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Response to Intervention in the Elementary School-

How These Techniques Affect Learning

Donna A. James

An Annotated Bibliography Submitted to:

Dr. D. A. Battle of Georgia Southern University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for
FRLT 7130 – Y01

Monday, July 13, 2009

Statesboro, Georgia

Response to Intervention in the Elementary School-

How These Techniques Affect Learning

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Response to Intervention (RTI) is a practice of academic and behavioral interventions

designed to provide early, effective assistance to underperforming students. Research-based

interventions are implemented and frequent progress monitoring is conducted to assess student

response and progress. Students move through a tiered delivery model where levels of

instruction are intensified. When students do not make progress, increasingly more intense

interventions are introduced. Response to Intervention is a mechanism to address NCLB and

IDEA 2004 mandates and help identify students with learning disabilities.

When our school system began to implement RTI, teachers felt overwhelmed and unsure

of just what RTI involves and the implications for the classroom teacher. There was very little

training in regards to RTI and many questions about how teachers should implement this

process. I want to be a better informed teacher so that my teaching strategies are effective in

regards to all the learners in my classroom. Since my co-workers and I have so many

unanswered questions about RTI, I want to find out how RTI affects learning and strategies that

will make it effective in my classroom.

I used two databases to research the topic: GALILEO and Academic Search Complete.

Academic Search Complete was a more useful tool because it returned more articles. I chose the

articles by determining whether the researched involved RTI in the elementary school setting,

effectiveness in the classroom, and the implications for the classroom.

Barnes, A., & Harlacher, J. (2008, August). Clearing the Confusion: Response-to-Intervention as

a Set of Principles. [Electronic version]. Education & Treatment of Children, 31(3), 417-

431. Retrieved June 23, 2009, from Academic Search Complete database.

The authors outline five key principles and four features of RTI to help clarify confusion among

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educators because RTI needs to be understood to be successful. The core principles of RTI are a

preventative and proactive problem-solving approach from a system level and using effective

practices to match students’ instructional needs. The article describes what RTI looks like and

states the principles don’t change but the features of RTI may look different in various school

systems. The authors state RTI is a philosophical approach to education where all children can

learn.

Bryant, D., Bryant, B., Gersten, R., Scammacca, N., & Chavez, M. (2008, January). Mathematics

Intervention for First- and Second-Grade Students With Mathematics Difficulties: The

Effects of Tier 2 Intervention Delivered as Booster Lessons. [Electronic version].

Remedial & Special Education, 29(1), 20-32. Retrieved June 23, 2009, from Academic

Search Complete database.

This study examines first and second grade students who were identified having math difficulties

and the effects of Tier 2 interventions in a multi-tiered model. The authors give an overview of

the nature of math difficulties and how an understanding of these difficulties can help identify

the type of intervention needed. Researchers recommend peer tutoring, verbalizing cognitive

strategies, and physical and visual representations of number concepts for prevention and

intervention. The study shows different effects by grade level. Second grade students show a

significant effect whereas first graders did not.

Carney, K. J., & Stiefel, G. S. (2008). Long-term results of a problem-solving approach to

response to intervention: Discussion and implications. [Electronic version]. Learning

Disabilities: A Contemporary Journal, 6(2), 61-75. Retrieved June 23, 2009, from

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Academic Search Complete database.

The authors conducted a study on a three-tier approach to RTI to examine the long-term results

and add to the research on the problem-solving model. Students in an elementary cohort were

reviewed 3.5 years after their initial referral to the Instructional Support Team. The study showed

30% of the students were on grade level two years later. Only 19% had been placed in special

education by year four. The authors stated additional research was needed so educators can better

understand how to help students with learning problems succeed.

Cummings, K., Atkins, T., Allison, R., & Cole, C. (2008, March). Response to Intervention.

[Electronic version]. Teaching Exceptional Children, 40(4), 24-31. Retrieved June 23,

2009, from Academic Search Complete database.

The authors describe how the RTI process is more than special education eligibility and its

ultimate focus is on school improvement to build effective systems of service delivery. The

authors describe special education teachers being a key consultant in planning, implementation,

and evaluation of interventions across the continuum of education. The article discusses the

legislative acts impacting education. The authors describe how the current skills of special

educators can support schools beginning to adopt RTI and concludes their effort may result in

fewer students qualifying for special education.

Dexter, D., Hughes, C., & Farmer, T. (2008). Responsiveness to Intervention: A Review of Field

Studies and Implications for Rural Special Education. [Electronic version]. Rural Special

Education Quarterly, 27(4), 3-9. Retrieved June 23, 2009, from Academic Search

Complete database.

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This study reviews eleven elementary RTI programs that are large-scale district/state

implemented or researcher-implemented who were university-based. The areas in review are

varied in the categories of reading, math, academic behavior, performance, referral and

placement rates. Each study shows some level of improvement and relates mostly to early

reading skills. More research is indicated to study higher level reading skills. Referral rates

remains the same while some studies show a decrease with RTI. The authors indicate more

research in order to help educators develop and sustain a RTI program.

Fiorello, C. A., Hale, J. B., & Snyder, L .E. (2006). Cognitive hypothesis testing and response to

intervention for children with reading problems. [Electronic version]. Psychology in the

Schools, 43, 835-853. Retrieved June 23, 2009, from Psychology and Behavioral

Sciences Collection database.

The authors state RTI needs to be used in combination with the Cognitive Hypothesis Testing

model developed by them to better identify children with learning disabilities. The authors

describe findings where students who do not respond to phonological interventions, need to be

evaluated with CHT. The authors state children who do not respond to Tier 1 or Tier 2 problem

solving interventions, can be assessed with the CHT to determine their cognitive processing and

can help design instruction to meet the needs of children with different types of reading

disabilities.

Murawski, W. W., & Hughes, C. E. (2009). Response to intervention, collaboration, and co-

teaching: A logical combination for successful systemic change. [Electronic version].

Preventing School Failure, 53(4), 267-277. Retrieved June 23, 2009, from Academic

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Search Complete database.

The authors provide an overall view of RTI and how collaboration and co-teaching can be

effective part of the RTI model since RTI affects both regular and special education teachers.

The authors describe the Three-Tier model, giving the components and how co-teaching would

look in this model. The authors give the benefits and concerns for implementing RTI on a large

scale. The authors state effective instruction is the key to making RTI successful and because of

requirements on today’s educator, collaboration and co-teaching provide a means to give

students quality instruction.

Silberglitt, B., & Hintze, J. (2007). How Much Growth Can We Expect? A Conditional Analysis

of R-CBM Growth Rates by Level of Performance. [Electronic version]. Exceptional

Children, 74(1), 71-84. Retrieved June 23, 2009, from Academic Search Complete

database.

This study examines the reading curriculum-based measurement (R-CBM), which measures the

growth in reading of students in grades 2-6 based on their initial benchmark. The expected

growth is based upon students in the 50th percentile and the authors states using this criterion

might not be the best practice for students who experience difficulties. The differential growth

rates are larger in grades 2-3 than grades 4-6. Differences were significant from a practical and

statistical standpoint. Further research is needed to compare growth rates of students with similar

initial levels of performance.

Simmons, D., Coyne, M., Kwok, O., McDonagh, S., Harn, B., & Kame'enui, E. (2008, March).

Indexing Response to Intervention. [Electronic version]. Journal of Learning

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Disabilities, 41(2), 158-173. Retrieved June 23, 2009, from Academic Search Complete

database.

This study examines the reading performance of students from kindergarten to third grade who

were identified as at risk for reading difficulties and whether sustained, small group instruction

affected their reading performance. The students received intensive, small group intervention.

Students were evaluated at the beginning of each grade level. Students who performed below

30th percentile continued with the intervention. The study suggests when strong reading

trajectories are established in kindergarten, they can be enhanced in first grade, which leads to

reading proficiency in later grades.

Implications for Applications to Educational Settings

This research project gives me much needed information about Response to Intervention

and helps to alleviate the frustration and confusion I felt this past school year when our system

began implementation of RTI. Much of the research gives some background information on RTI

and its relation to NCLB and IDEA 2004 in identifying children with learning disabilities. I

agree with Barnes and Harlacher (2008, August) there needs to be a clear understanding of RTI

by educators before it can be successful. Educators need to know the why and the how of the

RTI model in order to provide effective teaching. Much of the research discusses the Three-Tier

RTI model. In Tier 1, all students are taught with a research-based program in the general

education classroom. Students who need additional support are moved to a Tier 2. Tier 2

students receive intensive instruction beyond the general curriculum. After evaluation

determines this short-term instruction is not effective, more strategies are determined and tried

for another short period of time. Depending on the student’s progress, the student may be moved

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to Tier 3 and evaluated for special education. Cummings, Atkins, Allison, and Cole (2008,

March) makes a compelling point in regards to the identification of a student’s problems in that

just because a problem has been identified, the need still exists for meaningful and effective

teaching. Without effective teaching, the student will not progress.

A team effort by educators is needed to fully implement RTI. This team includes

administrators and all types of educators. Co-teaching and collaboration with special education

teachers will help the course of implementing RTI. Special education teachers have the

experience evaluating, assessing, and providing differentiated instruction. Murawski and

Hughes (2009) give several examples of co-teaching approaches as it relates to the different tiers

of RTI. I plan on sharing this information with my co-workers.

I find much of the research is conducted on how RTI affects reading progress in the

elementary grades. There is little research on mathematics interventions but I find the article by

Bryant, D., Bryant, B., Gersten, Scammacca and Chavez (2008, January) relevant because I will

be teaching Tier 3 math interventions this year. Many authors agree there needs to be more

research conducted in the area of math. Overall, the research shows students make progress with

RTI when effective teaching takes place and there is a collaborative effort among educators. The

information I gain from this research helps me to better understand RTI so that I may be a more

effective teacher in the upcoming school year.