ihttp://www.uwsp.

edu/geo/faculty/ritter/geog101/textbook/climate_systems/climate_class
ification.html

climate Systems

The Elements of Climate

Climatology is the study of the long-term state of the atmosphere, or climate. The
long-term state of the atmosphere is a function of a variety of interacting elements.
They are:

• Solar radiation
• Air masses
• Pressure systems (and cyclone belts)
• Ocean Currents
• Topography

Solar radiation
Solar radiation is probably the most important element of climate. Solar radiation
first and foremost heats the Earth's surface which in turn determines the
temperature of the air above. The receipt of solar radiation drives evaporation, so
long as there is water available. Heating of the air determines its stability, which
affects cloud development and precipitation. Unequal heating of the Earth's surface
creates pressure gradients that result in wind. So you see, just about all the
characteristics of climate can be traced back to the receipt of solar radiation.

Air masses
Air masses as an element of climate subsumes the characteristics of temperature,
humidity, and stability. Location relative to source regions of air masses in part
determines the variation of the day-to-day weather and long-term climate of a place.
For instance, the stormy climate of the midlatitudes is a product of lying in the
boundary zone of greatly contrasting air masses called the polar front.

Pressure systems
Pressure systems have a direct impact on the precipitation characteristics of different
climate regions. In general, places dominated by low pressure tend to be moist,
while those dominated by high pressure are dry. The seasonality of precipitation is
affected by the seasonal movement of global and regional pressure systems.
Climates located at 10o to 15o of latitude experience a significant wet period when
dominated by the Intertropical Convergence Zone and a dry period when the
Subtropical High moves into this region. Likewise, the climate of Asia is impacted by
the annual fluctuation of wind direction due to the monsoon. Pressure dominance
also affects the receipt of solar radiation. Places dominated by high pressure tend to
lack cloud cover and hence receive significant amounts of sunshine, especially in the
low latitudes.
Ocean Currents
Ocean currents greatly affect the temperature and precipitation of a climate. Those
climates bordering cold currents tend to be drier as the cold ocean water helps
stabilize the air and inhibit cloud formation and precipitation. Air traveling over cold
ocean currents lose energy to the water and thus moderate the temperature of
nearby coastal locations. Air masses traveling over warm ocean currents promote
instability and precipitation. Additionally, the warm ocean water keeps air
temperatures somewhat warmer than locations just inland from the coast during the
winter.

Topography
Topography affects climate in a variety of ways. The orientation of mountains to the
prevailing wind affects precipitation. Windward slopes, those facing into the wind,
experience more precipitation due to orographic uplift of the air. Leeward sides of
mountains are in the rain shadow and thus receive less precipitation. Air
temperatures are affected by slope and orientation as slopes facing into the Sun will
be warmer than those facing away. Temperature also decreases as one moves
toward higher elevations. Mountains have nearly the same affect as latitude does on
climate. On tall mountains a zonation of climate occurs as you move towards higher
elevation.

Climate Classification
The purpose of classification is to organize a set of data or information about
something to effectively communicate it in an informative way. Classification helps
synthesize information into smaller units that are more easily understood. When
considering the Earth's climate, there is such an enormous amount of information
that one has to break it down into areas of commonality to easily understand it.
Climatologists have therefore created several ways to organize the wealth of
information about Earth's climate to bring order and understanding to it.

Climate classification systems

There are three fundamental types of classifications used in climatology. First there
are empirical systems of classification that are based on observable features. The
Koeppen system discussed below is an empirical system based on observations of
temperature and precipitation. These are two of the easiest climate characteristics
that can be measured, and probably the ones with the longest historical record. It's
fairly easy to collect air temperature readings with a thermometer and precipitation
with some sort of collecting device that can measure the amount of precipitation.
Climates are grouped based on annual averages and seasonal extremes.

Genetic classification systems are those based on the cause of the climate. A
genetic system relies on information about the climatic elements of solar radiation,
air masses, pressure systems, etc. The important point here is that we assume we
know what causes climate. Though atmospheric science is progressing everyday, we
still have a long way to go before we have a complete understanding of the workings
of our climate. These are inherently the most difficult classifications to create and
use because of the multitude of variables needed.

Applied classification systems are those created for, or as an outgrowth of, a

particular climate-associated problem. The Thornthwaite classification system is one
based on potential evapotranspiration and thus groups climates based on water
requirements. Research conducted by C.W. Thornthwaite and his associates
attempted to formulate a water budget technique that assessed water demand under
different environmental conditions. His classification system grew out of the issue of
trying to predict the supply and demand for water in different climate regions.

Koeppen system
The Koeppen system is one of the most widely used systems for classifying climate
because it is easy to use and data requirements are minimal. For information about
the system and description of the map below see:

• Brief Guide to Koeppen Climate Classification System

Figure CS.1 World Climate patterns according to Koeppen

http://www.uwsp.edu/geo/faculty/ritter/geog101/textbook/climate_systems/climate_classi
fication.html

Tropical Rain Forest Climate

The tropical rain forest climate supports one of the most lush and diverse
environments on Earth. Its location near the equator dominates all aspects of the
 climate. Year-round warm temperatures and copious
rainfall characterize the rain forest climate.

Figure CS.2 Rain forest of Uganda

(Source: FAO Used with permission)

Geographical Distribution
The rain forest climate is generally found
straddling the equator and along tropical
coasts that are backed by mountains and
exposed to the trade winds. The climate
tends to be restricted to low elevations
(below 1000 meters) because at higher altitudes temperatures are too cool. Large
regions of rain forest climate are found in the Amazon River basin of South America,
the Congo River basin of Africa, the east coast of Central America and Madagascar.
Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines are dominated by rain forest climate.

Controlling Factors
The equatorial location of the tropical rain forest places it in a region of high annual
insolation. High sun angles throughout the year make for high annual temperatures
with very little seasonal variation. Located in the heart of the Intertropical
Convergence Zone and near mE and mT source regions, high annual precipitation is
experienced in all months.

Distinguishing Characteristics
Temperature

The low latitude location of the rain forest promotes constant high temperatures
throughout the year. Being located near the equator, the incidence angle of the noon
sun is always high. In addition, the direct rays of the sun pass over the climate twice
throughout the year creating two periods of maximum insolation. Given that the
circle of illumination bisects the equator, day length tends to be nearly the same
day-after-day.

Annual temperatures in the rain forest average between 20o - 30o C (68o - 86o F).
Annual temperature range rarely exceeds 3o to 4o F. In fact, the daily range of
temperature is often larger (10o - 12o F) than the annual range in temperature. The
larger daily ranges are due to the sunny mornings and cloudy afternoons of cooling
rain.

Figure CS.3 Iquitos, Peru

Iquitos, Peru's climograph displays the distinguishing characteristics of the rain forest climate: high annual
temperatures and ample rainfall.
 Precipitation

The rain forest is noted for its copious rainfall

occurring in all months of the year. Over 200 cm (80
in) of precipitation annually falls in the rain forest.
Abundant precipitation occurs in each month and is
fairly evenly distributed between high and low sun
seasons. However, some locations have one month of
highest precipitation. Precipitation occurs on more
than half the days and is largely generated by convective uplift of warm, moist
equatorial air (mE). A distinctive diurnal pattern of cumulus cloud development in the
morning, precipitation in the early afternoon, followed by dissipating clouds towards
the late afternoon is typical. Thunderstorms are usually concentrated in small areas,
so their duration is short but intense. Coastal locations and islands on the poleward
limits of the rain forest experience hurricanes, but they do not occur near the
equator or inland.

Figure CS.4 Convective thunderstorms over Brazil (July 2002)

(Source: Copyright 2002 EUMETSAT)

Humidity in the rain forest can be oppressive with dew point temperatures ranging
from 15oC - 20oC (59oF- 68oF). Since humidity is so high during the day, when
cooling occurs at night, early morning radiation fogs form and heavy dew drips from
the rain forest vegetation. These condensation products evaporate into the air as the
Sun rises, thus increasing the air's humidity. Under these conditions, the air is
oppressive and sultry most of the day and well into the evening. The rate of
evaporation and transpiration are exceedingly high requiring a correspondingly
greater amount of precipitation to support satisfactory conditions for plant growth
due to the high temperature.