Process Heat Transfer 18209

Lecture 10
Recap from last week
• The rate of heat transfer in heat exchangers is
characterised by the overall heat-transfer coefficient
and has the symbol U
• The temperature difference ∆T between the streams is
not constant and varies along the length of the heat
exchanger
• We will characterize the overall rate of heat transfer
(Q) using the mean temperature difference ∆Tm
• We shall see how the mean temperature difference is
obtained from the two terminal temperature
differences
Double-pipe heat exchanger
• The rest of this chapter will be concerned with the
simplest form of heat exchanger
• This is also known as the concentric-pipe heat
exchanger
• This will be helpful to investigate the important
principles behind heat exchangers
• It basically consists of a narrow pipe running along
the axis of a larger tube. One fluid flows through the
annulus and the other through the narrow pipe
Hot fluid

Inner tube through

Cold fluid which heat transfer
occurs: heat-transfer
area A is based on the
external dimeter of
the inner tube

• To avoid problems with heat losses, it is usual for the

hot fluid to flow in the narrow tube
Flow regimes in the double-pipe heat exchanger
• There are two possible flow regimes in a double-pipe
heat exchanger
Co-current flow

Temperature difference
∆T and the rate of heat
(a) transfer is greater at
T profiles
the start of the
exchanger

Countercurrent flow

Hottest portion of the

“hot fluid” is brought
(b) into contact with the
warmest portion of the
T profiles “cold fluid”

• The heat-balance is written as:

M A C A (TA1 − TA2 ) = M B C B (TB2 − TB1 ) = UA∆Tm
• If the two streams have similar values of thermal
capacity → MACA = MBCB then this gives a near
constant temperature difference everywhere
• Linear temperature profiles are possible only for
countercurrent flow
Mean temperature difference ∆Tm
• In general the temperature difference is not constant
• If we are to determine the overall rate of heat transfer,
then it is necessary to determine a representative
temperature driving force
• ∆T1 and ∆T2 are the temperature differences at the
start (left) and end (right) of the exchanger
• The differential heat balance for co-current flow
shows how the ∆T gradient varies along the exchanger

d(∆T )  M A CA + M BCB 
= −U   ∆T
dA  M A CA × M BCB 
• This confirms that for co-current flow, the value of ∆T
decreases along the exchanger
• Combining Equations 4.1, 4.15 and 4.19:
∆T1 − ∆T2
∆Tm =
ln(∆T1 ∆T2 )

• This is termed the logarithmic mean temperature

difference and has the symbol ∆Tlm
• Draw a diagram so that you can identify expressions
for ∆T1 and ∆T2
Expression of ∆Tm for countercurrent flow
• ∆T1 and ∆T2 are the temperature differences at the
start (left) and end (right) of the exchanger
• The analysis is different for countercurrent flow
because the flows are in the opposite directions and the
temperature profiles slope in the same direction
• The differential heat balance gives:

d(∆T )  M A CA − M BCB 
=U   ∆T
dA  M A C A × M BC B 
• Note that there are three possible cases for
countercurrent flow because the numerator in square
brackets is either positive, negative or zero
• A similar procedure yields the same equation:
∆T1 − ∆T2
∆Tm =
ln(∆T1 ∆T2 )

• This is termed the logarithmic mean temperature

difference and has the symbol ∆Tlm
• Draw a diagram so that you can identify expressions
for ∆T1 and ∆T2
Heat capacity rate
• During this topic, the expressions MACA and MBCB will
be seen on a frequent basis.
• These are termed the heat capacity rates for the two
streams.
• The ratio of these two values is termed the capacity
ratio and has the symbol R and is always positive:
M A C A TB2 − TB1
R= =
M B C B TA1 − TA2

• If the value of R is very small or large one of the

temperature profiles will appear almost flat
Importance of R for countercurrent flow
• For countercurrent flow, the temperature difference
∆T varies as below along the exchanger
d(∆T )  M C − M BCB 
=U  A A  ∆T
dA  M A CA × M BCB 
• Consequently, the value of R has a major effect on the
shapes of the temperature profiles
R<1 R=1

TA
TA

TB TB

(a) (b)

R>1
TA

TB

(c)
Temperature of approach
• For all practical heat exchangers, it is necessary to
maintain finite values of ∆T1 and ∆T2 at each end of the
heat exchanger
• Otherwise, if either ∆T1 or ∆T2 → 0, then the value of
∆Tlm → 0 and from
Q = UA∆Tlm
the area A of the heat exchanger and the subsequent
cost become excessive
• The smaller value of ∆T1 and ∆T2 is termed the
temperature of approach and has the symbol ∆Tmin
• For co-current flow this will always occur at the end
of the exchanger where the two streams leave
• For countercurrent flow, this smaller value can occur
at either end, depending on the value of R
• For any application , there will be an optimum value of
∆Tmin this being determined from an economic balance
between the value of heat recovered and the cost of the
heat-transfer area
• For heat-exchangers containing liquids, the value of
∆Tmin is typically around 5°C to 10°C, somewhat higher
for gases
• Why should this be? Hint → Q = UA∆Tlm
Maximum rate of heat transfer for co-current flow
• This expression is useful in describing the rate of heat
transfer when the area A → ∞
• Consider two streams entering the heat exchanger.
The inlet temperatures TA1 and TB1 are fixed
• The mass flowrates MA and MB, and the specific heat
capacities CA and CB are fixed
• The maximum rate of heat transfer occurs when the
two outlet temperatures (TA2 and TB2 are equal) at some
intermediate value
TA1
Stream A

Stream B Tint

TB1

Distance along exchanger

• The intermediate temperature Tint can be determined

from a heat balance and will depend on the relative
values of MACA and MBCB
• The maximum rate of heat transfer is given by:
Qmax = M ACA (TA1 − Tint ) = M BCB (Tint − TB1 )
Maximum rate of Q for countercurrent flow
• This expression is useful for describing the best
possible performance, that is when the area A → ∞.
There are two possible “maximum” profiles
For R > 1 → MACA > MBCB
TA1 = TB2
A

B TA2

TB1
Distance along exchanger
The maximum rate of heat transfer is given by
Qmax = M BCB (TB2 − TB1 )

For R < 1 → MACA < MBCB

TA1
TB2 A

B
TA2 = TB1
Distance along exchanger
The maximum rate of heat transfer is given by:
Qmax = M ACA (TA1 − TA2 )
Comparison of co-current and count. flow
• For co-current flow, the maximum rate of heat transfer
is given by:
Qmax = M ACA (TA1 − Tint ) = M BCB (Tint − TB1 )

• For countercurrent flow, the maximum rate of heat

transfer is given by one of the two following
expressions:
Qmax = M BCB (TB2 − TB1 )

Qmax = M ACA (TA1 − TA2 )

• Countercurrent flow is capable of giving higher rates

of heat transfer and this is one reason why it is the
preferred arrangement
Summary
• TA1 and TA2 are the inlet and outlet temperatures
respectively of stream A
• TB1 and TB2 are the inlet and outlet temperatures
respectively of stream B
• ∆T1 and ∆T2 are the temperature differences at the
start (left) and the end (right) of the exchanger
• For co-current flow only, these temperature
differences are given by:
∆T1 = TA1 − TB1

∆T2 = TA2 − TB2

• For pure co-current flow and pure countercurrent
flow, the actual mean temperature difference is termed
the logarithmic mean temperature difference and is
obtained from the two terminal temperature
differences:
∆T1 − ∆T2
∆Tlm =
ln(∆T1 ∆T2 )

• This can be applied to a double-pipe heat exchanger

• Countercurrent flow is the preferred flow
arrangement, because it is capable of higher rates of
heat transfer