliency & Significance of Generic Identity:
An Exploratory Study of UK Building Societies
04/17 – Professor John M T Balmer
The British Monarchy as a Corporate Brand: Heresy or Necessity?
04/16 – Professor John M T Balmer
The British Monarchy: Does the British Crown as a Corporate Brand Fit?
04/15 – Professor John M T Balmer
Dimensions and Associations of Corporate Identity: Insights from the
British Monarchy, the BBC and from Indenity Consultancy
04/14 – Edmund R Gray & John M T Balmer
The Sustainable Entrepreneur
04/13 – Professor Zairi M, Dr Hogg L & Dr Ahmed A M
Introducing A New Innovation By Stimulating A Real Shopping
Experience
04/12 – Dr Al-Rasheed S, Professor Zairi M & Dr Ahmed A M
Getting in The Mind of The Customer: An Empirical Study of Consumer
Behaviour in Retailing
04/11 – Dr Al-Nofal A, Professor Zairi M & Dr Ahmed A M
Critical Factors of TQM: An International Comparative Benchmarking
Analysis
04/10 – Belinda Dewsnap & David Jobber
The Antecedents of Sales-Marketing Collaboration:
An Empirical Investigation
04/07 – Zahid Hussain & Peter Prowse
Human Resource Information Systems (HRIS) as Means of Fulfilling Job
Roles More Professionally for Human Resource (HR) Managers
04/06 – Damian Ward
Measuring the Value of Differentiation In The UK Monthly Savings Market
04/05 – Stephanie Hussels & Damian Ward
Cost Efficiency and Total Factor Productivity in the European Life
Insurance Industry: The Development of the German Life Insurance
Industry Over the Years 1991-2002
04/04 – Axèle Giroud & Hafiz Mirza
Intra-firm Technology Transfer: The Case of Japanese Manufacturing
Firms in Asia
04/03 – David Spicer
The Impact of Approaches to Learning and Cognition on Academic
Performance in Business and Management
04/02 – Hafiz Mirza & Axèle Giroud
Regionalisation, Foreign Direct Investment and Poverty Reduction:
The Case of ASEAN
04/01 – Gretchen Larsen & Veronica George
The Social Construction of Destination Image – A New Zealand Film
Example
2003
03/35 – Alexander T Mohr & Jonas F Puck
Asymmetries in Partner Firms’ Perception of Key Variables and the
Performance of International Joint Ventures
03/34 – Hafiz Mirza & Axèle Giroud
The Impact of Foreign Direct Investment on the Economic Development
of ASEAN Economies: A Preliminary Analysis
03/33 – Raissa Rossiter
Networks, Collaboration and the Internationalisation of Small and
Medium-Sized Enterprises: An Interdisciplinary Perspective on the
Network Approach – Part 1
14
03/32 – Stephanie Hussels, Damian Ward & Ralf Zurbruegg
How Do You Stimulate Demand For Insurance?
03/31 – Donal Flynn & Zahid I Hussain
A Qualitative Approach to Investigating the Behavioural Definitions of
the Four-Paradigm Theory of Information Systems Development
03/30 – Alexander T Mohr & Simone Klein
Adjustment V. Satisfaction – An Analysis of American Expatriate
Spouses in Germany
03/29 – David Spicer & Eugene Sadler-Smith
Organisational Learning in Smaller Manufacturing Firms
03/28 – Alex Mohr & Markus Kittler
Foreign Partner Assignment Policy & Trust in IJVs
03/27 – Avinandan Mukherjee & Rahul Roy
Dynamics of Brand Value Management of Entertainment Products –
the Case of a Television Game Show
03/26 – Professor Andrew Taylor
Computer-Mediated Knowledge Sharing and Individual User Difference:
An Exploratory Study
03/25 – Dr Axèle Giroud
TNCs Intra- and Inter-firms' Networks: The Case of the ASEAN Region
03/24 – Alexander T Mohr & Jonas F Puck
Exploring the Determinants of the Trust-Control-Relationship in
International Joint Ventures
03/23 – Scott R Colwell & Sandra Hogarth-Scott
The Effect of Consumer Perception of Service Provider Opportunism
on Relationship Continuance Behaviour: An Empirical Study in
Financial Services
03/22 – Kathryn Watson & Sandra Hogarth-Scott
Understanding the Influence of Constraints to International
Entrepreneurship in Small and Medium-Sized Export Companie
03/21 – Dr A M Ahmed & Professor M Zairi
The AEQL Framework Implementation: American Express Case Study
03/20 – Dr K J Bomtaia, Professor M Zairi & Dr A M Ahmed
Pennsylvania State University Case Study:
A Benchmarking Exercise in Higher Education
03/19 – Alexander T Mohr & Jonas F Puck
Inter-Sender Role Conflicts, General Manager Satisfaction and Joint
Venture Performance in Indian-German Joint Ventures
03/18 – Mike Tayles & Colin Drury
Profiting from Profitability Analysis in UK Companies?
03/17 – Dr Naser Al-Omaim, Professor Mohamed Zairi & Dr Abdel
Moneim Ahmed
Generic Framework for TQM Implementation with Saudi Context:
An Empirical Study
03/16 – AM Al-Saud, Dr AM Ahmed & Professor KE Woodward
Global Benchmarking of the Thrid Generation Telecommunication
System: Lessons Learned from Sweden Case Study
03/15 – Shelley L MacDougall & Richard Pike
Consider Your Options: Changes to Stratetic Value During
Implementation of Advanced Manufacturing Technology
03/14 – Myfanwy Trueman & Richard Pike
Building Product Value by Design. How Strong Accountants/Design
Relationships Can Provide a Long-Term Competitive
03/13 – Jiang Liu, Ke Peng & Shiyan Wang
Time Varying Prediction of UK Asset Returns
03/12 – A M Ahmed, Professor M Zairi & S A Alwabel
Global Benchmarking for Internet & E-Commerce Applications
03/11 – A M Ahmed, Professor M Zairi & Yong Hou
Swot Analysis for Air China Performance and Its Experience with Quality
03/10 – Kyoko Fukukawa & Jeremy Moon
A Japanese Model of Corporate Social Responsibility?:
A study of online reporting
03/09 – Waleed Al-Shaqha and Mohamed Zairi
The Critical Factors Requested to Implement Pharmaceutical Care in
Saudit Arabian Hospitals: A Qualitative Study
03/08 – Shelly MacDougall & Richard Pike
The Elusive Return on Small Business Investment in AMT: Economic
Evaluation During Implementation
03/07 – Alexander T Mohr
The Relationship between Inter-firm Adjustment and Performance in
IJVs – the Case of German-Chinese Joint Ventures
03/06 – Belinda Dewsnap & David Jobber
Re-thinking Marketing Structures in the Fast Moving Consumer Goods
Sector: An Exploratory Study of UK Firms
W O R K I N G PA P E R S E R I E S

03/05 – Mohamed Zairi & Samir Baidoun 02/14 – Nicholas J Ashill & David Jobber
Understanding the Essentials of Total Quality Management: An Empirical Investigation of the Factors Affecting the Scope of
A Best Practice Approach – Part 2 Information Needed in a MkIS
03/04 – Deli Yang & Derek Bosworth 02/13 – Bill Lovell, Dr Zoe Radnor & Dr Janet Henderson
Manchester United Versus China: The “Red Devils” Trademark Problems A Pragmatic Assessment of the Balanced Scorecard: An Evaluation use in
in China a NHS Multi-Agency Setting in the UK
03/03 – Mohamed Zairi & Samir Baidoun 02/12 – Zahid Hussain & Donal Flynn
Understanding the Essentials of Total Quality Management: Validating the Four-Paradigm Theory of Information Systems Development
A Best Practice Approach – Part 1 02/11 – Alexander T Mohr & Simone Klein
03/02 – Alexander T Mohr The Adjustment of American Expatriate Spouses in Germany –
The Relationship Between Trust and Control in International Joint Ventures A Qualitative and Quantative Analysis
(IJVs) – An Emprical Analysis of Sino-German Equity Joint Ventures 02/10 – Riyad Eid & Myfanwy Trueman
03/01 – Mike Tayles & Colin Drury The Adoption of The Internet for B-to-B International Marketing
Explicating the Design of Cost Systems 02/09 – Richard Pike & Nam Cheng
Trade Credit, Late Payment and Asymmetric Information
2002
02/08 – Alison J Killingbeck & Myfanwy M Trueman
02/34 – Alexander T Mohr Redrawing the Perceptual Map of a City
Exploring the Performance of IJVs – A Qualitative and Quantitative
Analysis of the Performance of German-Chinese Joint Ventures in the 02/07 – John M T Balmer
People’s Republic of China Corporate Brands: Ten Years On – What’s New?

02/33 – John M T Balmer & Edmund Gray 02/06 – Dr Abdel Moniem Ahmed & Professor Mohamed Zairi
Comprehending Corporate Brands Customer Satisfaction: The Driving Force for Winning Business
Excellence Award
02/32 – John M T Balmer
Mixed Up Over Identities 02/05 – John M T Balmer & Stephen A Greyser
Managing the Multiple Identities of the Corporation
02/31 – Zoë J Douglas & Zoe J Radnor
Internal Regulatory Practices: Understanding the Cyclical Effects within 02/04 – David Philip Spicer
the Organisation Organizational Learning & The Development of Shared Understanding:
Evidence in Two Public Sector Organizations
02/30 – Barbara Myloni, Dr Anne-Wil Harzing & Professor Hafiz Mirza
A Comparative Analysis of HRM Practices in Subsidiaries of MNCs and 02/03 – Tamar Almor & Niron Hashai
Local Companies in Greece Configurations of International Knowledge-Intensive SMEs:
Can the Eclectic Paradigm Provide a Sufficient Theoretical Framework?
02/29 – Igor Filatotchev
”Going Public with Good Governance’’: Board Selection and Share 02/02 – Riyad Eid, Myfanwy Trueman & Abdel Moniem Ahmed
Ownership in UK IPO Firms The Influence of Critical Success Factors on International Internet
Marketing
02/28 – Axele Giroud
MNEs in Emerging Economies: What Explains Knowledge Transfer to 02/01 – Niron Hashai
Local Suppliers The Impact of Distance Sensitivity and Economics of Scale on the
Output and Exports of Israel and its Arab Neighbours
02/27 – Niron Hashai
Industry Competitiveness – The Role of Regional Sharing of Distance- 2001
Sensitive Inputs (The Israeli – Arab Case)
01/18 – Christopher M Dent
02/26 – Niron Hashai Transnational Capital, the State and Foreign Economic Policy:
Towards a Theory of MNEs from Small Open Economics – Static and Singapore, South Korea and Taiwan
Dynamic Perspectives
01/17 – David P Spicer & Eugene Sadler-Smith
02/25 – Christopher Pass The General Decision Making Style Questionnaire:
Corporate Governance and The Role of Non-Executive Directors in Large A Comfirmatory Analysis
UK Companies: An Empirical Study
01/16 – David P Spicer
02/24 – Deli Yang Expanding Experimental Learning: Linking Individual and
The Development of the Intellectual Property in China Organisational learning, Mental Models and Cognitive Style
02/23 – Roger Beach 01/15 – E Grey & J Balmer
Operational Factors that Influence the Successful Adoption of Internet Ethical Identity; What is it? What of it?
Technology in Manufacturing
01/14 – Mike Talyes & Colin Drury
02/22 – Niron Hashai & Tamar Almor Autopsy of a Stalling ABC System: A Case Study of Activity Based Cost
Small and Medium Sized Multinationals: The Internationalization Management and Performance Improvement
Process of Born Global Companies
01/13 – N Esho, R Zurbruegg, A Kirievsky & D Ward
02/21 – M Webster & D M Sugden Law and the Deminants of International Insurance Consumption
A Proposal for a Measurement Scale for Manufacturing Virtuality
01/12 – J Andrews Coutts & Kwong C Cheug
02/20 – Mary S Klemm & Sarah J Kelsey Trading Rules and Stock Returns: Some Preliminary Short Run Evidence
Catering for a Minority? Ethnic Groups and the British Travel Industry from the Hang Seng 1985-1997
02/19 – Craig Johnson & David Philip Spicer 01/11 – D McKechnie & S Hogarth-Scott
The Action Learning MBA: A New Approach Management Education Linking Internal Service Encounters and Internal Transactions: Unravelling
02/18 – Lynda M Stansfield Internal Marketing Contract Workers
An Innovative Stakeholder Approach to Management Education: 01/10 – M Webster & D M Sugden
A Case Study Operations Strategies for the Exploitation of Protected Technology: Virtual
02/17 – Igor Filatotchev, Mike Wright, Klaus Uhlenbruck, Manufacture as an Alternative to Outward licensing
Laszlo Tihanyi & Robert Hoskisson 01/09 – Axèle Giroud
Privatization and Firm Restructuring in Transition Economies: Buyer-Supplier Transfer and Country of Origin: An Empirical Analysis of
The Effects of Governance and Organizational Capabilities FDI in Malaysia
02/16 – Mike Tayles, Andrew Bramley, Neil Adshead & Janet Farr 01/08 – Damian Ward
Dealing with the Management of Intellectual Capital: The Potential Role Do Independent Agents Reduce Life Insurance Companies’ Free Cash Flow?
of Strategic Management Accounting
01/07 – Daragh O’Reilly
02/15 – Christopher Pass Corporate Images in ‘Jerry Maguire’: A Semiotic Analysis
Long-Term Incentive Schemes, Executive Remuneration and Corporate
Perfomance 01/06 – Tony Lindley & Daragh O’Reilly
Brand Identity on the Arts Sector

15
 W O R K I N G PA P E R S E R I E S

01/05 – M Trueman, J Balmer & D O’Reilly 0005 – K K Lim, P K Ahmed & M Zairi
Desperate Dome, Desperate Measures! Managing Innovation at London’s The Role of Sharing Knowledge in Management Initiatives
Millennium Dome 0004 – C De Mattos & S Sanderson
01/04 – M Trueman, M Klemm, A Giroud & T Lindley Expected Importance of Partners’ Contributions to Alliances in
Bradford in the Premier League? A Multidisciplinary Approach to Emerging Economies: A Review
Branding and Re-positioning a City 0003 – A Harzing
01/03 – A Harzing Acquisitions Versus Greenfield Investments: Both Sides of the Picture
Self Perpetuating Myths and Chinese Whispers 0002 – Stuart Sanderson & Claudio De Mattos
01/02 – M Webster Alliance Partners’ Expectations Concerning Potential Conflicts and
Supply Systems Structure, Management and Performance: Implications Relative to Trust Building
A Research Agenda 0001 – A Harzing
01/01 – A Harzing An Empirical Test and Extension of the Bartlett & Ghoshal Typology of
Acquisitions Versus Greenfield Investments: Exploring the Impact of the Multinational Companies
MNC’s International Strategy
1999
2000 9922 – Gerry Randell & Maria del Pilar Rodriguez
0031 – John Ritchie & Sue Richardson Managerial Ethical Behaviour
Leadership and Misleadership in Smaller Business Governance 9921 – N Y Ashry & W A Taylor
0030 – Mary Klemm Requirements Analysis as Innovation Diffusion: A Proposed
Tourism and Ethnic Minorities in Bradford: Concepts and Evidence Requirements Analysis Strategy for the Development of an Integrated
0029 – (not available) Hospital Information Support System

0028 – (not available) 9920 – C Hope

My Way’s The Right Way! Or, With Particular Reference to Teaching on
0027 – Axèle Giroud Tourism Courses, is ‘Best Practice’ in Operations Management
Determinant Factors of the Degree of Supply-Related Technology Transfer: Dependent Upon National Culture?
A Comparative Analysis Between Asian Affiliates
9919 – A Harzing
0026 – A Cullen, M Webster & A Muhlemann Of Bumble-Bees and Spiders: The Role of Expatriates in Controlling
Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) Systems: Definitions, Functionality and Foreign Subsidiaries
the Contribution to Global Operations
9918 – N Y Ashry & W A Taylor
0025 – B Chennoufi & M Klemm Who will take the Garbage Out? The Potential of Information
Managing Cultural Differences in a Global Environment Technology for Clinical Waste Management in the NHS
0024 – (not available) 9917 – D O’Reilly
0023 – Simon Best & Devashish Pujari Nice Video(?), Shame about the Scam… Paedagogical Rhetoric Meets
Internet Marketing Effectiveness: Commercial Reality at Stew Leonard’s
An Exploratory Examination in Tourism Industry 9916 – A Harzing
0022 – Dr Myfanwy Tureman The European Monolith: Another Myth in International Management?
Divided Views, Divided Loyalties: Changing Customer Perceptions by Design 9915 – S MacDougall & R Pike
0021 – Yasar Jarrar The Influence of Capital Budgeting Implementation on Real Options:
Becoming World Class Through a Culture of Measurement A Multiple-Case Study of New Technology Investments
0020 – David Spicer & Eugene Sadler-Smith 9914 – C Pass, A Robinson & D Ward
Cognitive Style & Decision Making Performance Criteria of Corporate Option and Long-Term Incentive
0019 – Z J Radnor & R Boaden Plans: A Survey of 150 UK Companies 1994-1998
A Test for Corporate Anorexia 9913 – R Beach, A P Muhlemann, D H R Price, J A Sharp & A Paterson
0018 – (not available) Strategic Flexibility and Outsourcing in Global networks

0017 – Peter Prowse 9912 – H M stewart, C A Hope & A P Muhlemann

Public Service Union Recruitment Workplace Recovery or Stagnation in The Legal Profession, Networks and Service Quality
a Public Services Union? Evidence From a Regional Perspective 9911 – J F Keane
0016 – Yasar F Jarrar & Mohamed Zairi Design and the Management Paradigms of Self-Organisation
Best Practice Transfer for Future Competitiveness: 9910 – D O’Reilly
A Study of Best Practices On the Precipice of a Revolution with Hamel and Prahalad
0015 – Mike Tayles & Colin Drury 9909 – S Cameron & D Ward
Cost Systems and Profitability Analysis in UK Companies: Selected Abstinence, Excess, Success?: Alcohol, Cigarettes, Wedlock & Earnings
Survey Findings 9908 – M Klemm & J Rawel
0014 – B Myloni & A Harzing Eurocamp – Strategic Development and Internationalisation in a
Transferability of Human Resource Management Practices Across European Context
Borders: A European Reflection on Greece 9907 – M Webster & R Beach
0013 – (not available) Operations Network Design, Manufacturing Paradigms
0012 – Nick J Freeman and the Subcontractor
Asean Investment Area: Progress and Challenges 9906 – D Ward
0011 – Arvid Flagestad & Christine A Hope Firm Behaviour and Investor Choice: A Stochastic Frontier Analysis of
A Model of Strategic Success in Winter Sports Destinations: UK Insuramce
the Strategic Performance Pyramid 9905 – D Ward, C Pass & A Robinson
0010 – M Poon, R Pike & D Tjosvold LTIPS and the Need to Examine the Diversity of CEO Remuneration
Budget Participation, Goal Interdependence and Controversy: 9904 – C Smallman
A Study of a Chinese Public Utility Knowledge Management as Risk Management: The Need for Open
0009 – Patricia C Fox, John M T Balmer & Alan Wilson Corporate Governance
Applying the Acid Test of Corporate Identity Management 9903 – R Beach, D Price, A Muhlemann & J Sharp
0008 – N Y Ashry & W A Taylor The Role of Qualitative Research in the Quest for Strategic Flexibility
Information Systems Requirements Analysis in Healthcare: 9902 – N Hiley & C Smallman
Diffusion or Translation? Predicting Corporate Failure: A Literature Review
0007 – T Lindley, D O’Reilly & T Casey 9901 – M Trueman
An Analysis of UK Television Advertisements for Alcohol Designing Capital: Using Design to Enhance
0006 – Eric Lindley & Frederick Wheeler and Control Technological Innovation
The Learning Square: Four Domains that Impact on Strategy

16
W O R K I N G PA P E R S E R I E S

1998 9803 – C Singleton

9826 – A Harzing Quantitative and Qualitative – Bridging the Gap Between Two
Cross-National Industrial Mail Surveys: Why do Response Rates Differ Opposing Paradigms
Between Countries? 9802 – R McClements & C Smallman
9825 – B Dewsnap and D Jobber Managing in the New Millennium: Reflections on Change, Management and
The Sales-Marketing Interface: A Synthesis of Theoretical Perspectives the Need for Learning
and Conceptual Framework 9801 – P Eyre & C Smallman
9824 – C De Mattos Euromanagement Competencies in Small and Medium Sized Enterprises:
Advantageous Exectutives’ Characteristics in Establishing Biotechnology A Development Path for the New Millenium
Alliances in an Emerging Economy: The Case of Brazil
1997
9823 – C A Howorth
An Empirical Examination of the Usefulness of the Cash Conversion Cycle 9729 – C Smallman
Managerial Perceptions of Organisational
9822 – A Harzing Hazards and their Associated Risks
Who’s in Charge? An Empirical Study of Executive Staffiing Practices in
Foreign Subsidiaries 9728 – C Smallman & D Weir
Managers in the Year 2000 and After: A Strategy for Development
9821 – N Wakabayashi & J Gill
Perceptive Differences in Interorganizational Collaboration and 9727 – R Platt
Dynamics of Trust Ensuring Effective Provision of Low Cost Housing Finance in India:
An In-Depth case Analysis
9820 – C Smallman
Risk Perception: State of the Art 9726 – (not available)

9819 – C Smallman 9725 – (not available)

The Breadth of Perceived Risk: Why Integrated Risk Management of
Health, Safety & Environmental Risks is only the End of the Beginning
9818 – P S Budhwar, A Popof & D Pujari
Evaluating Sales Management Training at Xerox in Greece:
An Exploratory Study
9817 – W A Taylor
An Information-Based Perspective on
Knowledge Capture in Business Processes
9816 – S Hogarth-Scott
Category Management Relationships:
Is it Really Trust Where Choice is Limited?
9815 – W A Taylor
Sustaining Innovation in Organisations: Managing the Intangibles
A Study of TQM Implementation in Northern Ireland Organisations
1991-1996
9814 – M Webster, A Muhlemann and C Alder
Subcontract Manufacture in Electronics Assembly:
A Survey of Industry Practice
9813 – M J S Harry
Is Object-Orientation Subject-Oriented?: Conflicting and
Unresolved Philosophies in Object-Oriented Information
Systems Development Methodology
9724 – S Estrin, V Perotin, A Robinson & N Wilson
Profit-Sharing Revisited: British and French Experience Compared
9723 – (not available)
9722 – R Beach, A P Muhlemann, A Paterson, D H R Price and J A Sharp
Facilitating Strategic Change in Manufacturing Industry
9721 – R Beach, A P Muhlemann, A Paterson, D H R Price and J A Sharp
The Strategy Options in Manufacturing Industry: Propositions Based on
Case Histories
9720 – A Giroud
Multinational Firms Backward Linkages in Malaysia: A Comparison
between European and Asian Firms in the Electrical and Electronics Sector
9719 – L Kening
Foreign Direct Investment in China: Performance, Climate and Impact
9718 – H Mirza
Towards a Strategy for Enhancing ASEAN’s Locational Advantages for
Attracting Greater Foreign Direct Investment
9717 – B Summers & N Wilson
An Empirical Study of the Demand for Trade Credit in UK
Manufacturing Firms
9716 – R Butler & J Gill
Reliable Knowledge and Trust in Partnership Formation

9812 – J Jackson 9715 – R Butler

The Introduction of Japanese Continuous Improvement Practices to a
Traditional British Manufacturing Site: The Case of RHP Bearings
(Ferrybridge)
9811 – C De Mattos
A Comparative Study Between Perceptions of British and German
Executives, in the Biotechnology Sector, Relative to Potential Future
Contributions of Greatest Importance to and from Transnational
Alliance Partners in Emerging Economies
9810 – J Martin-Hirsch & G Wright
The Cost of Customer Care – A Value Analysis of Service Delivery
Approaches
9809 – J Martin-Hirsch & G Wright
A Service Provider’s View of Success Factors in Alternative Service
Stategies
9808 – J Martin-Hirsch & G Wright
A Professional’s Evaluation of Alternative Service Delivery Regimes for
Customer Care and Satisfaction
9807 – J Martin-Hirsch & G Wright
A User’s Perspective of Alternative Service Delivery: A Comparative
Study of the Evaluation of Service Strategies
9806 – J Martin-Hirsch & G Wright
The Case for Choice in Health Care: A Comparison of Traditional and
Team Midwifery in Effective Service Provision
9805 – M Woods, M Fedorkow amd M Smith
Modelling the Learning Organisation
9804 – W A Taylor
An Action Research Study of Knowledge Management in Process Industries
Stories and Experiments in Organisational Research
9714 – M Klemm & L Parkinson
British Tour Operators: Blessing or Blight
9713 – C A Hope
What Does Quality Management Mean for
Tourism Companies and Organisations?
9712 – S Hogarth-Scott & P Dapiran
Do Retailers and Suppliers Really have Collaborative Category
Management Relationships?: Category Management Relationships in
the UK and Australia
9711 – C De Mattos
The Importance of Potential Future Contributions from/to Transnational
Joint Venture Partners: Perception of Brazilian Managing Directors and
Specialists Linked to Biotechnology
9710 – N T Ibrahim & F P Wheeler
Are Malaysian Corporations Ready for Executive Information Systems?
9709 – F P Wheeler & A W Nixon
Monitoring Organisational Knowledge in Use
9708 – M Tayles & C Drury
Scoping Product Costing Research: A Strategy for Managing the Product
Portfolio – Cost System Design
9707 – N Wilson, B Summers & C Singleton
Small Business Demand for Trade Credit, Credit Rationing and the Late
Payment of Commercial Debt: An Empirical Study
9706 – R Beach, A P Muhlemann, A Paterson, D H R Price & J A Sharp
The Management Information Systems as a Source of Flexibility:
A Case Study
9705 – E Marshall
Business Ethics: The Religious Dimension

17
 W O R K I N G PA P E R S E R I E S

9704 – M Wright, N Wilson & K Robbie 9501 – M Uncles & A S C Ehrenberg

The Longer Term Effects of Management-Led Buy-Outs Direchlet-Type Markets: A Review, Part 1: Patterns and Theory
9703 – G Hopkinson & S Hogarth Scott
Quality of Franchise Relationships: The Implications of Micro Economic 1994
Theories of Franchising 9411 – R A Rayman
9702 – G C Hopkinson & S Hogarth-Scott The Real-Balance Effect Fallacy and The Failure of Unemployment Policy
Channel Conflict: Critical Incidents or Telling Tales. 9410 – R A Rayman
Methodologies Compared The Myth of ‘Says’ Law
9701 – K Watson, S. Hogarth-Scott & N Wilson 9409 not issued
Marketing Success Factors and Key Tasks in Small Business Development 9408 not issued

1996 9407 not issued

9619 – B Summers & N Wilson 9406 not issued

Trade Credit Management and the Decision to use Factoring:
An Empirical Study
9618 – M Hiley & H Mirza
The Economic Prospects of ASEAN : The Role of AFTA in the Future
Development of the Region
9617 – A Brown
Prospects for Japanese Foreign Direct Investment in Thailand
9616 – H Mirza, K H Wee & F Bartels
The Expansion Strategies of Triad Corporations in East Asia
9615 – M Demirbag & H Mirza
Inter-Partner Reliance, Exchange of Resources & Partners’ Influence on
J’V’s Strategy
9614 – R H Pike & N S Cheng
Motives for Investing in Accounts Receivable: Theory and Evidence
9613 - R H Pike & N S Cheng
Business Trade Credit Management: Experience of Large UK Firms
9612 – R Elliott, S Eccles & K Gournay
Man Management? Women and the Use of Debt to Control
Personal Relationships
9611 – R Elliott, S Eccles & K Gournay
Social Support, Personal Relationships & Addictive Consumption
9610 – M Uncles & A Manaresi
Relationships Among Retail Franchisees and Frachisors:
A Two-Country Study
9609 – S Procter
Quality in Maternity Services:
Perceptions of Managers, Clinicians and Consumers’
9608 – S Hogarth-Scott & G P Dapiran
Retailer-Supplier Relationships: An Integrative Framework Based on
Category Management Relationships
9607 – N Wilson, S Hogarth-Scott & K Watson
Factors Contributing to Entrepreneurial
Success in New Start Small Businesses
9606 – R Beach, A P Muhlemann, A Paterson, D H R Price & J A Sharp
The Evolutionary Development of the Concept Manufacturing Flexibility
9605 – B Summers
Using Neural Networks for Credit Risk Management:
The Nature of the Models Produced
9405 – F Bartels & N Freeman
Multinational Enterprise in Emerging Markets: International Joint
Ventures in Côte D’Ivoire Vietnam
9404 – E Marshall
The Single Transferable Vote – A Necessary Refinement Abstract
9403 – G R Dowling & M Uncles
Customer Loyalty programs: Should Every Firm Have One?
9402 – N Wilson, A Pendleton & M Wright
The impact of Employee Ownership on Employee Attitudes:
Evidence from UK ESOPS
9401 – N Wilson & M J Peel
Working Capital & Financial Management
Practices in the Small Firm Sector
1993
9310 – R Butler, L Davies, R Pike & J Sharp
Effective Investment Decision-Making: The Concept and its
Determinants no longer available
9309 – A Muhlemann, D Price, M Afferson & J Sharp
Manufacturing Information Systems as a Means for Improving
the Quality of Production Management Decisions in Smaller
Manufacturing Enterprises
9308 – F P Wheeler, R J Thomas & S H Chang
Towards Effective Executive Information Systems
9307 – F P Wheeler, S H Chang & R J Thomas
The Transition from an Executive Information System to Everyone’s
Information System: Lessons from a Case Study
9306 – S H Chang, F P Wheeler & R J Thomas
Modelling Executive Information Needs
9305 – S. Braga Rodrigues & D Hickson
Success in Decision Making: Different Organisations,
Differing Reasons for Success.
9304 – R J Butler, R S Turner, P D Coates, R H Pike & D H R Price
Ideology, Technology and Effectiveness
9303 – R J Butler, R S Turner, P D Coates, R H Pike & D H R Price
Strategy, Structure and Technology
9302 – R J Butler, R S Turner, P D Coates, R H Pike & D H R Price
Competitive Strategies and New Technology

9604 – P J Buckley & M Carter 9301 – R J Butler, R S Turner, P D Coates, R H Pike & D H R Price
The Economics of Business Process Design: Motivation, Information & Investing in New Technology for Competitive Advantage
Coordination Within the Firm
9603 – M Carter
Is the Customer Always Right? Copies of the above papers can be obtained by contacting the Research
Information, Quality and Organisational Architecture Programme Administrative Secretary at the address below:
9602 – D T H Weir
Why Does the Pilot Sit at the Front? And Does it Matter? Bradford University School of Management
Emm Lane
9601 – R A Rayman Bradford
A Proposal for Reforming the Tax System West Yorkshire
BD9 4JL
1995
9506 – A L Riding & B Summers Tel: 01274 234323 (mornings only)
Networks that Learn and Credit Evaluation Fax: 01274 546866

9505 – R A Rayman
The Income Concept: A Flawed Ideal?
9504 – S Ali & H Mirza
Market Entry Strategies in Poland: A Preliminary Report
9503 – R Beach, A P Muhlemann, A Paterson, D H.R Price & J A Sharp
An Adaptive Literature Search Paradigm
9502 – A S C Ehrenberg & M Uncles
Direchlet-Type Markets: a Review, Part 2: Applications & Implications

18