1) List the methods of improving the transient stability limit of a Power

system.

The following are the methods used to improve the transient stability of aa
system.

i) Increase of system voltage and use of AVR(Automatic Voltage

Regulation)

ii) Use of high speed excitation system.

iii) Reduction in system transfer reactance

iv) Use of high speed reclosing breakers.

2) Define critical clearing time and critical clearing angle and give
equations for both.

The critical clearing angle,δcc is the maximum allowable change in the power
angle δ before clearing the fault, without loss of synchronism. The time
corresponding to this angle is called critical time ,tcc.

The critical clearing time,tcc can be defined as the maximum time delay that
can be allowed to clear a fault without loss of synchronism.

3) Define Power Angle.

The Power angle (or torque angle) is defined as the angular displacement of
the rotor from synchronously rotating reference frame.

4) Name the two ways by which transient study can be made in a system
where one machine is swinging with respect to an infinite bus.

For single machine – infinite bus system, the following two methods can be
employed for transient stability studies.

i) Equal area criterion.

ii) Point -by- point method.

5) Define swing curve. What is the use of the swing curve?

The swing curve is the plot or graph between the power angle δ and time t. It
is usually plotted for a transient state to study the nature of variation in δ for a
sudden large disturbance. From the nature of variation of δ the stability of a system
for any disturbance can be determined.

6) What is transient stability limit?

The transient stability limit is the maximum power that can be transmitted by
a machine (or transmitting system) to a fault or a receiving system during a
transient state without loss of synchronism. The transient stability limit is always
less than the study state stability limit.

7) What is steady state stability limit?

 The steady state stability limit is the maximum power that can be transmitted
by a machine(or transmitting system) to a receiving system without loss of
synchronism. In steady state the power transferred by synchronous machine (or
power system) is always less than the steady state stability limit.

8) How stability studies are classified, What are they?

The stability studies are classified depending on the nature of the

disturbance. Depending on the nature of disturbance the stability studied can be
classified into the following three types.

a) Steady state stability.

b) Dynamic stability.

c) Transient stability.

The steady state stability study is concerned with the determination of upper
limit of loading without loss of synchronism.

The dynamic stability study is concerned with the study of nature of

oscillations and its decay for small disturbances.

The transient stability study is concerned with the study of dynamic of a

system for large determined.

9) Define transient stability.

The transient stability is defined as the ability of power system to remain

stable (i.e., without losing synchronism) for large disturbances.

10) Define steady state stability.

The steady state stability is defined as the ability of a power system to

remain stable (i.e., without losing synchronism) for small disturbances.

11) Define stability.

The stability of a system is defined as the ability of power system to return to

stable (synchronous) operation which it is subjected to a disturbance.

12) In which the negative and zero sequence currents are absent?

In three-phase fault the negative and zero sequence currents are absent.

13) In what type of fault the positive sequence components of currents is

equal in magnitude but opposite in phase to negative sequence
components of currents?

Line-To-Line fault.

14) Name the fault in which positive and negative sequence components
of current together is equal to zero sequence currents in magnitude.
 Double line-to-ground fault.

15) Name the fault in which positive, negative and zero sequence
components currents are equal.

In single line-to-ground fault the positive, negative and zero sequence

components currents are equal.

16) What is interrupting short circuit current rating of circuit breaker?

How it is estimated?

The interrupting short circuit current rating of the circuit breaker is the
maximum current that may flow through it when its contacts open due to a fault.

It is estimated by multiplying the transient short circuit current by a factor

1.0 to 1.5. The value of the factor depends on the speed of the breaker.(The factor
1.0 to 1.5 accounts for dc-offset current during transient period).

17) What is momentary current rating of circuit breaker? How it is

estimated?

The momentary current rating is the maximum current that may flow through
a circuit breaker for a short duration. It is estimated by multiplying the symmetrical
sub transient fault current by a factor of 1.6(The factor 1.6 accounts for dc-offset
current during sub transient period).

18) Define the speed of the circuit breaker. How it is specified?

The speed of the circuit breaker is defined as the time between the
occurrences of the fault to the extinction of the arc (when the contact opens).

The speed is normally specified in cycles of power frequency (1 cycle for

50Hz power frequency is 1/50=0.02ms). The standard speed of circuit breakers is 8,
5,3or 1 1 ⁄₂ cycles.

19) What are the main factors to be considered to select a circuit breaker?

The choice of a circuit breaker for particular application depends on the

following ratings of the circuit breaker.

i) Normal working power level specified as rated interrupting current or rate

interrupting MVA.

ii) The fault level specified as either rated short circuit interrupting current or
rated short circuit interrupting MVA.

iii) Momentary current rating.

iv) Speed of circuit breaker.

20) What are the two main functions of circuit breaker?

The two main functions of circuit breakers are

i) To act as switch for normal load condition

 ii) To automatically isolate or open the faulty part in the event of a fault.

21) What is a circuit breaker?

The circuit breaker is a protective device which is used in power system to

automatically open the fault part of the system in the event of a fault. In normal
working condition if can be used as a switch.

22) List the quantities specified and the quantities ot be determined from load flow study
for
Various types of buses.
The following table shows the quantities specified and to be obtained for various types
of buses.

Bus type Quantities specified quantities to be obtained

Load bys P,Q !V!,
Generator bus P,
Slack bus

23) Define voltage controlled bus?

A bus is called voltage controlled bus if the magnitude of voltage! V! And real power
(P) are specified for it. In a voltage controlled bus the magnitude of the voltage is not
allowed to change. The other names for voltage controlled bus are generator bus and PV
bus.

24) What is PQ-bus?

A bus is called PQ-bus or load bus when real and reactive components of power are
Specified for the bus. In a load bus the voltage is allowed to vary within permissible him.

25) What is Swing bus (or slack bus)?

A bus called swing bus ( or slack bus ) when the magnitude and phase of bus voltage are
specified for it. The swing bus the reference bus for load flow solution and it is required
accounting line losses Usually one of the generator bus is selected as the swing bus.

26) What is the need for slack bus?

The slack bus is needed to account for transmission line losses. In power system
the total power generated will be equal to sum of power consumed by loads and losses. I a
power system only the generated power and load power are specified for buses. The slack
bus is assumed to generate the power required for losses. Since the losses are unknown
the real and reactive power are not specified for slack bus. They are estimated through the
solution of load flow equation.

27) why do we go for interactive methods to solve load flow problemes?

The load ( or power) flow equations are nonlinear algebraic equations and so
explicit solution is not possible. The solution of nonlinear equations can be obtained only by
interative Numerical techniques.

28) what do you mean by a flat voltage start?

In interative methods of load flow solution, the initial voltages of all buses except
 slack bus are assumed as 1+j0 p.u. This is referred to as flat voltage start.

29) When the generator bus is treated as load bus?

If the reactive power of a generator bus violates thae specified limits then the
generator bus id treated as load bus.

30) What will be the reacted power and buas voltage whenthe generator bus is treated as
load bus?
When the generator bus is treated as load bus, the reactive power of the bus is
equated to the limit it has violated, and the previous iteration value of bus voltage is used
for calculating current iteration value.

31) What are the advantage of Gauses- Seidel method?

a) Calculations are simple and so the programming task is lesser.
b) The memory requirement is less.
c) Useful for small systems.

32) What are the disadvantages of Gauss-Seidel method?

a) Requires large number iterations to reach convergence.
b) Not suitable for large system.
c) Convergence time increasses with size of the system.

33) How aproximation is performed in Newton-Raphson method?

The Newton-Raphson method, the set of nonlinear simultaneous (load flow)
equations are approximated to a set of linear simultaneous equation using Taylor's series
expansions and the terms are limited to first order approximations.

34) What is Jacobian matrix? How the elements of Jacobian matix are computed?
The matrix formed from the first derivations of load flow equations is called Jcobian
matrix and it is denoted by J.The elements of Jacobian matrix will charge in every iteration.
In each iteration the element of the Jacobian matrix are obtained by partially differentiating
the load flow equations with respect to a unknown variable and then evaluating the first
derivatives using the solution of previous iteration.

35) What are the advantages of Newton-Raphson method?

a) The N-R method is faster, more reliable and the results are accurate.
b) Requires less number of iterations for covergence.
c) The number of iterations is independent of the size of the system (i.e. number of buses).
d) Suitable for large size system.

36) What are the disadvantages of Newton-Raphson method?

a) The programming is more complex.
b) The memory requirement is more.
c) Computational time per iteration is higher due to large number of calculations per
iteeration.

37) What is infinite bus?

A bus is called infinite bus if its voltage and frequency remains constant and does
not alter by any changes in generator excitation.

38) What is synchronous capacitor?

The synchronous capacitor is over excited synchronous motor running on load
and connected to a power system for the purpose of supplying reactive power.
39) What are symmetrical components?
An unbalanced system of N related vectors can be resoleve into N systems of
balanced vectors. The N-sets of balanced vectors are called symmetrical components. Each
set consist of N-vectors which are equal in length and having equal phase angles between
adjacent vectors.

40) What are positive sequence components?

The positive sequence components of a 3-phase unbalanced vectors consists of
three vectors of equal magnitude, displaced from each other by 120 degree in phase and
having the same phase sequence as the orginal vectors.

41) What are negative sequence components?

The negative sequence components of a 3-phase unbalanced vectors consists of
three vectors of equal magnitude, displaced from each other by 120 degree in phase and
having the phase sequence opposite to that of the criginal vectors.

42) What are Zero sequence conponents?

The zero sequence components of a 3-phase unbalancaed vector consists of three
vectors of equal magnitude and with zero phase displacements from each other.

43) What is meant by a fault?

A fault is a circuit is any failure which interferes with the normal flow of current.
The faults are associated with abormal change in current, voltage and frequency of the
power system. The faults may cause damage to the equipment if it is allowed to persist for a
long time. Hence every part of a system has been protectyed by means of relays and circuit
breakers to sense the faults and to isolate the faulty part from the healthy part in the event of
fault.

44) Why faults occur in a power system?

The fault occur in a power system due to insulation failure of equipments, flashover
of lines initiated by alightning stroke, due to permanent damage to conductors and towers or
due to accidental faulty operations.
45) What is a single line diagram?

A single line diagram is diagrammatic representation of power system in

which the components are represented by their symbols and the interconnection
between them are shown by a single straight line (even though the system is 3-
phase system ).

The rating and the impedances of the components are also marked on the single
line diagram .

46) Define per unit value?

The per unit value of any quantity is defined as the ratio of the actual value
of the quantity to the base value expressed as a decimal. The base value is an
arbitrary chosen value of the quantity.
 Per unit value=actual value/base value

47) What are the quantities whose base value are required to represent
the power system by reactance diagram?

The base values of voltage, current, power and impedance are required to
represent the power system by reactance diagram. Selection of base values for any
two of them determines the base values of the remaining two. usually the base
values of voltage and power are chosen in kilovolt and KVA or MVA respectively .
the base values of current and impedance are calculated using the chosen bases.

48) What is the need for base values?

The components or various sections of power system may operate at

different voltage and power levels. It will be convenient for analysis of power
system if the voltage ,power, current and impedance ratings of components of
power system are purpose a base value is chosen foe voltage , power, current and
impedance. Then all the voltage , power , current and impedance rating of the
components are expressed as a percent or pwe unit of the base value.

49) What are the advantages of per-unit computations?

1.manufactures usually specify the impedance of a device or machine in per unit

on the base of the name plate rating.

2.the p.u. value of widely different rating machines lie within a narrow range,
even through the ohmic values has a very large range.

3.the p.u impedance of circuit element connected by transformers expressed on

a proper base will be same if it is referred to either side of a transformer.

4.the p.u. impedance of a 3-phase transformer is independent of the type of the

type of winding connection.

50) What are the factor that need to be omitted for an impedance diagram
to reduce it to a reactance diagram? (or) what are the approximations
made in reactance diagram?

The following approximations are made in reactance diagram

1.the neutral reactance are neglected.

2.shunt branches in the equivalent circuits of transformer are neglected .

3.the resistance are neglected.

4.all static loads and induction motor are neglected.

5.the capacitance of the transmission lines are neglected.

51) What is impedance and reactance diagram?

The impedance diagram is the equivalent circuit of power system in which

the various components of power system are represented by their approximate or
simplified equivalent circuit. The impedance diagram is used for load flow studies.

52) What is a bus?

The meeting point of various components in a power system is called a bus .

The bus is a conductor made of copper or aluminum having negligible resistance

.the buses are considered as points of constant voltage in a power system.

53) What is bus admittance matrix?

The matrix consisting of the self and mutual admittances of the network of a
power system is called bus admittance matrix . it is given by the admittance matrix
Y in the not\de basis matrix equation of a power system and it is denoted as Ybus .
the bus admittance matrix is symmetrical.