Agriculture

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Contents
Articles
Main article 1
Agriculture 1

History 24
History of agriculture 24
Neolithic Revolution 34
Domestication 43
British Agricultural Revolution 53
Selective breeding 56
Green Revolution 62

Livestock 72
Livestock 72
Breed 80

Crops 82
Crop 82
Cultivar 83
Plant breeding 91

Methods 99
Intensive farming 99
Sustainable agriculture 106
Permaculture 113

Policy 126
Agricultural policy 126

References
Article Sources and Contributors 134
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 138

Article Licenses
License 140
 1

Main article

Agriculture
Agriculture is the artificial cultivation and processing of animals, plants, fungi and other life forms for food, fibers
and other byproducts.[1] Agriculture was the key implement in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby
farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that nurtured the development of much denser and more
stratified societies. The study of agriculture is known as agricultural science. Agriculture is also observed in certain
species of ant and termite.[2] [3]
Farming generally relies on techniques to expand and maintain the lands suitable for raising domesticated species.
For plants, this usually requires some form of irrigation, although there are methods of dryland farming. Cultivation
of crops on arable land and the pastoral herding of livestock on rangeland remain at the foundation of agriculture. In
the past century there has been increasing concern to identify and quantify various forms of agriculture. In the
developed world, the range usually extends between sustainable agriculture (e.g. permaculture or organic agriculture)
and intensive farming (e.g. industrial agriculture).
Modern agronomy, plant breeding, pesticides and fertilizers, and technological improvements have sharply increased
yields from cultivation, but at the same time have caused widespread ecological damage and negative human health
effects.[4] Selective breeding and modern practices in animal husbandry such as intensive pig farming (and similar
practices applied to the chicken) have similarly increased the output of meat, but have raised concerns about animal
cruelty and the health effects of the antibiotics, growth hormones, and other chemicals commonly used in industrial
meat production.[5]
The major agricultural products can be broadly grouped into foods, fibers, fuels, and raw materials. In the 21st
century, plants have been used to grow biofuels, biopharmaceuticals, bioplastics,[6] and pharmaceuticals.[7] Specific
foods include cereals, vegetables, fruits, and meat. Fibers include cotton, wool, hemp, silk and flax. Raw materials
include lumber and bamboo. Other useful materials are produced by plants, such as resins. Biofuels include methane
from biomass, ethanol, and biodiesel. Cut flowers, nursery plants, tropical fish and birds for the pet trade are some of
the ornamental products.
In 2007, one third of the world's workers were employed in agriculture. The services sector has overtaken agriculture
as the economic sector employing the most people worldwide.[8] Despite the size of its workforce, agricultural
production accounts for less than five percent of the gross world product (an aggregate of all gross domestic
products).
Agriculture 2

Etymology
The word agriculture is the English adaptation of Latin agricultūra, from ager, "a field",[9] and cultūra, "cultivation"
in the strict sense of "tillage of the soil".[10] Thus, a literal reading of the word yields "tillage of a field / of fields".

Overview
Agriculture has played a key role in the
development of human civilization. Until
the Industrial Revolution, the vast majority
of the human population labored in
agriculture. Development of agricultural
techniques has steadily increased
agricultural productivity, and the
widespread diffusion of these techniques
during a time period is often called an
agricultural revolution. A remarkable shift
in agricultural practices has occurred over
the past century in response to new Clark's Sector Model (1950): The percent of the human population working in
technologies. In particular, the Haber-Bosch primary sector activities such as agriculture has decreased over time.
method for synthesizing ammonium nitrate
made the traditional practice of recycling nutrients with crop rotation and animal manure less necessary.

Synthetic nitrogen, along with mined rock phosphate, pesticides and mechanization, have greatly increased crop
yields in the early 20th century. Increased supply of grains has led to cheaper livestock as well. Further, global yield
increases were experienced later in the 20th century when high-yield varieties of common staple grains such as rice,
wheat, and corn (maize) were introduced as a part of the Green Revolution. The Green Revolution exported the
technologies (including pesticides and synthetic nitrogen) of the developed world to the developing world. Thomas
Malthus famously predicted that the Earth would not be able to support its growing population, but technologies
such as the Green Revolution have allowed the world to produce a surplus of food.[11]

Many governments have subsidized agriculture to ensure an adequate food supply. These agricultural subsidies are
often linked to the production of certain commodities such as wheat, corn (maize), rice, soybeans, and milk. These
subsidies, especially when instituted by developed countries have been noted as protectionist, inefficient, and
environmentally damaging.[12]
In the past century agriculture has been characterized by enhanced productivity, the use of synthetic fertilizers and
pesticides, selective breeding, mechanization, water contamination, and farm subsidies. Proponents of organic
farming such as Sir Albert Howard argued in the early 20th century that the overuse of pesticides and synthetic
fertilizers damages the long-term fertility of the soil. While this feeling lay dormant for decades, as environmental
awareness has increased in the 21st century there has been a movement towards sustainable agriculture by some
farmers, consumers, and policymakers.
In recent years there has been a backlash against perceived external environmental effects of mainstream agriculture,
particularly regarding water pollution,[13] resulting in the organic movement. One of the major forces behind this
movement has been the European Union, which first certified organic food in 1991 and began reform of its Common
Agricultural Policy (CAP) in 2005 to phase out commodity-linked farm subsidies,[14] also known as decoupling. The
growth of organic farming has renewed research in alternative technologies such as integrated pest management and
selective breeding. Recent mainstream technological developments include genetically modified food.
In late 2007, several factors pushed up the price of grains consumed by humans as well as used to feed poultry and
dairy cows and other cattle, causing higher prices of wheat (up 58%), soybean (up 32%), and maize (up 11%) over
Agriculture 3

the year.[15] [16] Food riots took place in several countries across the world.[17] [18] [19] Contributing factors included
drought in Australia and elsewhere, increasing demand for grain-fed animal products from the growing middle
classes of countries such as China and India, diversion of foodgrain to biofuel production and trade restrictions
imposed by several countries.
An epidemic of stem rust on wheat caused by race Ug99 is currently spreading across Africa and into Asia and is
causing major concern.[20] [21] [22] Approximately 40% of the world's agricultural land is seriously degraded.[23] In
Africa, if current trends of soil degradation continue, the continent might be able to feed just 25% of its population
by 2025, according to UNU's Ghana-based Institute for Natural Resources in Africa.[24]

History
Agricultural practices such as irrigation, crop rotation, fertilizers, and
pesticides were developed long ago, but have made great strides in the
past century. The history of agriculture has played a major role in
human history, as agricultural progress has been a crucial factor in
worldwide socio-economic change. Division of labor in agricultural
societies made commonplace specializations rarely seen in
hunter-gatherer cultures. So, too, are arts such as epic literature and
monumental architecture, as well as codified legal systems. When
farmers became capable of producing food beyond the needs of their
A Sumerian harvester's sickle made from baked
own families, others in their society were freed to devote themselves to
clay (ca. 3000 BC).
projects other than food acquisition. Historians and anthropologists
have long argued that the development of agriculture made civilization
possible. Before the appearance of agriculture, the total world population probably never exceeded 15 million
inhabitants.[25]

Ancient origins
The Fertile Crescent of Western Asia, Egypt, and India were sites of the earliest planned sowing and harvesting of
plants that had previously been gathered in the wild. Independent development of agriculture occurred in northern
and southern China, Africa's Sahel, New Guinea and several regions of the Americas.[26] The eight so-called
Neolithic founder crops of agriculture appear: first emmer wheat and einkorn wheat, then hulled barley, peas, lentils,
bitter vetch, chick peas and flax.
By 7000 BC, small-scale agriculture reached Egypt. From at least 7000 BC the Indian subcontinent saw farming of
wheat and barley, as attested by archaeological excavation at Mehrgarh in Balochistan in what is present day
Pakistan. By 6000 BC, mid-scale farming was entrenched on the banks of the Nile. This, as irrigation had not yet
matured sufficiently. About this time, agriculture was developed independently in the Far East, with rice, rather than
wheat, as the primary crop. Chinese and Indonesian farmers went on to domesticate taro and beans including mung,
soy and azuki. To complement these new sources of carbohydrates, highly organized net fishing of rivers, lakes and
ocean shores in these areas brought in great volumes of essential protein. Collectively, these new methods of farming
and fishing inaugurated a human population boom that dwarfed all previous expansions and continues today.
By 5000 BC, the Sumerians had developed core agricultural techniques including large-scale intensive cultivation of
land, monocropping, organized irrigation, and the use of a specialized labor force, particularly along the waterway
now known as the Shatt al-Arab, from its Persian Gulf delta to the confluence of the Tigris and Euphrates.
Domestication of wild aurochs and mouflon into cattle and sheep, respectively, ushered in the large-scale use of
animals for food/fiber and as beasts of burden. The shepherd joined the farmer as an essential provider for sedentary
and seminomadic societies. Maize, manioc, and arrowroot were first domesticated in the Americas as far back as
Agriculture 4

5200 BC.[27]
The potato, tomato, pepper, squash, several varieties of bean, tobacco, and several other plants were also developed
in the Americas, as was extensive terracing of steep hillsides in much of Andean South America. The Greeks and
Romans built on techniques pioneered by the Sumerians, but made few fundamentally new advances. Southern
Greeks struggled with very poor soils, yet managed to become a dominant society for years. The Romans were noted
for an emphasis on the cultivation of crops for trade.
In the same region, a parallel agricultural revolution occurred, resulting in some of the most important crops grown
today. In Mesoamerica wild teosinte was transformed through human selection into the ancestor of modern maize,
more than 6000 years ago. It gradually spread across North America and was the major crop of Native Americans at
the time of European exploration.[28] Other Mesoamerican crops include hundreds of varieties of squash and beans.
Cocoa was also a major crop in domesticated Mexico and Central America. The turkey, one of the most important
meat birds, was probably domesticated in Mexico or the U.S. Southwest. In the Andes region of South America the
major domesticated crop was potatoes, domesticated perhaps 5000 years ago. Large varieties of beans were
domesticated, in South America, as well as animals, including llamas, alpacas, and guinea pigs. Coca, still a major
crop, was also domesticated in the Andes.
A minor center of domestication, the indigenous people of the Eastern U.S. appear to have domesticated numerous
crops. Sunflowers, tobacco,[29] varieties of squash and Chenopodium, as well as crops no longer grown, including
marshelder and little barley were domesticated.[30] [31] Other wild foods may have undergone some selective
cultivation, including wild rice and maple sugar. The most common varieties of strawberry were domesticated from
Eastern North America.[32]
By 3500 BC, the simplest form of the plough was developed, called the ard.[33] Before this period, simple digging
sticks or hoes were used. These tools would have also been easier to transport, which was a benefit as people only
stayed until the soil's nutrients were depleted. However, through excavations in Mexico it has been found that the
continuous cultivating of smaller pieces of land would also have been a sustaining practice. Additional research in
central Europe later revealed that agriculture was indeed practiced at this method. For this method, ards were thus
much more efficient than digging sticks.[34]

Middle Ages
During the Middle Ages, farmers in North Africa, the Near East, and Europe began making use of agricultural
technologies including irrigation systems based on hydraulic and hydrostatic principles, machines such as norias,
water-raising machines, dams, and reservoirs. This combined with the invention of a three-field system of crop
rotation and the moldboard plow greatly improved agricultural efficiency.
In the European medieval period, agriculture was considered part of the set of seven mechanical arts.

Modern era
After 1492, a global exchange of previously local crops and livestock
breeds occurred. Key crops involved in this exchange included the
tomato, maize, potato, manioc, cocoa bean and tobacco going from the
New World to the Old, and several varieties of wheat, spices, coffee,
and sugar cane going from the Old World to the New. The most
important animal exportation from the Old World to the New were
those of the horse and dog (dogs were already present in the
pre-Columbian Americas but not in the numbers and breeds suited to
farm work). Although not usually food animals, the horse (including The Harvesters. Pieter Bruegel. 1565.
Agriculture 5

donkeys and ponies) and dog quickly filled essential production roles
on western-hemisphere farms.
The potato became an important staple crop in northern Europe.[35]
Since being introduced by Portuguese in the 16th century,[36] maize
and manioc have replaced traditional African crops as the continent's
most important staple food crops.[37]
By the early 19th century, agricultural techniques, implements, seed
stocks and cultivated plants selected and given a unique name because
This photo from a 1921 encyclopedia shows a
of its decorative or useful characteristics had so improved that yield per
tractor ploughing an alfalfa field.
land unit was many times that seen in the Middle Ages. Although there
is a vast and interesting history of crop cultivation before the dawn of
the 20th century, there is little question that the work of Charles
Darwin and Gregor Mendel created the scientific foundation for plant
breeding that led to its explosive impact over the past 150 years.[38]

With the rapid rise of mechanization in the late 19th century and the
20th century, particularly in the form of the tractor, farming tasks could
be done with a speed and on a scale previously impossible. These
advances have led to efficiencies enabling certain modern farms in the
United States, Argentina, Israel, Germany, and a few other nations to
output volumes of high-quality produce per land unit at what may be
the practical limit.

The Haber-Bosch method for synthesizing ammonium nitrate

Satellite image of farming in Minnesota.
represented a major breakthrough and allowed crop yields to overcome
previous constraints. In the past century agriculture has been
characterized by enhanced productivity, the substitution of labor for
synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, water pollution, and farm subsidies.
In recent years there has been a backlash against the external
environmental effects of conventional agriculture, resulting in the
organic movement.

The cereals rice, corn, and wheat provide 60% of human food
supply.[39] Between 1700 and 1980, "the total area of cultivated land
worldwide increased 466%" and yields increased dramatically,
particularly because of selectively bred high-yielding varieties,
fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation, and machinery.[39] For example,
irrigation increased corn yields in eastern Colorado by 400 to 500%
from 1940 to 1997.[39] Infrared image of the above farms. To the
untrained eye, this image appears a hodge-podge
However, concerns have been raised over the sustainability of of colours without any apparent purpose. But
intensive agriculture. Intensive agriculture has become associated with farmers are now trained to see yellows where
crops are infested, shades of red indicating crop
decreased soil quality in India and Asia, and there has been increased
health, black where flooding occurs, and brown
concern over the effects of fertilizers and pesticides on the where unwanted pesticides land on chemical-free
environment, particularly as population increases and food demand crops.
expands. The monocultures typically used in intensive agriculture
increase the number of pests, which are controlled through pesticides. Integrated pest management (IPM), which
"has been promoted for decades and has had some notable successes" has not significantly affected the use of
pesticides because policies encourage the use of pesticides and IPM is knowledge-intensive.[39]
Agriculture 6

Although the "Green Revolution" significantly increased rice yields in Asia, yield increases have not occurred in the
past 15–20 years.[40] The genetic "yield potential" has increased for wheat, but the yield potential for rice has not
increased since 1966, and the yield potential for maize has "barely increased in 35 years".[40] It takes a decade or two
for herbicide-resistant weeds to emerge, and insects become resistant to insecticides within about a decade.[40] Crop
rotation helps to prevent resistances.[40]
Agricultural exploration expeditions, since the late 19th century, have been mounted to find new species and new
agricultural practices in different areas of the world. Two early examples of expeditions include Frank N. Meyer's
fruit- and nut-collecting trip to China and Japan from 1916-1918[41] and the Dorsett-Morse Oriental Agricultural
Exploration Expedition to China, Japan, and Korea from 1929-1931 to collect soybean germplasm to support the rise
in soybean agriculture in the United States.[42]
In 2009, the agricultural output of China was the largest in the world, followed by the European Union, India and the
United States, according to the International Monetary Fund (see below). Economists measure the total factor
productivity of agriculture and by this measure agriculture in the United States is roughly 2.6 times more productive
than it was in 1948.[43]
Six countries - the US, Canada, France, Australia, Argentina and Thailand - supply 90% of grain exports.[44] The
United States controls almost half of world grain exports.[44] Water deficits, which are already spurring heavy grain
imports in numerous middle-sized countries, including Algeria, Iran, Egypt, and Mexico,[45] may soon do the same
in larger countries, such as China or India.[46]

Crop production systems

Cropping systems vary among farms depending on the available
resources and constraints; geography and climate of the farm;
government policy; economic, social and political pressures; and the
philosophy and culture of the farmer.[47] [48] Shifting cultivation (or
slash and burn) is a system in which forests are burnt, releasing
nutrients to support cultivation of annual and then perennial crops for a
period of several years.[49]

Then the plot is left fallow to regrow forest, and the farmer moves to a Farmers work inside a rice field in Andhra
new plot, returning after many more years (10-20). This fallow period Pradesh, India.
is shortened if population density grows, requiring the input of
nutrients (fertilizer or manure) and some manual pest control. Annual cultivation is the next phase of intensity in
which there is no fallow period. This requires even greater nutrient and pest control inputs.
Further industrialization lead to the use of monocultures, when one cultivar is planted on a large acreage. Because of
the low biodiversity, nutrient use is uniform and pests tend to build up, necessitating the greater use of pesticides and
fertilizers.[48] Multiple cropping, in which several crops are grown sequentially in one year, and intercropping, when
several crops are grown at the same time are other kinds of annual cropping systems known as polycultures.[49]
In tropical environments, all of these cropping systems are practiced. In subtropical and arid environments, the
timing and extent of agriculture may be limited by rainfall, either not allowing multiple annual crops in a year, or
requiring irrigation. In all of these environments perennial crops are grown (coffee, chocolate) and systems are
practiced such as agroforestry. In temperate environments, where ecosystems were predominantly grassland or
prairie, highly productive annual cropping is the dominant farming system.[49]
The last century has seen the intensification, concentration and specialization of agriculture, relying upon new
technologies of agricultural chemicals (fertilizers and pesticides), mechanization, and plant breeding (hybrids and
GMO's). In the past few decades, a move towards sustainability in agriculture has also developed, integrating ideas
of socio-economic justice and conservation of resources and the environment within a farming system.[50] [51] This
Agriculture 7

has led to the development of many responses to the conventional agriculture approach, including organic
agriculture, urban agriculture, community supported agriculture, ecological or biological agriculture, integrated
farming and holistic management, as well as an increased trend towards agricultural diversification.

Crop statistics
Important categories of crops include grains and pseudograins, pulses (legumes), forage, and fruits and vegetables.
Specific crops are cultivated in distinct growing regions throughout the world. In millions of metric tons, based on
FAO estimate.

Top agricultural products, by crop types

(million tonnes) 2004 data

Cereals 2,263

Vegetables and melons 866

Roots and Tubers 715

Milk 619

Fruit 503

Meat 259

Oilcrops 133

Fish (2001 estimate) 130

Eggs 63

Pulses 60

Vegetable Fiber 30

Source:
[52]
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)

Top agricultural products, by individual

crops
(million tonnes) 2004 data

Sugar Cane 1,324

Maize 721

Wheat 627

Rice 605

Potatoes 328

Sugar Beet 249

Soybean 204

Oil Palm Fruit 162

Barley 154

Tomato 120

Source:
[52]
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
Agriculture 8

Livestock production systems

Animals, including horses, mules, oxen, camels, llamas, alpacas, and
dogs, are often used to help cultivate fields, harvest crops, wrangle
other animals, and transport farm products to buyers. Animal
husbandry not only refers to the breeding and raising of animals for
meat or to harvest animal products (like milk, eggs, or wool) on a
continual basis, but also to the breeding and care of species for work
and companionship. Livestock production systems can be defined
based on feed source, as grassland - based, mixed, and landless.[53]
Ploughing rice paddies with water buffalo, in
Grassland based livestock production relies upon plant material such as Indonesia.
shrubland, rangeland, and pastures for feeding ruminant animals.
Outside nutrient inputs may be used, however manure is returned directly to the grassland as a major nutrient source.
This system is particularly important in areas where crop production is not feasible because of climate or soil,
representing 30-40 million pastoralists.[49] Mixed production systems use grassland, fodder crops and grain feed
crops as feed for ruminant and monogastic (one stomach; mainly chickens and pigs) livestock. Manure is typically
recycled in mixed systems as a fertilizer for crops. Approximately 68% of all agricultural land is permanent pastures
used in the production of livestock.[54]

Landless systems rely upon feed from outside the farm, representing the de-linking of crop and livestock production
found more prevalently in OECD member countries. In the U.S., 70% of the grain grown is fed to animals on
feedlots.[49] Synthetic fertilizers are more heavily relied upon for crop production and manure utilization becomes a
challenge as well as a source for pollution.

Production practices
Tillage is the practice of plowing soil to
prepare for planting or for nutrient
incorporation or for pest control. Tillage
varies in intensity from conventional to
no-till. It may improve productivity by
warming the soil, incorporating fertilizer
and controlling weeds, but also renders soil
more prone to erosion, triggers the
decomposition of organic matter releasing
CO2, and reduces the abundance and
Road leading across the farm allows machinery access to the farm for production
diversity of soil organisms.[55] [56]
practices.
Pest control includes the management of
weeds, insects/mites, and diseases. Chemical (pesticides), biological (biocontrol), mechanical (tillage), and cultural
practices are used. Cultural practices include crop rotation, culling, cover crops, intercropping, composting,
avoidance, and resistance. Integrated pest management attempts to use all of these methods to keep pest populations
below the number which would cause economic loss, and recommends pesticides as a last resort.[57]
Nutrient management includes both the source of nutrient inputs for crop and livestock production, and the method
of utilization of manure produced by livestock. Nutrient inputs can be chemical inorganic fertilizers, manure, green
manure, compost and mined minerals.[58] Crop nutrient use may also be managed using cultural techniques such as
crop rotation or a fallow period.[59] [60] Manure is used either by holding livestock where the feed crop is growing,
such as in managed intensive rotational grazing, or by spreading either dry or liquid formulations of manure on
Agriculture 9

cropland or pastures.
Water management is where rainfall is insufficient or variable, which occurs to some degree in most regions of the
world.[49] Some farmers use irrigation to supplement rainfall. In other areas such as the Great Plains in the U.S. and
Canada, farmers use a fallow year to conserve soil moisture to use for growing a crop in the following year.[61]
Agriculture represents 70% of freshwater use worldwide.[62]

Processing, distribution, and marketing

In the United States, food costs attributed to processing, distribution, and marketing have risen while the costs
attributed to farming have declined. This is related to the greater efficiency of farming, combined with the increased
level of value addition (e.g. more highly processed products) provided by the supply chain. From 1960 to 1980 the
farm share was around 40%, but by 1990 it had declined to 30% and by 1998, 22.2%. Market concentration has
increased in the sector as well, with the top 20 food manufacturers accounting for half the food-processing value in
1995, over double that produced in 1954. As of 2000 the top six US supermarket groups had 50% of sales compared
to 32% in 1992. Although the total effect of the increased market concentration is likely increased efficiency, the
changes redistribute economic surplus from producers (farmers) and consumers, and may have negative implications
for rural communities.[63]

Crop alteration and biotechnology

Crop alteration has been practiced by humankind for thousands of
years, since the beginning of civilization. Altering crops through
breeding practices changes the genetic make-up of a plant to develop
crops with more beneficial characteristics for humans, for example,
larger fruits or seeds, drought-tolerance, or resistance to pests.
Significant advances in plant breeding ensued after the work of
geneticist Gregor Mendel. His work on dominant and recessive alleles
gave plant breeders a better understanding of genetics and brought
Tractor and Chaser bin.
great insights to the techniques utilized by plant breeders. Crop
breeding includes techniques such as plant selection with desirable
traits, self-pollination and cross-pollination, and molecular techniques that genetically modify the organism.[64]

Domestication of plants has, over the centuries increased yield, improved disease resistance and drought tolerance,
eased harvest and improved the taste and nutritional value of crop plants. Careful selection and breeding have had
enormous effects on the characteristics of crop plants. Plant selection and breeding in the 1920s and 1930s improved
pasture (grasses and clover) in New Zealand. Extensive X-ray an ultraviolet induced mutagenesis efforts (i.e.
primitive genetic engineering) during the 1950s produced the modern commercial varieties of grains such as wheat,
corn (maize) and barley.[65] [66]
The Green Revolution popularized the use of conventional hybridization to increase yield many folds by creating
"high-yielding varieties". For example, average yields of corn (maize) in the USA have increased from around 2.5
tons per hectare (t/ha) (40 bushels per acre) in 1900 to about 9.4 t/ha (150 bushels per acre) in 2001. Similarly,
worldwide average wheat yields have increased from less than 1 t/ha in 1900 to more than 2.5 t/ha in 1990. South
American average wheat yields are around 2 t/ha, African under 1 t/ha, Egypt and Arabia up to 3.5 to 4 t/ha with
irrigation. In contrast, the average wheat yield in countries such as France is over 8 t/ha. Variations in yields are due
mainly to variation in climate, genetics, and the level of intensive farming techniques (use of fertilizers, chemical
pest control, growth control to avoid lodging).[67] [68] [69]
Agriculture 10

Genetic engineering
Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO) are organisms whose genetic material has been altered by genetic
engineering techniques generally known as recombinant DNA technology. Genetic engineering has expanded the
genes available to breeders to utilize in creating desired germlines for new crops. After mechanical tomato-harvesters
were developed in the early 1960s, agricultural scientists genetically modified tomatoes to be more resistant to
mechanical handling. More recently, genetic engineering is being employed in various parts of the world, to create
crops with other beneficial traits.

Herbicide-tolerant GMO Crops

Roundup Ready seed has a herbicide resistant gene implanted into its genome that allows the plants to tolerate
exposure to glyphosate. Roundup is a trade name for a glyphosate-based product, which is a systemic, nonselective
herbicide used to kill weeds. Roundup Ready seeds allow the farmer to grow a crop that can be sprayed with
glyphosate to control weeds without harming the resistant crop. Herbicide-tolerant crops are used by farmers
worldwide. Today, 92% of soybean acreage in the US is planted with genetically modified herbicide-tolerant
plants.[70]
With the increasing use of herbicide-tolerant crops, comes an increase in the use of glyphosate-based herbicide
sprays. In some areas glyphosate resistant weeds have developed, causing farmers to switch to other herbicides.[71]
[72]
Some studies also link widespread glyphosate usage to iron deficiencies in some crops, which is both a crop
production and a nutritional quality concern, with potential economic and health implications.[73]

Insect-resistant GMO Crops

Other GMO crops used by growers include insect-resistant crops, which have a gene from the soil bacterium
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), which produces a toxin specific to insects. These crops protect plants from damage by
insects; one such crop is Starlink. Another is cotton, which accounts for 63% of US cotton acreage.[74]
Some believe that similar or better pest-resistance traits can be acquired through traditional breeding practices, and
resistance to various pests can be gained through hybridization or cross-pollination with wild species. In some cases,
wild species are the primary source of resistance traits; some tomato cultivars that have gained resistance to at least
nineteen diseases did so through crossing with wild populations of tomatoes.[75]

Costs and benefits of GMOs

Genetic engineers may someday develop transgenic plants which would allow for irrigation, drainage, conservation,
sanitary engineering, and maintaining or increasing yields while requiring fewer fossil fuel derived inputs than
conventional crops. Such developments would be particularly important in areas which are normally arid and rely
upon constant irrigation, and on large scale farms. However, genetic engineering of plants has proven to be
controversial. Many issues surrounding food security and environmental impacts have risen regarding GMO
practices. For example, GMOs are questioned by some ecologists and economists concerned with GMO practices
such as terminator seeds,[76] [77] which is a genetic modification that creates sterile seeds. Terminator seeds are
currently under strong international opposition and face continual efforts of global bans.[78]
Another controversial issue is the patent protection given to companies that develop new types of seed using genetic
engineering. Since companies have intellectual ownership of their seeds, they have the power to dictate terms and
conditions of their patented product. Currently, ten seed companies control over two-thirds of the global seed
sales.[79] Vandana Shiva argues that these companies are guilty of biopiracy by patenting life and exploiting
organisms for profit[80] Farmers using patented seed are restricted from saving seed for subsequent plantings, which
forces farmers to buy new seed every year. Since seed saving is a traditional practice for many farmers in both
developing and developed countries, GMO seeds legally bind farmers to change their seed saving practices to buying
new seed every year.[71] [80]
Agriculture 11

Locally adapted seeds are an essential heritage that has the potential to be lost with current hybridized crops and
GMOs. Locally adapted seeds, also called land races or crop eco-types, are important because they have adapted
over time to the specific microclimates, soils, other environmental conditions, field designs, and ethnic preference
indigenous to the exact area of cultivation.[81] Introducing GMOs and hybridized commercial seed to an area brings
the risk of cross-pollination with local land races Therefore, GMOs pose a threat to the sustainability of land races
and the ethnic heritage of cultures. Once seed contains transgenic material, it becomes subject to the conditions of
the seed company that owns the patent of the transgenic material.[82]

Modern agriculture
Modern agriculture is a term used to describe the wide majority of production practices employed by America’s
farmers. The term depicts the push for innovation, stewardship and advancements continually made by growers to
sustainably produce higher-quality products with a reduced environmental impact. Intensive scientific research and
robust investment in modern agriculture during the past 50 years has helped farmers double food production while
essentially freezing the footprint of total cultivated farmland.[83] [84]

Safety
The agriculture industry works with government agencies and other organizations to ensure that farmers have access
to the technologies required to support modern agriculture practices. Farmers are supported by education and
certification programs that ensure they apply agricultural practices with care and only when required.

Sustainability
Technological advancements help provide farmers with tools and resources to help reduce their environmental
footprint and to make farming more sustainable.[85]
New technologies have given rise to innovations like conservation tillage, a farming process which helps prevent
land loss to erosion, water pollution and enhances carbon sequestration.[86]
The World Bank, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and others have noted that integrated crop management is
based on agro-ecological principles and can increase yields while reducing environmental damage.

Affordability
The goal of modern agriculture practices is to help farmers provide an affordable supply of food to meet the demands
of a growing population.[87] With modern agriculture, more crops can be grown on less land allowing farmers to
provide an increased supply of food at an affordable price.

Food safety, labeling and regulation

Food security issues also coincide with food safety and food labeling concerns. Currently a global treaty, the
BioSafety Protocol, regulates the trade of GMOs. The EU currently requires all GMO foods to be labeled, whereas
the US does not require transparent labeling of GMO foods. Since there are still questions regarding the safety and
risks associated with GMO foods, some believe the public should have the freedom to choose and know what they
are eating and require all GMO products to be labeled.[88]
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) leads international efforts to defeat hunger and
provides a neutral forum where nations meet as equals to negotiate agreements and debate food policy and the
regulation of agriculture. According to Dr. Samuel Jutzi, director of FAO's animal production and health division,
lobbying by "powerful" big food corporations has stopped reforms that would improve human health and the
environment. The "real, true issues are not being addressed by the political process because of the influence of
lobbyists, of the true powerful entities," he said, speaking at the Compassion in World Farming annual forum. For
example, recent proposals for a voluntary code of conduct for the livestock industry that would have provided
Agriculture 12

incentives for improving standards for health, and environmental regulations, such as the number of animals an area
of land can support without long-term damage, were successfully defeated due to large food company pressure.[89]

Environmental impact
Agriculture imposes external costs upon society through pesticides, nutrient runoff, excessive water usage, and
assorted other problems. A 2000 assessment of agriculture in the UK determined total external costs for 1996 of
£2,343 million, or £208 per hectare.[90] A 2005 analysis of these costs in the USA concluded that cropland imposes
approximately $5 to 16 billion ($30 to $96 per hectare), while livestock production imposes $714 million.[91] Both
studies concluded that more should be done to internalize external costs, and neither included subsidies in their
analysis, but noted that subsidies also influence the cost of agriculture to society. Both focused on purely fiscal
impacts. The 2000 review included reported pesticide poisonings but did not include speculative chronic effects of
pesticides, and the 2004 review relied on a 1992 estimate of the total impact of pesticides.
A key player who is credited to saving billions of lives because of his revolutionary work in developing new
agricultural techniques is Norman Borlaug. His transformative work brought high-yield crop varieties to developing
countries and earned him an unofficial title as the father of the Green Revolution.

Livestock issues
A senior UN official and co-author of a UN report detailing this problem, Henning Steinfeld, said "Livestock are one
of the most significant contributors to today's most serious environmental problems".[92] Livestock production
occupies 70% of all land used for agriculture, or 30% of the land surface of the planet. It is one of the largest sources
of greenhouse gases, responsible for 18% of the world's greenhouse gas emissions as measured in CO2 equivalents.
By comparison, all transportation emits 13.5% of the CO2. It produces 65% of human-related nitrous oxide (which
has 296 times the global warming potential of CO2,) and 37% of all human-induced methane (which is 23 times as
warming as CO2. It also generates 64% of the ammonia, which contributes to acid rain and acidification of
ecosystems. Livestock expansion is cited as a key factor driving deforestation, in the Amazon basin 70% of
previously forested area is now occupied by pastures and the remainder used for feedcrops.[93] Through deforestation
and land degradation, livestock is also driving reductions in biodiversity.

Land transformation and degradation

Land transformation, the use of land to yield goods and services, is the most substantial way humans alter the Earth's
ecosystems, and is considered the driving force in the loss of biodiversity. Estimates of the amount of land
transformed by humans vary from 39–50%.[94] Land degradation, the long-term decline in ecosystem function and
productivity, is estimated to be occurring on 24% of land worldwide, with cropland overrepresented.[95] The
UN-FAO report cites land management as the driving factor behind degradation and reports that 1.5 billion people
rely upon the degrading land. Degradation can be deforestation, desertification, soil erosion, mineral depletion, or
chemical degradation (acidification and salinization).[49]

Eutrophication
Eutrophication, excessive nutrients in aquatic ecosystems resulting in algal blooms and anoxia, leads to fish kills,
loss of biodiversity, and renders water unfit for drinking and other industrial uses. Excessive fertilization and manure
application to cropland, as well as high livestock stocking densities cause nutrient (mainly nitrogen and phosphorus)
runoff and leaching from agricultural land. These nutrients are major nonpoint pollutants contributing to
eutrophication of aquatic ecosystems.[96]
Agriculture 13

Pesticides
Pesticide use has increased since 1950 to 2.5 million tons annually worldwide, yet crop loss from pests has remained
relatively constant.[97] The World Health Organization estimated in 1992 that 3 million pesticide poisonings occur
annually, causing 220,000 deaths.[98] Pesticides select for pesticide resistance in the pest population, leading to a
condition termed the 'pesticide treadmill' in which pest resistance warrants the development of a new pesticide.[99]
An alternative argument is that the way to 'save the environment' and prevent famine is by using pesticides and
intensive high yield farming, a view exemplified by a quote heading the Center for Global Food Issues website:
'Growing more per acre leaves more land for nature'.[100] [101] However, critics argue that a trade-off between the
environment and a need for food is not inevitable,[102] and that pesticides simply replace good agronomic practices
such as crop rotation.[99]

Climate Change
Climate change has the potential to affect agriculture through changes in temperature, rainfall (timing and quantity),
CO2, solar radiation and the interaction of these elements.[49] [103] Agriculture can both mitigate or worsen global
warming. Some of the increase in CO2 in the atmosphere comes from the decomposition of organic matter in the soil,
and much of the methane emitted into the atmosphere is caused by the decomposition of organic matter in wet soils
such as rice paddies.[104] Further, wet or anaerobic soils also lose nitrogen through denitrification, releasing the
greenhouse gas nitric oxide.[105] Changes in management can reduce the release of these greenhouse gases, and soil
can further be used to sequester some of the CO2 in the atmosphere.[104]

International economics and agriculture

Differences in economic development, population density and culture mean that the farmers of the world operate
under very different conditions.
A US cotton farmer may receive US$230[106] in government subsidies per acre planted (in 2003), while farmers in
Mali and other third-world countries do without. When prices decline, the heavily subsidized US farmer is not forced
to reduce his output, making it difficult for cotton prices to rebound, but his Mali counterpart may go broke in the
meantime.
A livestock farmer in South Korea can calculate with a (highly subsidized) sales price of US$1300 for a calf
produced.[107] A South American Mercosur country rancher calculates with a calf's sales price of US$120–200 (both
2008 figures).[108] With the former, scarcity and high cost of land is compensated with public subsidies, the latter
compensates absence of subsidies with economics of scale and low cost of land.
In the Peoples Republic of China, a rural household's productive asset may be one hectare of farmland.[109] In Brazil,
Paraguay and other countries where local legislature allows such purchases, international investors buy thousands of
hectares of farmland or raw land at prices of a few hundred US$ per hectare.[110] [111] [112]
Agriculture 14

List of countries by agricultural output

Below is a list of countries by agricultural
output in 2009. Output is in millions of US$.

Global agricultural output in 2005.

Rank Country Output

1  China 520,352

—  European Union 312,498

2  India 210,116

3  United States 171,075

4  Brazil 96,016

5  Japan 81,089

6  Russia 57,774

7  Spain 48,313

8  France 48,167

9  Australia 40,885

10  Italy 38,129

Energy and agriculture

Since the 1940s, agricultural productivity has increased dramatically, due largely to the increased use of
energy-intensive mechanization, fertilizers and pesticides. The vast majority of this energy input comes from fossil
fuel sources.[113] Between 1950 and 1984, the Green Revolution transformed agriculture around the globe, with
world grain production increasing by 250%[114] [115] as world population doubled. Modern agriculture's heavy
reliance on petrochemicals and mechanization has raised concerns that oil shortages could increase costs and reduce
agricultural output, causing food shortages.
Agriculture 15

Agriculture and food system share (%) of total energy

consumption by three industrialized nations

Country Year Agriculture Food

(direct & indirect) system

[116] 2005 1.9 11

United Kingdom

[117] 1996 2.1 10

United States of America

[118] 2002 2.0 14

United States of America

[119] 2000 2.5 13

Sweden

Modern or industrialized agriculture is dependent on fossil fuels in two fundamental ways: 1) direct consumption on
the farm and 2) indirect consumption to manufacture inputs used on the farm. Direct consumption includes the use of
lubricants and fuels to operate farm vehicles and machinery; and use of gas, liquid propane, and electricity to power
dryers, pumps, lights, heaters, and coolers. American farms directly consumed about 1.2 exajoules (1.1 quadrillion
BTU) in 2002, or just over 1 percent of the nation's total energy.[120]
Indirect consumption is mainly oil and natural gas used to manufacture fertilizers and pesticides, which accounted
for 0.6 exajoules (0.6 quadrillion BTU) in 2002.[120] The energy used to manufacture farm machinery is also a form
of indirect agricultural energy consumption, but it is not included in USDA estimates of U.S. agricultural energy use.
Together, direct and indirect consumption by U.S. farms accounts for about 2 percent of the nation's energy use.
Direct and indirect energy consumption by U.S. farms peaked in 1979, and has gradually declined over the past 30
years.[120]
Food systems encompass not just agricultural production, but also off-farm processing, packaging, transporting,
marketing, consumption, and disposal of food and food-related items. Agriculture accounts for less than one-fifth of
food system energy use in the United States.[117] [118]
Oil shortages could impact this food supply. Some farmers using modern organic-farming methods have reported
yields as high as those available from conventional farming without the use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides.
However, the reconditioning of soil to restore nutrients lost during the use of monoculture agriculture techniques
made possible by petroleum-based technology takes time.[121] [122] [123] [124]
In 2007, higher incentives for farmers to grow non-food biofuel crops[125] combined with other factors (such as
over-development of former farm lands, rising transportation costs, climate change, growing consumer demand in
China and India, and population growth)[126] to cause food shortages in Asia, the Middle East, Africa, and Mexico,
as well as rising food prices around the globe.[127] [128] As of December 2007, 37 countries faced food crises, and 20
had imposed some sort of food-price controls. Some of these shortages resulted in food riots and even deadly
stampedes.[17] [18] [19]
The biggest fossil fuel input to agriculture is the use of natural gas as a hydrogen source for the Haber-Bosch
fertilizer-creation process.[129] Natural gas is used because it is the cheapest currently available source of
hydrogen.[130] [131] When oil production becomes so scarce that natural gas is used as a partial stopgap replacement,
and hydrogen use in transportation increases, natural gas will become much more expensive. If the Haber Process is
unable to be commercialized using renewable energy (such as by electrolysis) or if other sources of hydrogen are not
available to replace the Haber Process, in amounts sufficient to supply transportation and agricultural needs, this
major source of fertilizer would either become extremely expensive or unavailable. This would either cause food
shortages or dramatic rises in food prices.
Agriculture 16

Mitigation of effects of petroleum shortages

One effect oil shortages could have on agriculture is a full return to organic agriculture. In light of peak-oil concerns,
organic methods are more sustainable than contemporary practices because they use no petroleum-based pesticides,
herbicides, or fertilizers. Some farmers using modern organic-farming methods have reported yields as high as those
available from conventional farming.[121] [122] [123] [124] Organic farming may however be more labor-intensive and
would require a shift of the workforce from urban to rural areas.[132]
It has been suggested that rural communities might obtain fuel from the biochar and synfuel process, which uses
agricultural waste to provide charcoal fertilizer, some fuel and food, instead of the normal food vs fuel debate. As
the synfuel would be used on-site, the process would be more efficient and might just provide enough fuel for a new
organic-agriculture fusion.[133] [134]
It has been suggested that some transgenic plants may some day be developed which would allow for maintaining or
increasing yields while requiring fewer fossil-fuel-derived inputs than conventional crops.[135] The possibility of
success of these programs is questioned by ecologists and economists concerned with unsustainable GMO practices
such as terminator seeds,[136] [137] and a January 2008 report shows that GMO practices "fail to deliver
environmental, social and economic benefits."[138]
While there has been some research on sustainability using GMO crops, at least one hyped and prominent multi-year
attempt by Monsanto Company has been unsuccessful, though during the same period traditional breeding
techniques yielded a more sustainable variety of the same crop.[139] Additionally, a survey by the bio-tech industry
of subsistence farmers in Africa to discover what GMO research would most benefit sustainable agriculture only
identified non-transgenic issues as areas needing to be addressed.[140] Nevertheless, some governments in Africa
continue to view investments in new transgenic technologies as an essential component of efforts to improve
sustainability.[141]

Policy
Agricultural policy focuses on the goals and methods of agricultural production. At the policy level, common goals
of agriculture include:
• Conservation
• Economic stability
• Environmental sustainability
• Food quality: Ensuring that the food supply is of a consistent and known quality.
• Food safety: Ensuring that the food supply is free of contamination.
• Food security: Ensuring that the food supply meets the population's needs.[142] [143]
• Poverty Reduction

See also
• Agricultural effects of peak oil
• Aeroponics (Indoor growing of food and plants)
• Agricultural economics
• Agricultural engineering
• Agricultural marketing
• Agricultural diversification
• Agroecology
• Agronomy for Sustainable Development
• Animal welfare
• Biopesticides
Agriculture 17

• Building-integrated agriculture
• Chitosan (natural biocontrol for agricultural and horticultural use)
• Climate change and agriculture
• Contract farming
• Consumption-labour-balance principle
• Criticism of conventional agriculture
• Crofting
• Doha Development Round
• Ecoagriculture
• Factory farming
• Feed additive
• Food Studies
• Good agricultural practice
• Green Revolution
• Industrial agriculture
• Intensive farming
• Leveraging Agriculture for Improving Nutrition and Health
• Organic farming
• Permaculture
• Permaforestry
• Rural economics
• Smallholder agriculture
• Timeline of agriculture and food technology
• Wildculture
• Vertical farming
• Push–pull technology, pest control strategy for maize and sorghum

Lists
• List of basic agriculture topics
• List of countries by GDP sector composition - breakdown includes agricultural sector information
• List of domesticated animals
• List of subsistence techniques
• List of sustainable agriculture topics
• No-till farming

References

Notes
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Bibliography
• Alvarez, Robert A. (2007). "The March
of Empire: Mangos, Avocados, and the
Politics of Transfer" (http://caliber.
ucpress.net/doi/pdf/10.1525/gfc.
2007.7.3.28). Gastronomica, Vol. 7,
No. 3, 28-33. Retrieved on November 12,
2008.
• Bolens, L. (1997). "Agriculture" in Selin, Coffee Plantation up São João do Manhuaçu City mouth - Minas Gerais State -
Helaine (ed.), Encyclopedia of the history Brazil.
of Science, technology, and Medicine in
Non Western Cultures. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht/Boston/London, pp. 20–22.
• Collinson, M. (ed.) A History of Farming Systems Research. CABI Publishing, 2000. ISBN 978-0-85199-405-5
• Crosby, Alfred W.: The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492. Praeger
Publishers, 2003 (30th Anniversary Edition). ISBN 978-0-275-98073-3
• Davis, Donald R.; Riordan, Hugh D. (2004). "Changes in USDA Food Composition Data for 43 Garden Crops,
1950 to 1999". Journal of the American College of Nutrition, Vol. 23, No. 6, 669-682.
• Friedland, William H.; Barton, Amy (1975). "Destalking the Wily Tomato: A Case Study of Social Consequences
in California Agricultural Research". Univ. California at Sta. Cruz, Research Monograph 15.
• Mazoyer, Marcel; Roudart, Laurence (2006). A history of world agriculture : from the Neolithic Age to the
current crisis. Monthly Review Press, New York. ISBN 978-1-58367-121-4
• Saltini A. Storia delle scienze agrarie, 4 vols, Bologna 1984-89, ISBN 978-88-206-2412-5, ISBN
978-88-206-2413-2, ISBN 978-88-206-2414-9, ISBN 978-88-206-2414-9
• Watson, A.M. (1974). "The Arab agricultural revolution and its diffusion", in The Journal of Economic History,
34.
• Watson, A.M. (1983). Agricultural Innovation in the Early Islamic World, Cambridge University Press.
• Wells, Spencer (2003). The Journey of Man: A Genetic Odyssey. Princeton University Press. ISBN
978-0-691-11532-0
• Wickens, G.M. (1976). "What the West borrowed from the Middle East", in Savory, R.M. (ed.) Introduction to
Islamic Civilization. Cambridge University Press.
Agriculture 23

External links
• Agriculture (http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/us/agritop.htm) from UCB Libraries GovPubs
• Agriculture and Rural development (http://www.worldbank.org/rural) from the World Bank
• Gender in agriculture and rural development (FAO) (http://www.fao.org/gender/en/)
• Index to the Manuscript Collections (http://www.nal.usda.gov/speccoll/collectionsguide/collection.
php?subject=Plant_Exploration) Special Collections, National Agricultural Library
• The American Society of Agronomy (ASA) (https://www.agronomy.org/)
• International Federation of Agricultural Producers (http://www.ifap.org/) (IFAP)
• NIOSH Agriculture Page (http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/agriculture) - safety laws, tips, and guidelines
• U.S. House Committee on Agriculture (http://agriculture.house.gov/info/glossary.html) - Glossary of
agricultural terms, programs and laws
• UKAgriculture.com (http://www.ukagriculture.com/) - Advance the education of the public in all aspects of
agriculture, the countryside and the rural economy
• Agricultural Products (http://www.agriculturalproductsindia.com/) - portal about agro products and agriculture
industry.
• Guide to collections containing information on agriculture at the Eisenhower Presidential Library (http://
eisenhower.archives.gov/Research/Subject_Guides/PDFs/Agriculture.pdf)
• Collection of Agriculture Dictionaries (http://dictionary.babylon.com/science/agriculture)
• Agriculture Books (http://freeonlinebookstore.org/agriculturendCultivation.html)
• United Agriculture Market Talk (http://www.united-agriculture.com/)
pfl:Landwerdschaft
 24

History

History of agriculture
Agriculture was developed at least 10,000 years ago,[1] and it has undergone significant developments since the
time of the earliest cultivation. Evidence points to the Fertile Crescent of the Middle East as the site of the earliest
planned sowing and harvesting of plants that had previously been gathered in the wild. Independent development of
agriculture is also believed to have occurred in northern and southern China, Africa's Sahel, New Guinea and several
regions of the Americas. Agricultural practices such as irrigation, crop rotation, fertilizers, and pesticides were
developed long ago but have made great strides in the past century. The Haber-Bosch method for synthesizing
ammonium nitrate represented a major breakthrough and allowed crop yields to overcome previous constraints.
In the past century, agriculture has been characterized by enhanced productivity, the replacement of human labor by
synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, selective breeding, and mechanization. The recent history of agriculture has been
closely tied with a range of political issues including water pollution, biofuels, genetically modified organisms,
tariffs, and farm subsidies. In recent years, there has been a backlash against the external environmental effects of
mechanized agriculture, and increasing support for the organic movement and sustainable agriculture.

Early history
Scholars have proposed a number of theories to explain the historical development of farming. Most likely, there was
a gradual transition from hunter-gatherer to agricultural societies after a lengthy period during which some crops
were deliberately planted and other foods were gathered in the wild. Although localised climate change is the
favoured explanation for the origins of agriculture in the Levant, the fact that farming was 'invented' at least three
times elsewhere, suggests that social reasons may have been instrumental. When major climate change took place
after the last ice age (c. 11,000 BC), much of the earth became subject to long dry seasons. These conditions
favoured annual plants which die off in the long dry season, leaving a dormant seed or tuber. These plants tended to
put more energy into producing seeds than into woody growth. An abundance of readily storable wild grains and
pulses enabled hunter-gatherers in some areas to form the first settled villages at this time.
The Oasis Theory was proposed by Raphael Pumpelly in 1908, and popularized by Vere Gordon Childe who
summarized the theory in his book Man Makes Himself[2] This theory maintains that as the climate got drier,
communities contracted to oases where they were forced into close association with animals which were then
domesticated together with planting of seeds. The theory has little support from contemporary scholars, as the
climate data for the time does not support the theory.
The Hilly Flanks hypothesis, proposed by Robert Braidwood in 1948, suggests that agriculture began in the hilly
flanks of the Taurus and Zagros mountains, and that it developed from intensive focused grain gathering in the
region.[3]
The Feasting model by Bryan Hayden[4] suggests that agriculture was driven by ostentatious displays of power, such
as throwing feasts to exert dominance. This required assembling large quantities of food which drove agricultural
technology.
The Demographic theories were proposed by Carl Sauer[5] and adapted by Lewis Binford[6] and Kent Flannery.
They describe an increasingly sedentary population, expanding up to the carrying capacity of the local environment,
and requiring more food than can be gathered. Various social and economic factors help drive the need for food.
History of agriculture 25

The evolutionary/intentionality theory, advanced by scholars including David Rindos,[7] is the idea that agriculture
is a co-evolutionary adaptation of plants and humans. Starting with domestication by protection of wild plants,
followed specialization of location and then domestication.
The domestication theory put forth by Daniel Quinn and others states that first humans stayed in particular areas,
giving up their nomadic ways, then developed agriculture and animal domestication.

Neolithic era
Identifying the exact origin of agriculture remains
problematic because the transition from hunter-gatherer
societies began thousands of years before the invention of
writing.
Anthropological and archaeological evidence from sites
across Southwest Asia and North Africa indicate use of wild
grain (e.g., from the c. 20,000 BC site of Ohalo II in Israel,
many Natufian sites in the Levant and from sites along the
Nile in the 10th millennium BC). There is even evidence of
planned cultivation and trait selection: grains of rye with
domestic traits have been recovered from Epi-Palaeolithic
Sumerian harvester's sickle, 3000 BC, made from baked clay.
(10,000+ BC) contexts at Abu Hureyra in Syria, but this
appears to be a localised phenomenon resulting from
cultivation of stands of wild rye, rather than a definitive step towards domestication.

Previously, archaeobotanists/paleoethnobotanists had traced the selection and cultivation of specific food plant
characteristics in search of the origins of agriculture. One notable example is the semi-tough rachis (and larger seeds)
traced to just after the Younger Dryas (about 9500 BC) in the early Holocene in the Levant region of the Fertile
Crescent. However, studies have demonstrated monophyletic characteristics attained without any sort human
intervention, implying that what some may perceive as domestication among rachis could have occurred quite
naturally.[8] In fact, the timescale insisted upon for rachis domestication (approx. 3000 years) coincidentally has been
demonstrated to directly coincide with the statistically generated timeframe numerically modeled that would be
required for monophyly to be reached if a population were simply abandoned and left to only natural demands,
implying that if any sort of human intervention had occurred at all then the timescale insisted upon should be
considerably shorter (than 3000 years).[8]

It was not until after 9500 BC that the eight so-called founder crops of agriculture appear: first emmer and einkorn
wheat, then hulled barley, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, chick peas and flax. These eight crops occur more or less
simultaneously on PPNB sites in the Levant, although the consensus is that wheat was the first to be grown and
harvested on a significant scale.
At around the same time (9400 BC), another study argues, parthenocarpic fig trees appear to have been
domesticated.[9] The simplicity associated with cutting branches off fig trees and replanting them alongside wild
cereals owes to the basis of this argument.[10]
By 7000 BC, sowing and harvesting reached Mesopotamia, and there, in the fertile soil just north of the Persian Gulf,
Sumerians systematized it and scaled it up. By 8000 BC farming was entrenched on the banks of the Nile River.
About this time, agriculture was developed independently in the Far East, probably in China, with rice rather than
wheat as the primary crop. Maize was first domesticated, probably from teosinte, in the Americas around 3000-2700
BC, though there is some archaeological evidence of a much older development. The potato, the tomato, the pepper,
squash, several varieties of bean, and several other plants were also developed in the New World, as was quite
extensive terracing of steep hillsides in much of Andean South America. Agriculture was also independently
History of agriculture 26

developed on the island of New Guinea.[11]

In Europe, there is evidence of emmer and einkorn wheat, barley, sheep, goats and pigs that suggest a food
producing economy in Greece and the Aegean by 7000 BC.[12] Archaeological evidence from various sites on the
Iberian peninsula suggest the domestication of plants and animals between 6000 and 4500 BC.[12] Céide Fields in
Ireland, consisting of extensive tracts of land enclosed by stone walls, date to 5500 BC and are the oldest known
field systems in the world.[13] [14] The horse was domesticated in Ukraine around 4000 BC.[15]
In China, rice and millet were domesticated by 8000 BC, followed by the beans mung, soy and azuki. In the Sahel
region of Africa local rice and sorghum were domestic by 5000 BC. Local crops were domesticated independently in
West Africa and possibly in New Guinea and Ethiopia. Evidence of the presence of wheat and some legumes in the
6th millennium BC have been found in the Indus Valley. Oranges were cultivated in the same millennium. The crops
grown in the valley around 4000 BC were typically wheat, peas, sesame seed, barley, dates and mangoes. By 3500
BC cotton growing and cotton textiles were quite advanced in the valley. By 3000 BC farming of rice had started.
Other monsoon crops of importance of the time was cane sugar. By 2500 BC, rice was an important component of
the staple diet in Mohenjodaro near the Arabian Sea. By this time the Indians had large cities with well-stocked
granaries. Three regions of the Americas independently domesticated corn, squashes, potato and sunflowers.

Bronze age
By the Bronze Age, wild food contributed a nutritionally insignificant
component to the usual diet. If the operative definition of agriculture
includes large scale intensive cultivation of land, mono-cropping,
organized irrigation, and use of a specialized labour force, the title
"inventors of agriculture" would fall to the Sumerians, starting c. 5500
BC. Intensive farming allows a much greater density of population
than can be supported by hunting and gathering, and allows for the
accumulation of excess product for off-season use, or to sell/barter.
The ability of farmers to feed large numbers of people whose activities
have nothing to do with agriculture was the crucial factor in the rise of
standing armies. Sumerian agriculture supported a substantial
territorial expansion which along with internecine conflict between
cities, made them the first empire builders. Not long after, the
Egyptians, powered by farming in the fertile Nile valley, achieved a
population density from which enough warriors could be drawn for a
Agricultural scene from Ancient Egypt.
territorial expansion more than tripling the Sumerian empire in area.

In Sumer, barley was the primary crop; wheat, flax, dates, apples, plums, and grapes were grown as well.
Mesopotamian agriculture was both supported and limited by flooding from the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, as
floods came in late spring or early summer from snow melting from the Anatolian mountains. The timing of the
flooding, along with salt deposits in the soil, made farming in Mesopotamia difficult. Sheep and goats were
domesticated, kept mainly for meat and milk, butter and cheese being made from the latter. Ur, a large town that
covered about 50 acres (20 hectares), had 10,000 animals kept in sheepfolds and stables and 3,000 slaughtered every
year. The city's population of 6,000 included a labour force of 2,500, cultivated 3,000 acres (12 km²) of land. The
labour force contained storehouse recorders, work foremen, overseers, and harvest supervisors to supplement
labourers. Agricultural produce was given to temple personnel, important people in the community, and small
farmers.

The land was plowed by teams of oxen pulling light unwheeled plows and grain was harvested with sickles in the
spring. Wagons had solid wheels covered by leather tires kept in position by copper nails and were drawn by oxen
History of agriculture 27

and the Syrian onager (now extinct). Animals were harnessed by collars, yokes, and headstalls. They were controlled
by reins, and a ring through the nose or upper lip and a strap under the jaw. As many as four animals could pull a
wagon at one time. The horse was domesticated in Ukraine around 4000 BC, and was in use by the Sumerians
around 2000 BC.

Classical antiquity
In classical antiquity, Roman agriculture built off techniques pioneered by the Sumerians, transmitted to them by
subsequent cultures, with a specific emphasis on the cultivation of crops for trade and export. Romans laid the
groundwork for the manorial economic system, involving serfdom, which flourished in the Middle Ages. The farm
sizes in Rome can be divided into three categories. Small farms were from 18-88 iugera (one iugera is equal to about
0.65 acre). Medium-sized farms were from 80-500 iugera (singular iugerum). Large estates (called latifundia) were
over 500 iugera.[16]
The Romans had four systems of farm management: direct work by owner and his family; slaves doing work under
supervision of slave managers; tenant farming or sharecropping in which the owner and a tenant divide up a farm’s
produce; and situations in which a farm was leased to a tenant.[16] There was a great deal of commerce between the
provinces of the empire, all the regions of the empire became interdependent with one another, some provinces
specialized in the production of grain, others in wine and others in olive oil, depending on the soil type.

Regional histories

Europe
European agriculture underwent a number of significant changes during the Middle Ages. Tools including the scythe
and plow were improved from classical versions, a three field system of crop rotation was invented, and the
moldboard plow and wheeled plow were increasingly used. Draft horses were bred and increasingly used as a
working animal in many parts of Europe, while oxen continued to be used for this purpose. Metal horseshoes were
widely adopted. Much of Europe had low population densities during this period, to which extensive farming was
well-suited. In parts of Southern Europe, more intensive farming combined techniques continued from classical
Roman agriculture and those transferred from Islamic regions. In the late Middle Ages, the use of manure as
fertilizer increased, which in turn decreased the necessity of regular fallowing of fields.

China
Records from the Warring States (481 BC-221 BC), Qin Dynasty (221 BC-207 BC), and Han Dynasty (202 BC-220
AD) provide a picture of early Chinese agriculture which included a nationwide granary system, and widespread use
of sericulture. However, the oldest extant Chinese book on agriculture is the Chimin Yaoshu of 535 AD, written by
Jia Sixia.[17] Jia's writing style was straightforward and lucid relative to the elaborate and allusive writing typical of
the time. Jia's book was also very long, with over one hundred thousand written Chinese characters, and it quoted
160 other Chinese books that were written previously (but no longer survive).[18] The contents of Jia's 6th century
book include sections on land preparation, seeding, cultivation, orchard management, forestry, and animal
husbandry. The book also includes peripherally related content covering trade and culinary uses for crops.[19] The
work and the style in which it was written proved influential on later Chinese agronomists, such as Wang Zhen and
his groundbreaking Nong Shu of 1313 AD.[18]
For agricultural purposes, the Chinese had innovated the hydraulic-powered trip hammer by the 1st century BC.[20]
Although it found other purposes, its main function to pound, decorticate, and polish grain that otherwise would have
been done manually. The Chinese also innovated the square-pallet chain pump by the 1st century AD, powered by a
waterwheel or an oxen pulling a on a system of mechanical wheels.[21] Although the chain pump found use in public
works of providing water for urban and palatial pipe systems,[22] it was used largely to lift water from a lower to
History of agriculture 28

higher elevation in filling irrigation canals and channels for farmland.[23]

Papua
Ancient Papuans are thought to have begun practicing agriculture around 7000 BC. They began domesticating
sugarcane and root crops. Pigs may also have been domesticated around this time. By 3000 BC, Papuan agriculture
was characterized by water control for irrigation.[24]

India
Wheat, barley, and jujube were domesticated in the Indian subcontinent by 9000 BCE; Domestication of sheep and
goat soon followed.[25] Barley and wheat cultivation—along with the domestication of cattle, primarily sheep and
goat—continued in Mehrgarh culture by 8000-6000 BCE.[26] [27] This period also saw the first domestication of the
elephant.[25] Agro pastoralism in India included threshing, planting crops in rows—either of two or of six—and
storing grain in granaries.[27] [28] By the 5th millennium BCE agricultural communities became widespread in
Kashmir.[27] Cotton was cultivated by the 5th millennium BCE-4th millennium BCE.[29]
Archaeological evidence indicates that rice was a part of the Indian diet by 8000 BCE.[30] The Encyclopedia
Britannica—on the subject of the first certain cultivated rice—holds that:[31] A number of cultures have evidence of
early rice cultivation, including China, India, and the civilizations of Southeast Asia.
Irrigation was developed in the Indus Valley Civilization by around 4500 BCE.[32] The size and prosperity of the
Indus civilization grew as a result of this innovation, which eventually led to more planned settlements making use
of drainage and sewers.[32] Archeological evidence of an animal-drawn plough dates back to 2500 BC in the Indus
Valley Civilization.[33]

Mesoamerica
In Mesoamerica, wild teosinte was transformed through human selection into the ancestor of modern maize, more
than 6000 years ago. It gradually spread across North America and was the major crop of Native Americans at the
time of European exploration.[34] Other Mesoamerican crops include hundreds of varieties of squash and beans.
Cocoa was also a major crop in domesticated Mexico and Central America. The turkey, one of the most important
meat birds, was probably domesticated in Mexico or the U.S. Southwest.
In Mesoamerica, the Aztecs were active farmers and had an agriculturally focused economy. The land around Lake
Texcoco was fertile, but not large enough to produce the amount of food needed for the population of their
expanding empire. The Aztecs developed irrigation systems, formed terraced hillsides, and fertilized their soil.
However, their greatest agricultural technique was the chinampas, or artificial islands, also known as "floating
gardens". These were used to make the swampy areas around the lake suitable for farming. To make chinampas,
canals were dug through the marshy islands and shores, then mud was heaped on huge mats made of woven reeds.
The mats were anchored by tying them to posts driven into the lake bed and then planting trees at their corners that
took root and secured the artificial islands permanently. The Aztecs grew corn, squash, vegetables, and flowers on
chinampas.
History of agriculture 29

South America
In the Andes region of South America the major domesticated crop was potatoes, domesticated perhaps 5000 years
ago. Large varieties of beans were domesticated, in South America, as well as animals, including llamas, alpacas,
and guinea pigs. Coca, still a major crop, was also domesticated in the Andes.
The Andean civilizations were predominantly agricultural societies; the Incas took advantage of the ground,
conquering the adversities like the Andean area and the inclemencies of the weather. The adaptation of agricultural
technologies that already were used previously, allowed the Incas to organize the production a diversity of products
of the coast, mountain and jungle, so them could be able to redistribute to villages that did not have access to other
regions. The technological achievements reached to agricultural level, had not been possible without the workforce
that was at the disposal of the Sapa Inca, as well as the road system that was allowing to store adequately the
harvested resources and to distribute them for all the territory.

Eastern North America

The indigenous people of the Eastern U.S. appear to have domesticated numerous crops. Sunflowers, tobacco,[35]
varieties of squash and Chenopodium, as well as crops no longer grown, including marshelder and little barley, were
domesticated.[36] [37] Other wild foods may have undergone some selective cultivation, including wild rice and
maple sugar. The most common varieties of strawberry were domesticated from Eastern North America.[38] Two
major crops, pecans and Concord grapes, were utilized extensively in prehistoric times but do not appear to have
been domesticated until the 19th century.[39] [40]

Islamic world
From the 8th century, the medieval Islamic world underwent a fundamental transformation in agricultural practice
which has been described as the "Arab Agricultural Revolution". This transformation was driven by a number of
factors including the diffusion of many crops and plants along Muslim trade routes, the spread of more advanced
farming techniques, and an agricultural-economic system which promoted increased yields and efficiency. The shift
in agricultural practice led to significant changes in economy, population distribution, vegetation cover,[41]
agricultural production, population levels, urban growth, the distribution of the labour force, linked industries,
cooking and diet, clothing, and numerous other aspects of life in the Islamic world.[42]
Muslim traders covered an expansive area of the Old World, and these trade routes enabled the diffusion of many
crops, plants and farming techniques across the Islamic world, as well as the adaptation of crops, plants and
techniques from beyond the Islamic world.[42] Historian Andrew Watson has argued that this diffusion introduced a
number of crops of major importance to Europe by way of Al-Andalus, along with the techniques for their
cultivation. Important crops involved in this transfer included sugar cane, rice, and cotton. A number of additional
fruit trees, nut trees, and vegetables were also transferred.
Agricultural technologies that were widely adopted during this period included intensive irrigation systems, crop
rotation systems, and use of agricultural manuals. A sophisticated system of irrigation made use of norias, water
mills, water raising machines, dams and reservoirs. Some irrigation infrastructure and technology was continued
from Roman times, and some introduced by Muslims. In later centuries, Persians transmitted cultural elements,
including advanced agricultural techniques, into Turkic lands and western India. These irrigation technologies made
it possible to greatly expand the cultivatable land area. Application of a scientific approach and accumulated
knowledge from other regions to farming lead to improved farming techniques. Farming manuals from this period
detail where, when, and how to plant and grow various crops.
The economic system in place in Muslim areas incorporated reformed land ownership rules and labourers' rights,
combining the recognition of private ownership and the rewarding of cultivators with a harvest share commensurate
with their efforts also improved agricultural practices. The cities of the Near East, North Africa and Moorish Spain
were supported by highly structured agricultural systems. Such regional systems were in many cases significantly
History of agriculture 30

more productive than the agricultural practices in most of Europe at the time which relied heavily on grazing animals
and systems of fallowing.

Britain
Between the 16th century and the mid-19th century, Great Britain saw a massive increase in agricultural productivity
and net output. New agricultural practices like enclosure, mechanization, four-field crop rotation and selective
breeding enabled an unprecedented population growth, freeing up a significant percentage of the workforce, and
thereby helped drive the Industrial Revolution. By the early 19th century, agricultural practices, particularly careful
selection of hardy strains and cultivars, had so improved that yield per land unit was many times that seen in the
Middle Ages and before.
The 18th and 19th centuries also saw the development of glasshouses, or greenhouses, initially for the protection and
cultivation of exotic plants imported to Europe and North America from the tropics. Experiments on Plant
Hybridization in the late 19th century yielded advances in the understanding of plant genetics, and subsequently, the
development of hybrid crops. Increasing dependence upon monoculture crops lead to famines and food shortages,
most notably the Irish Potato Famine (1845–1849). Storage silos and grain elevators appeared in the 19th century.

Age of Discovery
The history of agriculture in the Age of Discovery and Early modern era was closely tied to the processes of
European exploration and colonization. After 1492 the world's agricultural patterns were shuffled in the widespread
exchange of plants and animals known as the Columbian Exchange. Crops and animals that were previously only
known in the Old World were now transplanted to the New and vice versa. Perhaps most notably, the tomato became
a favorite in European cuisine, and maize and potatoes were widely adopted. Other transplanted crops include
pineapple, cocoa, and tobacco. In the other direction, several wheat strains quickly took to western hemisphere soils
and became a dietary staple even for native North, Central and South Americans. Agriculture was a key element in
the Atlantic slave trade, Triangular trade, and the expansion by European powers into the Americas. In the
expanding Plantation economy, large plantations producing crops including sugar, cotton, and indigo, were heavily
dependent upon slave labor.

Industrialization
With the rapid rise of mechanization in the late 19th
century and 20th century, particularly in the form of the
tractor, and later the Combine harvester, farming tasks
could be done with a speed and on a scale previously
impossible. These advances, joined to science-driven
innovations in methods and resources, have led to
efficiencies enabling certain modern farms in the
United States, Argentina, Israel, Germany and a few
other nations to output volumes of high quality produce
per land unit at what may be the practical limit. The
development of rail and highway networks and the
A tractor ploughing an alfalfa field increasing use of container shipping and refrigeration
in developed nations have also been essential to the
growth of mechanized agriculture, allowing for the economical long distance shipping of produce.

While chemical fertilizer and pesticide have existed since the 19th century, their use grew significantly in the early
20th century. Until the development of chemical fertilizers, Guano was widely used as a fertilizer, though expensive.
History of agriculture 31

The Haber-Bosch method for synthesizing ammonium nitrate represented a major breakthrough and allowed crop
yields to overcome previous constraints. It was first patented by German chemist Fritz Haber. In 1910 Carl Bosch,
while working for German chemical company BASF, successfully commercialized the process and secured further
patents. Norman Borlaug and other scientists began developing crops for increased yields in the 1940s in Mexico.
Their work lead to the Green Revolution, which applied western advances in fertilizer and pesticide use to farms
worldwide, with varying success. Other applications of scientific research since 1950 in agriculture include gene
manipulation, Hydroponics, and the development of economically viable biofuels such as Ethanol.

Organic farming
Though the intensive farming practices pioneered and extended in recent history generally led to increased outputs,
they have also led to the destruction of farmland, most notably in the dust bowl area of the United States following
World War I. As global population increases, agriculture continues to replace natural ecosystems with monoculture
crops. Since the 1970s, western farmers and consumers have become increasingly aware of, and in some cases
critical of, widely used intensive agriculture practices. This growing awareness has led to increased interest in such
areas of agriculture as organic farming, permaculture, Heirloom plants and biodiversity, the growth of the Slow Food
movement, and an ongoing discussion surrounding the potential for sustainable agriculture.

Agricultural revolutions
• Neolithic Revolution
• Muslim Agricultural Revolution
• British Agricultural Revolution
• Green Revolution

References
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[2] Childe, Gordon. (1936) Man Makes Himself (Oxford University Press).
[3] Charles E. Redman (1978). Rise of Civilization: From Early Hunters to Urban Society in the Ancient Near East. San Francisco: Freeman.
[4] Hayden, Brian (1992). "Models of Domestication". In Anne Birgitte Gebauer and T. Douglas Price. Transitions to Agriculture in Prehistory.
Madison: Prehistory Press. pp. 11–18.
[5] Sauer, Carl, O (1952). Agricultural origins and dispersals. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
[6] Binford, Lewis R. (1968). "Post-Pleistocene Adaptations". In Sally R. Binford and Lewis R. Binford. New Perspectives in Archaeology.
Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company. pp. 313–342. ISBN 0202330222.
[7] Rindos, David (December 1987). The Origins of Agriculture: An Evolutionary Perspective. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0125892810).
[8] Robin G. Allaby, Dorian Q. Fuller, and Terence A. Brown, "The genetic expectations of a protracted model for the origins of domesticated
crops," in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA (Sep. 16, 2008). Vol. 105, No. 37, pp. 13982-13986. (http:/ / www.
pnas. org/ content/ 105/ 37/ 13982. full) doi: 10.1073/pnas.0803780105 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1073/ pnas. 0803780105)
[9] Mordechai E. Kislev, Anat Hartmann, and Ofer Bar-Yosef, "Early Domesticated Fig in the Jordan Valley," in Science Magazine (June 2,
2006). Vol. 312, No. 5778, pp. 1372-1374. (http:/ / www. sciencemag. org/ cgi/ crossref-forward-links/ 312/ 5778/ 1372) doi:
10.1126/science.1125910 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1126/ science. 1125910)
[10] Science Magazine (Dec. 15, 2006). Vol. 314, No. 5806, p. 1683. Authors' critical response to commentary on study (http:/ / www.
sciencemag. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 314/ 5806/ 1683b). doi: 10.1126/science.1132636 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1126/ science. 1132636)
[11] Denham et al. (19 June 2003) "Origins of Agriculture at Kuk Swamp in the Highlands of New Guinea". Science 301(5630):189-193.
[12] Southern Europe, 8000–2000 B.C. | Timeline of Art History|The Metropolitan Museum of Art (http:/ / www. metmuseum. org/ toah/ ht/ 02/
eus/ ht02eus. htm)
[13] Ceide Fields Visitor Centre, Ballycastle, County Mayo, West of Ireland (http:/ / www. museumsofmayo. com/ ceide. htm)
[14] Ceide Fields - UNESCO World Heritage Centre (http:/ / whc. unesco. org/ en/ tentativelists/ 309/ )
[15] Anthony, David W. (2007). The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern
World. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
[16] White, KD (1970), Roman Farming (Cornell University Press)
[17] Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 6, Part 2. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd. p55-56.
[18] Needham, Volume 6, Part 2, 56.
History of agriculture 32

[19] Needham, Volume 6, Part 2, 57.

[20] Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering.
Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. p184
[21] Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 89, 110.
[22] Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 33.
[23] Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 110.
[24] Encyclopedia Britannica, "Melanesian cultures"
[25] Gupta, Anil K. in Origin of agriculture and domestication of plants and animals linked to early Holocene climate amelioration, Current
Science, Vol. 87, No. 1, 10 July 2004 59. Indian Academy of Sciences.
[26] Baber, Zaheer (1996). The Science of Empire: Scientific Knowledge, Civilization, and Colonial Rule in India. State University of New York
Press. 19. ISBN 0-7914-2919-9.
[27] Harris, David R. and Gosden, C. (1996). The origins and spread of agriculture and pastoralism in Eurasia: Crops, Fields, Flocks And
Herds. Routledge. 385. ISBN 1-85728-538-7.
[28] Possehl, Gregory L. (1996). Mehrgarh in Oxford Companion to Archaeology, edited by Brian Fagan. Oxford University Press.
[29] Stein, Burton (1998). A History of India. Blackwell Publishing. 47. ISBN 0-631-20546-2.
[30] Nene, Y. L., Rice Research in South Asia through Ages, Asian Agri-History Vol. 9, No. 2, 2005 (85–106)
[31] "rice" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 502259/ rice). Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. .
[32] Rodda & Ubertini (2004). The Basis of Civilization--water Science?. International Association of Hydrological Science. 279. ISBN
1-901502-57-0.
[33] Lal, R. (August 2001). "Thematic evolution of ISTRO: transition in scientific issues and research focus from 1955 to 2000". Soil and Tillage
Research 61 (1-2): 3–12 [3]. doi:10.1016/S0167-1987(01)00184-2
[34] S. Johannessen and C. A. Hastorf (eds.) Corn and Culture in the Prehistoric New World, Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado.
[35] Heiser, Carl B., Jr. (1992) On Possible Sources of the Tobacco of Prehistoric Eastern North America. Current Anthropology 33:54-56.
[36] Prehistoric Food Production in North America, edited by Richard I. Ford. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan,
Anthropological Papers 75.
[37] Adair, Mary J. (1988) Prehistoric Agriculture in the Central Plains. Publications in Anthropology 16. University of Kansas, Lawrence.
[38] Paul E. Minnis (editor) (2003) People and Plants in Ancient Eastern North America. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.
[39] "Pecans at Texas A&M University" (http:/ / pecankernel. tamu. edu/ introduction/ index. html). Pecankernel.tamu.edu. 2006-08-18. .
Retrieved 2010-06-03.
[40] The History of Concord Grapes, http:/ / www. concordgrape. org/ bodyhistory. html
[41] Andrew M. Watson (1983), Agricultural Innovation in the Early Islamic World, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-24711-X.
[42] Andrew M. Watson (1974), "The Arab Agricultural Revolution and Its Diffusion, 700-1100", The Journal of Economic History 34 (1), p.
8-35.

Further reading
• Brown, Jonathan. Agriculture in England: A Survey of Farming, 1870-1947 (1987)
• Cohen, M.N. The Food Crisis in Prehistory: Overpopulation and the Origins of Agriculture (1977)
• Dovring, Folke, ed. Land and labor in Europe in the twentieth century: a comparative survey of recent agrarian
history . 1965. 511 pp
• Federico, Giovanni, Feeding the World: An Economic History of Agriculture 1800-2000 (2005) 416pp. highly
quantitative
• Gras, Norman. A history of agriculture in Europe and America, (1925). free online edition (http://chla.library.
cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2845579)
• Grew, Raymond. Food in Global History (1999) online edition (http://www.questia.com/read/
99923753?title=Food in Global History)
• Habib, Irfan. Agrarian System of Mughal India (2nd ed. 1999).
• Heiser, Charles B. Seed to Civilization: The Story of Food (1990)
• Kerridge, Erik. "The Agricultural Revolution Reconsidered." Agricultural History, 1969 43:4, 463-75. in JSTOR
(http://www.jstor.org/stable/4617724) in Britain, 1750–1850
• Ludden, David, ed. New Cambridge History of India: An Agrarian History of South Asia (1999). excerpt and
online search from Amazon.com (http://www.amazon.com/dp/0521364248); also online edition (http://www.
questia.com/library/book/an-agrarian-history-of-south-asia-by-david-ludden.jsp)
History of agriculture 33

• McNeill, William H. "How the Potato Changed the World's History." Social Research 1999 66(1): 67–83. Issn:
0037-783x Fulltext: Ebsco, by a leading historian
• McNeill, William H. "The Introduction of the Potato into Ireland," Journal of Modern History 21 (1948): 218–21.
in JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/pss/1876068)
• Mazoyer, Marcel, and Laurence Roudart' A History of World Agriculture: From the Neolithic Age to the Current
Crisis, New York: Monthly Review Press, 2006, ISBN 1-58367-121-8, Marxist perspective
• Mintz, Sidney. Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History (1982)
• Murray, Jacqueline. The First European Agriculture (1970)
• Prentice, E. Parmalee. Hunger and history: the influence of hunger on human history (1939). online edition (http:/
/chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;cc=chla;q1=history;rgn=title;view=toc;idno=2727319)
• Reader, John. Propitious Esculent: The Potato in World History (2008), 315pp a standard scholarly history
• Salaman, Redcliffe N. The History and Social Influence of the Potato, (1949)
• Slicher van Bath, B. H. The agrarian history of Western Europe, AD 500-1850
• Tauger, Mark. Agriculture in World History (2008)
• Thirsk, Joan, et al. The Agrarian History of England and Wales (8 vol 1978)
• Williamson, Tom. Transformation Of Rural England: Farming and the Landscape 1700-1870 (2002)

United States
• Cochrane, Willard W. The Development of American Agriculture: A Historical Analysis (1993)
• Fite, Gilbert C. American Farmers: The New Minority (1981)
• Gras, Norman. A history of agriculture in Europe and America, (1925). online edition (http://chla.library.
cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2845579)
• Gray, L.C. History of agriculture in the southern United States to 1860 (1933) Volume I online (http://chla.
library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;cc=chla;q1=gray;rgn=book
author;view=toc;idno=2944804_1944); Volume 2 online (http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/
text-idx?c=chla;cc=chla;q1=gray;rgn=book author;view=toc;idno=2944804_1945)
• Hart, John Fraser. The Changing Scale of American Agriculture. U. of Virginia Press, 2004. 320 pp.
• Hurt, R. Douglas. American Agriculture: A Brief History (2002)
• Mundlak, Yair. "Economic Growth: Lessons from Two Centuries of American Agriculture." Journal of Economic
Literature 2005 43(4): 989-1024. Issn: 0022-0515 Fulltext: in Ebsco
• Robert, Joseph C. The story of tobacco in America (1949) online edition (http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/
text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=3136323)
• Russell, Howard. A Long Deep Furrow: Three Centuries of Farming In New England (1981)
• Schafer, Joseph. The social history of American agriculture (1936) online edition (http://chla.library.cornell.
edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2712484)
• Schlebecker John T. Whereby we thrive: A history of American farming, 1607-1972 (1972)
• Weeden, William Babcock. Economic and Social History of New England, 1620-1789 (1891) 964 pages; online
edition (http://books.google.com/books?id=JUJaNzIMr44C&pg=PA1&dq=inauthor:weeden&num=30&
as_brr=1)
History of agriculture 34

External links
• Early Agricultural Remnants and Technical Heritage (http://acl.arts.usyd.edu.au/projects/earth/) is a
multidisciplinary project investigating the development of non-industrial agricultural techniques, with a focus on
Europe.
• Tracing the Evolution of Organic/Sustainable Agriculture (http://www.nal.usda.gov/afsic/pubs/tracing/
tracing.shtml) A Selected and Annotated Bibliography. Alternative Farming Systems Information Center,
National Agricultural Library.

Neolithic Revolution
The Neolithic Revolution is the first agricultural revolution—the transition from hunting and gathering to
agriculture and settlement. Archaeological data indicate that various forms of domestication of plants and animals
arose independently in six separate locales worldwide ca. 10,000–7000 years BP (8,000–5000 BC), with the earliest
known evidence found throughout the tropical and subtropical areas of southwestern and southern Asia, northern and
central Africa and Central America.[1]
However, the Neolithic Revolution involved far more than the adoption of a limited set of food-producing
techniques. During the next millennia it would transform the small and mobile groups of hunter-gatherers that had
hitherto dominated human history, into sedentary societies based in built-up villages and towns, which radically
modified their natural environment by means of specialized food-crop cultivation (e.g., irrigation and food storage
technologies) that allowed extensive surplus food production. These developments provided the basis for
concentrated high population densities settlements, specialized and complex labor diversification, trading economies,
the development of non-portable art, architecture, and culture, centralized administrations and political structures,
hierarchical ideologies and depersonalized systems of knowledge (e.g., property regimes and writing). The first
full-blown manifestation of the entire Neolithic complex is seen in the Middle Eastern Sumerian cities (ca. 3,500
BC), whose emergence also inaugurates the end of the prehistoric Neolithic period.
The relationship of the above-mentioned Neolithic characteristics to the onset of agriculture, their sequence of
emergence and empirical relation to each other at various Neolithic sites remains the subject of academic debate, and
seems to vary from place to place, rather than being the outcome of universal laws of social evolution.[2] [3]

Agricultural transition
The term Neolithic Revolution was
coined in the 1920s by Vere Gordon
Childe to describe the first in a series
of agricultural revolutions in Middle
Eastern history. The period is
described as a "revolution" to denote
its importance, and the great
significance and degree of change
affecting the communities in which
new agricultural practices were Map of the world showing approximate centers of origin of agriculture and its spread in
gradually adopted and refined. prehistory: eastern USA (4000–3000 BP), Central Mexico (5000–4000 BP), Northern
South America (5000–4000 BP), sub-Saharan Africa (5000–4000 BP, exact location
unknown), the Fertile Crescent (11000 BP), the Yangtze and Yellow River basins (9000
[4]
BP) and the New Guinea Highlands (9000–6000 BP).
Neolithic Revolution 35

The beginning of this process in different regions has been dated from
perhaps 8000 BC in Melanesia[5] [6] to 2500 BC in Subsaharan Africa,
with some considering the developments of 9000–7000 BC in the
Fertile Crescent to be the most important. This transition everywhere
seems associated with a change from a largely nomadic hunter-gatherer
way of life to a more settled, agrarian-based one, with the inception of
the domestication of various plant and animal species—depending on
the species locally available, and probably also influenced by local
culture.
Knap of Howar farmstead on a site occupied from
There are several competing (but not mutually exclusive) theories as to 3500 BC to 3100 BC
the factors that drove populations to take up agriculture. The most
prominent of these are:
• The Oasis Theory, originally proposed by Raphael Pumpelly in 1908, popularized by Vere Gordon Childe in
1928 and summarised in Childe's book Man Makes Himself.[7] This theory maintains that as the climate got drier
due to the Atlantic depressions shifting northward, communities contracted to oases where they were forced into
close association with animals, which were then domesticated together with planting of seeds. However, today
this theory has little support amongst archaeologists because climate data for the time actually shows that at the
time, the climate of the region was getting wetter rather than drier.[8]
• The Hilly Flanks hypothesis, proposed by Robert Braidwood in 1948, suggests that agriculture began in the hilly
flanks of the Taurus and Zagros mountains, where the climate was not drier as Childe had believed, and fertile
land supported a variety of plants and animals amenable to domestication.[9]
• The Feasting model by Brian Hayden[10] suggests that agriculture was driven by ostentatious displays of power,
such as giving feasts, to exert dominance. This required assembling large quantities of food, which drove
agricultural technology.
• The Demographic theories proposed by Carl Sauer[11] and adapted by Lewis Binford[12] and Kent Flannery posit
an increasingly sedentary population that expanded up to the carrying capacity of the local environment and
required more food than could be gathered. Various social and economic factors helped drive the need for food.
• The evolutionary/intentionality theory, developed by David Rindos[13] and others, views agriculture as an
evolutionary adaptation of plants and humans. Starting with domestication by protection of wild plants, it led to
specialization of location and then full-fledged domestication.
• Ronald Wright's book and Massey Lecture Series A Short History of Progress[14] makes a case for the
development of agriculture coinciding with an increasingly stable climate.
• The postulated Younger Dryas impact event, claimed to be in part responsible for megafauna extinction, and
which ended the last ice age, could have provided circumstances that required the evolution of agricultural
societies for humanity to survive. The agrarian revolution itself is a reflection of typical overpopulation by certain
species following initial events during extinction eras; this overpopulation itself ultimately propagates the
extinction event.
In contrast to the Paleolithic (2.6 million years ago to 10,000 BC) in which several hominid species existed, only one
(Homo sapiens) reached the Neolithic.
Neolithic Revolution 36

Domestication of plants
Once agriculture started gaining momentum, cereal grasses (beginning
with emmer, einkorn and barley), and not simply those that would
favour greater caloric returns through larger seeds, were selectively
bred. Plants that possessed traits such as small seeds or bitter taste
would have been seen as undesirable. Plants that rapidly shed their
seeds on maturity tended not to be gathered at harvest, thus not stored
and not seeded the following season; years of harvesting selected for
strains that retained their edible seeds longer. Several plant species, the Neolithic grind stone for processing grain
"pioneer crops" or Neolithic founder crops, were the earliest plants
successfully manipulated by humans. Some of these pioneering attempts failed at first and crops were abandoned,
sometimes to be taken up again and successfully domesticated thousands of years later: rye, tried and abandoned in
Neolithic Anatolia, made its way to Europe as weed seeds and was successfully domesticated in Europe, thousands
of years after the earliest agriculture.[15] Wild lentils present a different challenge that needed to be overcome: most
of the wild seeds do not germinate in the first year; the first evidence of lentil domestication, breaking dormancy in
their first year, was found in the early Neolithic at Jerf el-Ahmar, (in modern Syria), and quickly spread south to the
Netiv HaGdud site in the Jordan Valley.[15] This process of domestication allowed the founder crops to adapt and
eventually become larger, more easily harvested, more dependable in storage and more useful to the human
population.

Figs, barley and, most likely, oats were cultivated in the Jordan Valley,
represented by the early Neolithic site of Gilgal, where in 2006[16]
archaeologists found caches of seeds of each in quantities too large to
be accounted for even by intensive gathering, at strata dateable c.
11,000 years ago. Some of the plants tried and then abandoned during
the Neolithic period in the Ancient Near East, at sites like Gilgal, were
later successfully domesticated in other parts of the world.

Once early farmers perfected their agricultural techniques, their crops

A Sumerian Harvester's sickle dated to 3000 BC would yield surpluses that needed storage. Most hunter gatherers could
not easily store food for long due to their migratory lifestyle, whereas
those with a sedentary dwelling could store their surplus grain. Eventually granaries were developed that allowed
villages to store their seeds longer. So with more food, the population expanded and communities developed
specialized workers and more advanced tools.

The process was not as linear as was once thought, but a more complicated effort, which was undertaken by different
human populations in different regions in many different ways.

Agriculture in Asia
The Neolithic Revolution is believed to have become widespread in southwest Asia around 8000 BC–7000 BC,
though earlier individual sites have been identified. Although archaeological evidence provides scant evidence as to
which of the genders performed what task in Neolithic cultures, by comparison with historical and contemporary
hunter-gatherer communities it is generally supposed that hunting was typically performed by the men, whereas
women had a more significant role in the gathering. By extension, it may be theorised that women were largely
responsible for the observations and initial activities that began the Neolithic Revolution, insofar as the gradual
selection and refinement of edible plant species was concerned.
The precise nature of these initial observations and (later) purposeful activities that would give rise to the changes in
subsistence methods brought about by the Neolithic Revolution are not known; specific evidence is lacking.
Neolithic Revolution 37

However, several reasonable speculations have been put forward; for example, it might be expected that the common
practice of discarding food refuse in middens would result in the regrowth of plants from the discarded seeds in the
(fertilizer-enriched) soils. In all likelihood, a number of factors contributed to the early onset of agriculture in
Neolithic human societies.

Agriculture in the Fertile Crescent

Generalised agriculture apparently first arose in the Fertile Crescent because of many factors. The Mediterranean
climate has a long dry season with a short period of rain, which made it suitable for small plants with large seeds,
like wheat and barley. These were the most suitable for domestication because of the ease of harvest and storage and
the wide availability. In addition, the domesticated plants had especially high protein content. The Fertile Crescent
had a large area of varied geographical settings and altitudes. The variety given made agriculture more profitable for
former hunter-gatherers. Other areas with a similar climate were less suitable for agriculture because of the lack of
geographic variation within the region and the lack of availability of plants for domestication.

Agriculture in Africa
The Revolution developed independently in different parts of the world, not just in the Fertile Crescent. On the
African continent, three areas have been identified as independently developing agriculture: the Ethiopian highlands,
the Sahel and West Africa.[17]
The most famous crop domesticated in the Ethiopian highlands is coffee. In addition, Khat, Ensete, Noog, teff and
finger millet were also domesticated in the Ethiopian highlands. Crops domesticated in the Sahel region include
sorghum and pearl millet. The Kola nut, extracts from which became an ingredient in Coca Cola, was first
domesticated in West Africa. Other crops domesticated in West Africa include African rice, African yams and the oil
palm.[17]
A number of crops that have been cultivated in Africa for millennia came after their domestication elsewhere.
Agriculture in the Nile River Valley developed from crops domesticated in the Fertile Crescent. Bananas and
plantains, which were first domesticated in Southeast Asia, most likely Papua New Guinea, were re-domesticated in
Africa possibly as early as 5,000 years ago. Asian yams and taro were also cultivated in Africa.[17]
Prof. Fred Wendorf and Dr. Romuald Schild, of the Department of Anthropology at Southern Methodist University,
originally thought to have found evidence of early agriculture in Upper Paleolithic times at Wadi Kubbaniya, on the
Kom Ombos plateau, of Egypt, including a mortar and pestle, grinding stones, several harvesting implements and
charred wheat and barley grains—which may have been introduced from outside the region. Accelerator Mass
Spectrometry (AMS) dating since their first reports has invalidated their hypothesis.[18]
Many such grinding stones are found with the early Egyptian Sebilian and Mechian cultures and evidence has been
found of a neolithic domesticated crop-based economy dating around 5000 BC.[19] Philip E. L. Smith[20] writes:
"With the benefit of hindsight we can now see that many Late Paleolithic peoples in the Old World were poised on
the brink of plant cultivation and animal husbandry as an alternative to the hunter-gatherer's way of life". Unlike the
Middle East, this evidence appears as a "false dawn" to agriculture, as the sites were later abandoned, and permanent
farming then was delayed until 4500 BC with the Tasian and Badarian cultures and the arrival of crops and animals
from the Near East.
Neolithic Revolution 38

Agriculture in the Americas

Corn, beans and squash were among the earliest crops domesticated in Mesoamerica, with Maize beginning about
7500 BC, squash, as early as 8000 to 6000 BC and beans by no later than 4000 BC. Potatoes and manioc were
domesticated in South America. In what is now the eastern United States, Native Americans domesticated sunflower,
sumpweed and goosefoot around 2500 BC.[17]

Domestication of animals
When hunter-gathering began to be replaced by sedentary food production it became more profitable to keep animals
close at hand. Therefore, it became necessary to bring animals permanently to their settlements, although in many
cases there was a distinction between relatively sedentary farmers and nomadic herders. The animals' size,
temperament, diet, mating patterns, and life span were factors in the desire and success in domesticating animals.
Animals that provided milk, such as cows and goats, offered a source of protein that was renewable and therefore
quite valuable. The animal’s ability as a worker (for example ploughing or towing), as well as a food source, also had
to be taken into account. Besides being a direct source of food, certain animals could provide leather, wool, hides,
and fertilizer. Some of the earliest domesticated animals included dogs (about 15,000 years ago),[21] sheep, goats,
cows, and pigs.

Domestication of animals in the Middle East

The Middle East served as the source for many animals that could be
domesticated, such as goats and pigs. This area was also the first
region to domesticate the Dromedary Camel. The presence of these
animals gave the region a large advantage in cultural and economic
development. As the climate in the Middle East changed, and became
drier, many of the farmers were forced to leave, taking their
domesticated animals with them. It was this massive emigration from
the Middle East that would later help distribute these animals to the
rest of Afroeurasia. This emigration was mainly on an east-west axis of
Dromedary Camel caravan in Algeria
similar climates, as crops usually have a narrow optimal climatic range
outside of which they cannot grow for reasons of light or rain changes.
For instance, wheat does not normally grow in tropical climates, just like tropical crops such as bananas do not grow
in colder climates. Some authors, like Jared Diamond, have postulated that this East-West axis is the main reason
why plant and animal domestication spread so quickly from the Fertile Crescent to the rest of Eurasia and North
Africa, while it did not reach through the North-South axis of Africa to reach the Mediterranean climates of South
Africa, where temperate crops were successfully imported by ships in the last 500 years. The African Zebu is a
separate breed of cattle that was better suited to the hotter climates of central Africa than the fertile-crescent
domesticated bovines. North and South America were similarly separated by the narrow tropical Isthmus of Panama,
that prevented the andes llama to be exported to the Mexican plateau.

Consequences of the Neolithic Revolution

Social change
It is often argued that agriculture gave humans more control over their food supply, but this has been disputed by the
finding that nutritional standards of Neolithic populations were generally inferior to that of hunter gatherers, and life
expectancy may in fact have been shorter, in part due to diseases. Average height, for example, went down from 5'
10" (178 cm) for men and 5' 6" (168 cm) for women to 5' 3" (165 cm) and 5' 1" (155 cm), respectively and it took
Neolithic Revolution 39

until the twentieth century for average human height to come back to the pre-Neolithic Revolution levels.[22] These
sedentary groups were able to reproduce at a faster rate due to the possibilities of sharing the raising of children in
such societies. The children accounted for a denser population, and encouraged the introduction of specialization by
providing diverse forms of new labor. The development of larger societies seemed to have led to the development of
different means of decision making and to governmental organization. Food surpluses made possible the
development of a social elite who were not otherwise engaged in agriculture, industry or commerce, but dominated
their communities by other means and monopolized decision-making.

Subsequent revolutions
Andrew Sherratt has argued that following upon the Neolithic
Revolution was a second phase of discovery that he refers to as the
secondary products revolution. Animals, it appears were first
domesticated purely as a source of meat.[23] The Secondary Products
Revolution occurred when it was recognised that animals also provided
a number of other useful products. These included:

• hides and skins (from undomesticated animals) Domesticated cow being milked in Ancient
• manure for soil conditioning (from all domesticated animals) Egypt.
• wool (from sheep, llamas, alpacas, and Angora goats)
• milk (from goats, cattle, yaks, sheep, horses and camels)
• traction (from oxen, onagers, donkeys, horses and camels)
Sherratt argues that this phase in agricultural development enabled humans to make use of the energy possibilities of
their animals in new ways, and permitted permanent intensive subsistence farming and crop production, and the
opening up heavier soils for farming. It also made possible nomadic pastoralism in semi arid areas, along the
margins of deserts, and eventually led to the domestication of both the dromedary and bactrian camel. Overgrazing
of these areas, particularly by herds of goats, greatly extended the areal extent of deserts. Living in one spot would
have more easily permitted the accrual of personal possessions and an attachment to certain areas of land. From such
a position, it is argued, prehistoric people were able to stockpile food to survive lean times and trade unwanted
surpluses with others. Once trade and a secure food supply were established, populations could grow, and society
would have diversified into food producers and artisans, who could afford to develop their trade by virtue of the free
time they enjoyed because of a surplus of food. The artisans, in turn, were able to develop technology such as metal
weapons. Such relative complexity would have required some form of social organisation to work efficiently, so it is
likely that populations that had such organisation, perhaps such as that provided by religion, were better prepared
and more successful. In addition, the denser populations could form and support legions of professional soldiers.
Also, during this time property ownership became increasingly important to all people. Ultimately, Childe argued
that this growing social complexity, all rooted in the original decision to settle, led to a second Urban Revolution in
which the first cities were built.
Neolithic Revolution 40

Disease
Throughout the development of sedentary societies, disease spread more rapidly
than it had during the time in which hunter-gatherer societies existed. Inadequate
sanitary practices and the domestication of animals may explain the rise in deaths
and sickness during the Neolithic Revolution, as diseases jumped from the
animal to the human population. Some examples of diseases spread from animals
to humans are influenza, smallpox, and measles. In concordance with a process
of natural selection, the humans who first domesticated the big mammals quickly
built up immunities to the diseases as within each generation the individuals with
better immunities had better chances of survival. In their approximately 10,000
years of shared proximity with animals, Eurasians and Africans became more
resistant to those diseases compared with the indigenous populations encountered
outside Eurasia and Africa.[24] For instance, the population of most Caribbean
Llama overlooking the ruins of the
and several Pacific Islands have been completely wiped out by diseases. Inca city of Machu Picchu
According to the Population history of American indigenous peoples, 90% of the
population of certain regions of North and South America were wiped out long before direct contact with Europeans.
Some cultures like the Inca Empire did have one big mammal domesticated, the Llama, but the Inca did not drink its
milk or live in a closed space with their herds, hence limiting the risk of contagion.

The causal link between the type or lack of agricultural development, disease and colonisation is not supported by
colonization in other parts of the world. Disease increased after the establishment of British Colonial rule in Africa
and India despite the areas having diseases for which Europeans lacked natural immunity. In India agriculture
developed during the Neolithic period with a wide range of animals domesticated. During colonial rule an estimated
23 million people died from cholera between 1865 and 1949, and millions more died from plague, malaria, influenza
and tuberculosis.In Africa European colonisation was accompanied by great epidemics, including malaria and
sleeping sickness and despite parts of colonised Africa having little or no agriculture Europeans were more
susceptible than these Africans. The increase of disease has been attributed to increased mobility of people,
increased population density, urbanisation, environmental deterioration and irrigation schemes that helped to spread
malaria rather than the development of agriculture.[25]

Technology
In his book Guns, Germs, and Steel, Jared Diamond argues that Europeans and East Asians benefited from an
advantageous geographical location that afforded them a head start in the Neolithic Revolution. Both shared the
temperate climate ideal for the first agricultural settings, both were near a number of easily domesticable plant and
animal species, and both were safer from attacks of other people than civilizations in the middle part of the Eurasian
continent. Being among the first to adopt agriculture and sedentary lifestyles, and neighboring other early
agricultural societies with whom they could compete and trade, both Europeans and East Asians were also among
the first to benefit from technologies such as firearms and steel swords. In addition, they developed resistances to
infectious disease, such as smallpox, due to their close relationship with domesticated animals. Groups of people
who had not lived in proximity with other large mammals, such as the Australian Aborigines and American
indigenous peoples were more vulnerable to infection and largely wiped out by diseases.
During and after the Age of Discovery, European explorers, such as the Spanish conquistadors, encountered other
groups of people who had never or only recently adopted agriculture, such as in the Pacific Islands, or lacked
domesticated big mammals such as the people of the New Guinea Highlands.
Neolithic Revolution 41

Archeogenetics
The dispersal of Neolithic culture from the Middle East has recently been associated with the distribution of human
genetic markers. In Europe, the spread of the Neolithic culture has been associated with distribution of the E1b1b
lineages and Haplogroup J that are thought to have arrived in Europe from North Africa and the Near East
respectively.[26] [27] In Africa, the spread of farming, and notably the Bantu expansion, is associated with the
dispersal of Y-chromosome haplogroup E1b1a from West Africa.[26]

References
[1] "Origin of agriculture and domestication of plants and animals linked to early Holocene climate amelioration", Anil K. Gupta*, Current
Science, Vol. 87, No. 1, 19 October 2010 (http:/ / www. ias. ac. in/ currsci/ jul102004/ 54. pdf)
[2] "The Slow Birth of Agriculture", Heather Pringle* (http:/ / cas. bellarmine. edu/ tietjen/ images/ neolithic_agriculture. htm)
[3] "Zawi Chemi Shanidar", EMuseum, Minnesota State University (http:/ / www. mnsu. edu/ emuseum/ archaeology/ sites/ middle_east/
zawichemishanidar. html)
[4] Diamond, J.; Bellwood, P. (2003). "Farmers and Their Languages: The First Expansions". Science 300 (5619): 597.
doi:10.1126/science.1078208. PMID 12714734.
[5] Denham, Tim P.; et al. (2003). "Origins of Agriculture at Kuk Swamp in the Highlands of New Guinea". Science 301 (5630): 189–193.
doi:10.1126/science.1085255. PMID 12817084.
[6] The Kuk Early Agricultural Site (http:/ / whc. unesco. org/ en/ list/ 887)
[7] Gordon Childe (1936). Man Makes Himself. Oxford university press.
[8] Scarre, Chris (2005). "The World Transformed: From Foragers and Farmers to States and Empires" in The Human Past: World Prehistory
and the Development of Human Societies (Ed: Chris Scarre). London: Thames and Hudson. Page 188. ISBN 0-500-28531-4
[9] Charles E. Redman (1978). Rise of Civilization: From Early Hunters to Urban Society in the Ancient Near East. San Francisco: Freeman.
[10] Hayden, Brian (1992). "Models of Domestication". In Anne Birgitte Gebauer and T. Douglas Price. Transitions to Agriculture in Prehistory.
Madison: Prehistory Press. pp. 11–18.
[11] Sauer, Carl, O (1952). Agricultural origins and dispersals. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
[12] Binford, Lewis R. (1968). "Post-Pleistocene Adaptations". In Sally R. Binford and Lewis R. Binford. New Perspectives in Archaeology.
Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company. pp. 313–342.
[13] Rindos, David (December 1987). The Origins of Agriculture: An Evolutionary Perspective. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0125892810).
[14] Wright, Ronald (2004). A Short History of Progress. Anansi. ISBN 0-88784-706-4).
[15] Weiss, Ehud; Kislev, Mordechai E.; Hartmann, Anat (2006). "Autonomous Cultivation Before Domestication". Science 312 (5780):
1608–1610. doi:10.1126/science.1127235. PMID 16778044.
[16] "Tamed 11,400 Years Ago, Figs Were Likely First Domesticated Crop" (http:/ / www. sciencedaily. com/ releases/ 2006/ 06/
060602074522. htm). .
[17] Diamond, Jared (1999). Guns, Germs, and Steel. New York: Norton Press. ISBN 0-393-31755-2.
[18] DR Harris, HE Gove, P Damon "The Impact on Archaeology of Radiocarbon Dating by Accelerator Mass Spectrometry" Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London A323, 23-43 1987 (http:/ / journals. royalsociety. org/ content/ q41hm53kk451q861/ fulltext. pdf)
[19] The Cambridge History of Africa (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=JAca1F3qG34C& pg=PA70& lpg=PA70& dq=Africa,+ neolithic&
source=web& ots=wWVGAvbwDC& sig=oLsfZADAq2fplcionxe5hXjBgXw& hl=en& ei=V8GKSaSbO9eitge6-eibBw& sa=X&
oi=book_result& resnum=10& ct=result#PPA76,M1)
[20] Smith, Philip E.L., Stone Age Man on the Nile, Scientific American Vol. 235 No. 2, August 1976
[21] McGourty, Christine (2002-11-22). "Origin of dogs traced" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 2498669. stm). BBC News. .
Retrieved 2006-11-29.
[22] The Borderlands of Science by Michael Shermer. p. 250
[23] Sherratt 1981
[24] Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies - Jared Diamond, 1997
[25] Marshall, P. J. Ed. (1996), Cambridge illustrated History: British Empire, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-00254-0, p. 142
[26] Semino et al, O; Magri, C; Benuzzi, G; Lin, AA; Al-Zahery, N; Battaglia, V; MacCioni, L; Triantaphyllidis, C et al. (2004). "Origin,
Diffusion, and Differentiation of Y-Chromosome Haplogroups E and J: Inferences on the Neolithization of Europe and Later Migratory
Events in the Mediterranean Area" (http:/ / www. pubmedcentral. nih. gov/ articlerender. fcgi?artid=1181965& ). American journal of human
genetics 74 (5): 1023–34. doi:10.1086/386295. PMID 15069642. PMC 1181965. .
[27] Lancaster, Andrew (2009). "Y Haplogroups, Archaeological Cultures and Language Families: a Review of the Multidisciplinary
Comparisons using the case of E-M35" (http:/ / www. jogg. info/ 51/ files/ Lancaster. pdf). Journal of Genetic Genealogy 5 (1). .
Neolithic Revolution 42

Further reading
• Bailey, Douglass. (2000). Balkan Prehistory: Exclusions, Incorporation and Identity. Routledge Publishers. ISBN
0-415-21598-6.
• Bailey, Douglass. (2005). Prehistoric Figurines: Representation and Corporeality in the Neolithic. Routledge
Publishers. ISBN 0-415-33152-8.
• Balter, Michael (2005). The Goddess and the Bull: Catalhoyuk, An Archaeological Journey to the Dawn of
Civilization. New York: Free Press. ISBN 0-7432-4360-9.
• Bellwood, Peter. (2004). First Farmers: The Origins of Agricultural Societies. Blackwell Publishers. ISBN
0-631-20566-7
• Cohen, Mark Nathan (1977)The Food Crisis in Prehistory: Overpopulation and the Origins of Agriculture. New
Haven and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-02016-3.
• Diamond, Jared (1999). Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies. New York: Norton Press. ISBN
0-393-31755-2.
• Diamond, Jared (2002) Evolution, Consequences and Future of Plant and Animal Domestication. Nature
Magazine, Vol 418.
• Grinin, L. 2007. Periodization of History: A theoretic-mathematical analysis. In: History & Mathematics (http://
urss.ru/cgi-bin/db.pl?cp=&page=Book&id=53184&lang=en&blang=en&list=1). Moscow:
KomKniga/URSS. P.10-38. ISBN 9785484010011.
• Harlan, Jack R. (1992) Crops & Man: Views on Agricultural Origins ASA, CSA, Madison, WI. http://www.
hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/history/lecture03/r_3-1.html
• Wright, Gary A. (1971) "Origins of Food Production in Southwestern Asia: A Survey of Ideas" Current
Anthropology, Vol. 12,
No. 4/5 (Oct - Dec., 1971) , pp. 447–477
• Bartmen, Jeff M. (2008) Disease.
• House of Anansi Press page (http://www.anansi.ca/titles.cfm?pub_subid=237) for the book
• CBC Radio, Ideas, page on the Massey Lectures 2004 (http://www.cbc.ca/ideas/massey/massey2004.html)
also includes streaming audio of Chapter 1 of 5
• Chapter I - Gauguin's Questions (http://www.ucalgary.ca/~eslinger/crss/200/200_read/02.Wright,R.
_Gaugin'sQuestions_ShortHistoryOfProgress(2004)1-26.pdf)
• Stu’s Notes #11 (http://www.transportplanet.ca/Stu'sNotes11.pdf) a useful summary of many selected
passages from the book
• Civilization is a Pyramid Scheme (http://www.awok.org/civilization-is-a-pyramid-scheme/) an online copy of
Wright's earlier short article
• Chapter I (http://www.radio4all.net/pub/archive/04.01.05/anitya@graffiti.net/
1400-1-20041124-Ronald_Wright_-_Short_History_of_Progress_-_1_-_Gauguin__s_Questions.mp3) podcast at
http://www.radio4all.net (note this site is notoriously unreliable but it does come back up eventually)
• Chapter II (http://www.radio4all.net/pub/archive/04.01.05/anitya@graffiti.net/
1400-1-20041125-Ronald_Wright_-_Short_History_of_Progress_-_2_-_The_Great_Experiment.mp3) podcast at
http://www.radio4all.net
• An Interview with Ronald Wright (http://www.radio4all.net/pub/archive/09.01.05/philippe@bainbridge.
net/1374-1-20050410-Ronald_Wright.mp3), April 10, 2005, EcoTalk on Air America podcast at http://www.
radio4all.net
• Evidence for food storage and predomestication granaries 11,000 years ago in the Jordan Valley (http://www.
pnas.org/content/early/2009/06/19/0812764106.full.pdf).
Domestication 43

Domestication
Domestication (from Latin domesticus) or taming is
the process whereby a population of animals or plants,
through a process of selection, becomes accustomed to
human provision and control. A defining characteristic
of domestication is artificial selection by humans.
Humans have brought these populations under their
control and care for a wide range of reasons: to produce
food or valuable commodities (such as wool, cotton, or
silk), for help with various types of work (such as
transportation or protection), for protection of
themselves and livestock and for scientific research,
such as finding cures for certain diseases, or simply to
enjoy as companions or ornaments.

Plants domesticated primarily for aesthetic enjoyment

in and around the home are usually called house plants
or ornamentals, while those domesticated for
large-scale food production are generally called crops.
A distinction can be made between those domesticated
plants that have been deliberately altered or selected for
special desirable characteristics (see cultigen) and those
domesticated plants that are essentially no different Dogs and sheep were among the first animals to be domesticated.

from their wild counterparts (assuming domestication

does not necessarily imply physical modification). Likewise, animals domesticated for home companionship are
usually called pets while those domesticated for food or work are called livestock or farm animals.

Background
There is debate within the scientific community over how the process of domestication works. Some researchers give
credit to natural selection, where mutations outside of human control make some members of a species more
compatible to human cultivation or companionship. Others have shown that carefully controlled selective breeding is
responsible for many of the collective changes associated with domestication. These categories are not mutually
exclusive and it is likely that natural selection and selective breeding have both played some role in the processes of
domestication throughout history.[1] Either way, a process of selection is involved. The domestication of wheat is an
example of this. Wild wheat falls to the ground to reseed itself when it is ripe, but domesticated wheat stays on the
stem when it is ripe. There is evidence that this critical change came about as a result of a random mutation near the
beginning of wheat's cultivation. Wheat with this mutation was the only wheat harvested and became the seed for the
next crop. This wheat was much more useful to farmers and became the basis for the various strains of domesticated
wheat that have since been developed.[2]
The example of wheat has led some to speculate that mutations may have been the basis for other early instances of
domestication. It is speculated that a mutation made some wolves less wary of humans. This allowed these wolves to
start following humans to scavenge for food in their garbage dumps. Presumably something like a symbiotic
relationship developed between humans and this population of wolves. The wolves benefited from human food
scraps, and humans may have found that the wolves could warn them of approaching enemies, help with hunting,
carry loads, provide warmth, or supplement their food supply. As this relationship evolved, humans eventually began
Domestication 44

to raise the wolves and breed the types of dogs that we have today.
Some researchers maintain that selective breeding rather than mutation or natural selection best explains how the
process of domestication typically worked. Some of the most well-known evidence in support of selective breeding
comes from an experiment by Russian scientist, Dmitri K. Belyaev, in the 1950s. His team spent many years
breeding the Silver Fox (Vulpes vulpes) and selecting only those individuals that showed the least fear of humans.
Eventually, Belyaev's team selected only those that showed the most positive response to humans. He ended up with
a population of grey-coloured foxes whose behavior and appearance was significantly changed. They no longer
showed any fear of humans and often wagged their tails and licked their human caretakers to show affection. More
importantly, these foxes had floppy ears, smaller skulls, rolled tails and other traits commonly found in dogs.
Despite the success of this experiment, some scientists believe that selective breeding cannot always achieve
domestication. They point out that known attempts to domesticate several kinds of wild animals in this way have
failed repeatedly. The zebra is one example. Despite the fact that four species of zebra are interbreedable with and
part of the same genus as the horse and the donkey, attempts at domestication have failed.[3] The factors which
influence 'domesticatability' of large animals (see below) are discussed in some detail in.[1] Surprisingly only 14
species of large animal seem to be capable of domestication. In approximate order of their earliest domestication
these are: dog, sheep, goat, pig, cow, horse, donkey, water buffalo, llama/alpaca, bactrian camel, and Arabian camel.

Animals
According to evolutionary biologist Jared Diamond, animal species must meet six criteria in order to be considered
for domestication:
1. Flexible diet — Creatures that are
willing to consume a wide variety of food
sources and can live off less cumulative
food from the food pyramid (such as corn
or wheat), particularly food that is not
utilized by humans (such as grass and
forage) are less expensive to keep in
captivity. Carnivores by definition feed
Hereford cattle, domesticated for beef production.
primarily or only on animal tissue, which
requires the expenditure of many
animals, though they may exploit sources of meat not utilized by humans, such as scraps and vermin.
2. Reasonably fast growth rate — Fast maturity rate compared to the human life span allows breeding intervention
and makes the animal useful within an acceptable duration of caretaking. Large animals such as elephants require
many years before they reach a useful size.
3. Ability to be bred in captivity — Creatures that are reluctant to breed when kept in captivity do not produce
useful offspring, and instead are limited to capture in their wild state. Creatures such as the panda, antelope and
giant forest hog are territorial when breeding and cannot be maintained in crowded enclosures in captivity.
4. Pleasant disposition — Large creatures that are aggressive toward humans are dangerous to keep in captivity. The
African buffalo has an unpredictable nature and is highly dangerous to humans; similarly, although the American
bison is raised in enclosed ranges in the US West, it is much too dangerous to be regarded as truly domesticated.
Although similar to the domesticated pig in many ways, the American peccary and Africa's warthog and bushpig
are also dangerous in captivity.
5. Temperament which makes it unlikely to panic — A creature with a nervous disposition is difficult to keep in
captivity as it may attempt to flee whenever startled. The gazelle is very flighty and it has a powerful leap that
allows it to escape an enclosed pen. Some animals, such as the Domestic sheep, still have a strong tendency to
panic when their flight zone is crossed. However, most sheep also show a flocking instinct, whereby they stay
Domestication 45

close together when pressed. Livestock with such an instinct may be herded by people and dogs.
6. Modifiable social hierarchy — Social creatures that recognize a hierarchy of dominance can be raised to
recognize a human as the pack leader.

Plants
The earliest human attempts at plant domestication occurred in Asia. There is early evidence for conscious
cultivation and trait selection of plants by pre-Neolithic groups in Syria: grains of rye with domestic traits have been
recovered from Epi-Palaeolithic (c. 11,050 BP) contexts at Abu Hureyra in Syria,[4] but this appears to be a localised
phenomenon resulting from cultivation of stands of wild rye, rather than a definitive step towards domestication.
By 10,000 BC the bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria) plant, used as a container before the advent of ceramic
technology, appears to have been domesticated. The domesticated bottle gourd reached the Americas from Asia by
8000 BC, most likely due to the migration of peoples from Asia to America.[5]
Cereal crops were first domesticated around 9000 BC in the Fertile Crescent in the Middle East. The first
domesticated crops were generally annuals with large seeds or fruits. These included pulses such as peas and grains
such as wheat.
The Middle East was especially suited to these species; the dry-summer climate was conducive to the evolution of
large-seeded annual plants, and the variety of elevations led to a great variety of species. As domestication took
place humans began to move from a hunter-gatherer society to a settled agricultural society. This change would
eventually lead, some 4000 to 5000 years later, to the first city states and eventually the rise of civilization itself.
Domestication was gradual, a process of trial and error that occurred slowly. Over time perennials and small trees
began to be domesticated including apples and olives. Some plants were not domesticated until recently such as the
macadamia nut and the pecan.
In different parts of the world very different species were domesticated. In the Americas squash, maize, beans, and
perhaps manioc (also known as cassava) formed the core of the diet. In East Asia millet, rice, and soy were the most
important crops. Some areas of the world such as Southern Africa, Australia, California and southern South America
never saw local species domesticated.
Over the millennia many domesticated species have become utterly unlike their natural ancestors. Maize ears are
now dozens of times the size of those of wild teosinte. A similar change occurred between wild strawberries and
domesticated strawberries.
Domesticated plant species often differ from their wild relatives in predictable ways. These differences are called the
domestication syndrome, and include:[6]
• Higher germination rates
• More predictable & synchronous germination
• Increased size of reproductive organs
• A tendency for ripe seeds to stay on the plant, rather than breaking off and falling to the ground
• Reduced physical and chemical defences
• Change in biomass allocation (more in fruits, roots, or stems, depending on human)
Domestication 46

Degrees
Due to elephants' slow growth, the boundaries between surviving wild
populations and domestic clades can be vague. Similar problems of
definition arise when domesticated cats go feral. A classification
system that can help solve this confusion surrounding animal
populations might be set up on a spectrum of increasing domestication:
• Wild: These populations experience their full life cycles without
deliberate human intervention.
• Raised in Captivity/Captured from Wild (in zoos, botanical
gardens, or for human gain): These populations are nurtured by Two domestic donkeys by a car. One of the
humans but (except in zoos) not normally bred under human donkeys is licking the car.
control. They remain as a group essentially indistinguishable in
appearance or behaviour from their wild counterparts. Examples include Asian elephants, animals such as sloth
bears and cobras used by showmen in India, and animals such as Asian black bears (farmed for their bile), and
zoo animals, kept in captivity as examples of their species. (It should be noted that zoos and botanical gardens
sometimes exhibit domesticated or feral animals and plants such as camels, mustangs, and some orchids.)
• Raised commercially (captive or semidomesticated): These populations are ranched or farmed in large numbers
for food, commodities, or the pet trade, commonly breed in captivity, but as a group are not substantially altered
in appearance or behavior from their wild cousins. Examples include the ostrich, various deer, alligator, cricket,
pearl oyster, and ball python. (These species are sometimes referred to as partially domesticated.)
• Domesticated: These populations are bred and raised under human control for many generations and are
substantially altered as a group in appearance or behaviour. Examples include pigs, ferrets, turkeys, canaries,
domestic pigeons, budgerigars, goldfish, silkworms, dogs, cats, sheep, cattle, chickens, llamas, guinea pigs,
laboratory mice, goats and (silver) foxes
This classification system does not account for several complicating factors: genetically modified organisms, feral
populations, and hybridization. Many species that are farmed or ranched are now being genetically modified. This
creates a unique category because it alters the organisms as a group but in ways unlike traditional domestication.
Feral organisms are members of a population that was once raised under human control, but is now living and
multiplying outside of human control. Examples include mustangs. Hybrids can be wild, domesticated, or both: a
liger is a hybrid of two wild animals, a mule is a hybrid of two domesticated animals, and a beefalo is a cross
between a wild and a domestic animal.
A great difference exists between a tame animal and a domesticated animal. The term "domesticated" refers to an
entire species or variety while the term "tame" can refer to just one individual within a species or variety. Humans
have tamed many thousands of animals that have never been truly domesticated. These include the elephant, giraffes,
and bears. There is debate over whether some species have been domesticated or just tamed. Some state that the
elephant has been domesticated, while others argue the cat has never been. Dividing lines include whether a
specimen born to wild parents would differ in appearance or behavior from one born to domesticated parents. For
instance a dog is certainly domesticated because even a wolf (genetically the origin of all dogs) raised from a pup
would be very different from a dog, in both appearance and behaviour.
Domestication 47

Limits
Selection of animals for visible “desirable” traits may make them unfit in other, unseen, ways. The consequences for
the captive and domesticated animals were reduction in size, piebald color, shorter faces with smaller and fewer
teeth, diminished horns, weak muscle ridges, and less genetic variability. Poor joint definition, late fusion of the limb
bone epiphyses with the diaphyses, hair changes, greater fat accumulation, smaller brains, simplified behavior
patterns, extended immaturity, and more pathology are a few of the defects of domestic animals, All of these changes
have been documented in direct observations of the rat in the 19th century, by archaeological evidence, and
confirmed by animal breeders in the 20th century.[7]
One side effect of domestication has been zoonotic diseases. For example, cattle have given humanity various viral
poxes, measles, and tuberculosis; pigs and ducks have given influenza; and horses have given the rhinoviruses.
Humans share over sixty diseases with dogs . Many parasites also have their origins in domestic animals.[1] The
advent of domestication resulted in denser human populations which provided ripe conditions for pathogens to
reproduce, mutate, spread, and eventually find a new host in humans.

Dates and places

Since the process of domestication inherently takes many generations
over a long period of time, and the spread of breed and husbandry
techniques is also slow, it is not meaningful to give a single "date of
domestication". However, it is believed that the first attempt at
domestication of both animals and plants were made in the Old World
by peoples of the Mesolithic Period. The tribes that took part in
hunting and gathering wild edible plants, started to make attempts to
Early domestication: cow being milked in ancient
domesticate dogs, goats, and possibly sheep, which was as early as
Egypt.
9000 BC. However, it was not until the Neolithic Period that primitive
agriculture appeared as a form of social activity, and domestication
was well under way. The great majority of domesticated animals and plants that still serve humans were selected and
developed during the Neolithic Period, a few other examples appeared later. The rabbit for example, was not
domesticated until the Middle Ages, while the sugar beet came under cultivation as a sugar-yielding agricultural
plant in the 19th century. As recently as the 20th century, mint became an object of agricultural production, and
animal breeding programs to produce high-quality fur were started in the same time period.[8]

The methods available to estimate domestication dates introduce further uncertainty, especially when domestication
has occurred in the distant past. So the dates given here should be treated with caution; in some cases evidence is
scanty and future discoveries may alter the dating significantly.
Dates and places of domestication are mainly estimated by archaeological methods, more precisely archaeozoology.
These methods consist of excavating or studying the results of excavation in human prehistorical occupation sites.
Animal remains are dated with archaeological methods, the species they belong to is determined, the age at death is
also estimated, and if possible the form they had, that is to say a possible domestic form. Various other clues are
taken advantage of, such as slaughter or cutting marks. The aim is to determine if they are game or raised animal,
and more globally the nature of their relationship with humans. For example the skeleton of a cat found buried close
to humans is a clue that it may have been a pet cat. The age structure of animal remains can also be a clue of
husbandry, in which animals were killed at the optimal age.
New technologies and especially mitochondrial DNA, which are simple DNA found in the mitochondria that
determine its function in the cell provide an alternative angle of investigation, and make it possible to reestimate the
dates of domestication based on research into the genealogical tree of modern domestic animals.
Domestication 48

It is admitted for several species that domestication occurred in several places distinctly. For example, research on
mitochondrial DNA of the modern cattle Bos taurus supports the archaeological assertions of separate domestication
events in Asia and Africa. This research also shows that Bos taurus and Bos indicus haplotypes are all descendants
of the extinct wild ox Bos primigenius.[9] [10] However, this does not rule out later crossing inside a species;
therefore it appears useless to look for a separate wild ancestor for each domestic breed.
The first animal to be domesticated appears to have been the dog, in the Upper Paleolithic era. This preceded the
domestication of other species by several millennia. In the Neolithic a number of important species such as the goat,
sheep, pig and cow were domesticated, as part of the spread of farming with characterises this period. The goat,
sheep and pig in particular were domesticated independently in the Levant and Asia.
There is early evidence of beekeeping, in the form of rock paintings, dating to 13,000 BC.
Recent archaeological evidence from Cyprus indicates domestication of a type of cat by perhaps 9500 BC.[11] [12] [13]
The earliest secure evidence of horse domestication, bit wear on horse molars at Dereivka in Ukraine, dates to
around 4000 BC. The unequivocal date of domestication and use as a means of transport is at the Sintashta chariot
burials in the southern Urals, c. 2000 BC. Local equivalents and smaller species were domesticated from the 2500s
BC.
The availability of both domesticated vegetable and animal species increased suddenly following the voyages of
Christopher Columbus and the contact between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. This is part of what is
referred to as the Columbian Exchange.

Approximate dates and locations of original domestication

Species Date Location

Dog (Canis lupus familiaris) [14] East Asia and Africa

15000 BC

Sheep (Ovis orientalis aries) [15] [16] Southwest Asia

between 9-11000 BC

Pig (Sus scrofa domestica) [17] Near East, China

9000 BC

Goat (Capra aegagrus hircus) [18] Iran

8000 BC

Cow (Bos primigenius taurus) [19] [20] India, Middle East, and Sub-Saharan Africa
8000 BC

Cat (Felis catus) [11] [12] [13] [21] Cyprus and Near East
7500 BC

Chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus) [22] India and Southeast Asia

6000 BC

Guinea pig (Cavia porcellus) [23] Peru

5000 BC

Donkey (Equus africanus asinus) [24] [25] Egypt

5000 BC

Domesticated duck (Anas platyrhynchos domesticus) 4000 BC China

Water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) 4000 BC India, China

Horse (Equus ferus caballus) [26] Eurasian Steppes

4000 BC

Dromedary (Camelus dromedarius) 4000 BC Arabia

Llama (Lama glama) 3500 BC Peru

Silkworm (Bombyx mori) 3000 BC China

Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) [27] Russia

3000 BC

Rock pigeon (Columba livia) 3000 BC Mediterranean Basin

Goose (Anser anser domesticus) [28] Egypt

3000 BC
Domestication 49

Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus) 2500 BC Central Asia

Yak (Bos grunniens) 2500 BC Tibet

Banteng (Bos javanicus) Unknown Southeast Asia, Java Island

Gayal (Bos gaurus frontalis) Unknown Southeast Asia

Alpaca (Vicugna pacos) 1500 BC Peru

Ferret (Mustela putorius furo) 1500 BC- Europe

Muscovy Duck (Cairina momelanotus) Unknown South America

Guineafowl Unknown Africa

Common carp Unknown East Asia

Domesticated turkey 500 BC Mexico

Goldfish Unknown China

European Rabbit 1600 AD Europe

Second circle

Species Date Location

Zebu (Bos primigenius indicus) 8000 BC India

Honey bee 4000 BC Multiple places

Asian Elephant 2000 BC Indus Valley civilization

Fallow Deer 1000 BC Mediterranean Basin

Indian Peafowl 500 BC India

Barbary Dove 500 BC North Africa

Japanese Quail (see Quail) 1100–1900 Japan

Canary 1600 Canary Islands, Europe

Mandarin Duck Unknown China

Mute Swan 1000–1500 Europe

Modern instances

Species Date Location

Fancy rat 1800s UK

Fox 1800s Europe

Mink 1800s Europe

Budgerigar 1850s Europe

Cockatiel 1870s Europe

Zebra Finch 1900s Australia

Hamster 1930s United States

Silver Fox 1950s Soviet Union

Muskox 1960s United States

Corn Snake 1960s United States

Ball python 1960s

Domestication 50

Madagascar hissing cockroach 1960s

Red Deer 1970s New Zealand

Hedgehog 1980s United States

Sugar Glider 1980s Australia

Skunk 1980s United States

Kinkajou date uncertain Central America

A project is underway to find the genetic basis for taming. Researchers at the Max Planck institute in Germany have
obtained two sets of rats bred in Russia. One set was selected for aggressiveness and another for tameness,
mimicking the process by which neolithic farmers first domesticated animals.[29]

Former instances
Some species are said to have been domesticated, but are not any more, either because they have totally disappeared,
or since their domestic form no longer exists. Examples include the Jaguarundi,[30] the Kakapo, the Ring-tailed Cat,
Cheetah, Caracal and Bos aegyptiacus.

Hybrid domestic animals

• Alpaca: DNA evidence shows that alpacas are a llama/vicuña hybrid
• Beefalo
• Bengal cat
• Cama (animal)
• Chausie
• Cheetoh
• Coydog
• Dzo
• Sheep-goat hybrid
• Hinny
• Huarizo
• Iron Age Pig
• Mule
• Savannah (cat)
• Tiglon
• Wolfdog
• Wolphin
• Yakalo
• Zeedonk
• Zetland
• Zorse
• Zony
• Zubron
Domestication 51

Genetic pollution
Animals of domestic origin and feral ones sometimes can produce fertile hybrids with native, wild animals which
leads to genetic pollution in the naturally evolved wild gene pools, many a times threatening rare species with
extinction. Cases include the mallard duck, wildcat, wild boar, the rock dove or pigeon, the Red Junglefowl (Gallus
gallus) (ancestor of all chickens), carp, and more recently salmon. Another example is the dingo, itself an early feral
dog, which hybridizes with dogs of European origin. On the other hand, genetic pollution seems not to be noticed for
rabbits. There is much debate over the degree to which feral hybridization compromises the purity of a wild species.
In the case of the mallard, for example, some claim there are no populations which are completely free of any
domestic ancestor.

See also
• Lists and timelines
• List of domesticated animals
• List of domesticated plants
• List of domesticated fungi and microorganisms
• Timeline of agriculture and food technology
• Articles
• Animal husbandry
• Columbian Exchange
• Domestication of the horse
• Experimental evolution
• Feral
• Gene pool
• Genetic erosion
• Genetic pollution
• Genetic engineering
• Horticulture
• Hybrid
• Lion taming
• Marker assisted selection
• Military animals
• Selective breeding
• Self-domestication
• Wildness
• Wildlife
• Related
• Domestication theory describes the process of the 'taming' or appropriation of technology by its users.
Domestication 52

References
[1] Diamond, Jared (1999). Guns, Germs, and Steel. New York: Norton Press. ISBN 0-393-31755-2.
[2] Zohary, D. & Hopf, M. (2000). Domestication of Plants in the Old World Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
[3] Clutton-Brock, J. (1981) Domesticated Animals from Early Times. Austin: Univ. Texas Press.
[4] Hillman G, Hedges R, Moore A, Colledge S, Pettitt P (2001). "New evidence of Lateglacial cereal cultivation at Abu Hureyra on the
Euphrates" (http:/ / hol. sagepub. com/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 11/ 4/ 383). Holocene 11 (4): 383–393. doi:10.1191/095968301678302823. .
[5] Erickson DL, Smith BD, Clarke AC, Sandweiss DH, Tuross N (December 2005). "An Asian origin for a 10,000-year-old domesticated plant
in the Americas" (http:/ / www. pnas. org/ content/ 102/ 51/ 18315. full). Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 102 (51): 18315–20.
doi:10.1073/pnas.0509279102. PMID 16352716. PMC 1311910. .
[6] http:/ / www. plantsciences. ucdavis. edu/ gepts/ pb143/ lec08/ pb143l08. htm
[7] Berry, R.J. (1969). "The Genetical Implications of Domestication in Animals". In Ucko, Peter J., Dimbleby, G.W.. The Domestication and
Exploitation of Plants and Animals. Chicago: Aldine. pp. 207–217.
[8] http:/ / hcs. osu. edu/ hcs/ TMI/ HCS210/ HortOrigins/ BrDomestic. html
[9] Troy CS, MacHugh DE, Bailey JF, et al. (April 2001). "Genetic evidence for Near-Eastern origins of European cattle". Nature 410 (6832):
1088–91. doi:10.1038/35074088. PMID 11323670.
[10] Wendorf F., Schild R. (1998). "Nabta Playa and its role in ortheastern African prehistory". J. Anthropol. Archaeol 17: 97–123.
doi:10.1006/jaar.1998.0319.
[11] "Oldest Known Pet Cat? 9500-Year-Old Burial Found on Cyprus" (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2004/ 04/
0408_040408_oldestpetcat. html). National Geographic News. 2004-04-08. . Retrieved 2007-03-06.
[12] Muir, Hazel (2004-04-08). "Ancient remains could be oldest pet cat" (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/ dn4867. html). New Scientist.
. Retrieved 2007-11-23.
[13] Walton, Marsha (April 9, 2004). "Ancient burial looks like human and pet cat" (http:/ / edition. cnn. com/ 2004/ TECH/ science/ 04/ 08/ cats.
cyprus/ index. html). CNN. . Retrieved 2007-11-23.
[14] See Origin of the domestic dog
[15] Krebs, Robert E. & Carolyn A. (2003). Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions & Discoveries of the Ancient World. Westport,
CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-31342-3.
[16] Simmons, Paula; Carol Ekarius (2001). Storey's Guide to Raising Sheep. North Adams, MA: Storey Publishing LLC.
ISBN 978-1-58017-262-2.
[17] Giuffra E, Kijas JM, Amarger V, Carlborg O, Jeon JT, Andersson L (April 2000). "The origin of the domestic pig: independent
domestication and subsequent introgression" (http:/ / www. genetics. org/ cgi/ pmidlookup?view=long& pmid=10747069). Genetics 154 (4):
1785–91. PMID 10747069. PMC 1461048. .
[18] Melinda A. Zeder, Goat busters track domestication (http:/ / web. utk. edu/ ~persian/ goat. htm) (Physiologic changes and evolution of goats
into a domesticated animal), April 2000, (English) (summarizing research done in Ganj Dareh).
[19] Late Neolithic megalithic structures at Nabta Playa (Sahara), southwestern Egypt. (http:/ / www. comp-archaeology. org/ WendorfSAA98.
html)
[20] Source : Laboratoire de Préhistoire et Protohistoire de l'Ouest de la France (http:/ / palissy. humana. univ-nantes. fr/ LABOS/ UMR/ serveur/
recherche/ pruvost. html), (French).
[21] (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2004/ 04/ 0408_040408_oldestpetcat. html), domestication of the cat on Cyprus, National
Geographic.
[22] West B., Zhou B-X. (1989). "Did chickens go north? New evidence for domestication" (http:/ / www. adelaide. edu. au/ ANZCCART/
publications/ dom_chicken. pdf) (PDF). World’s Poultry Science Journal 45: 205–218. doi:10.1079/WPS19890012. .
[23] History of the Guinea Pig (Cavia porcellus) in South America, a summary of the current state of knowledge (http:/ / cavyhistory. tripod.
com/ )
[24] Beja-Pereira A, England PR, Ferrand N, et al. (June 2004). "African origins of the domestic donkey" (http:/ / www. sciencemag. org/ cgi/
pmidlookup?view=long& pmid=15205528). Science 304 (5678): 1781. doi:10.1126/science.1096008. PMID 15205528. . [ New Scientist
Donkey domestication began in Africa (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article. ns?id=dn6032) Lay summary].
[25] Roger Blench, The history and spread of donkeys in Africa (http:/ / www. animaltraction. net/ donkeys/ donkeys-blench-history.
pdf)PDF (235 KiB) (English).
[26] The Domestication of the Horse (http:/ / www. imh. org/ imh/ kyhpl1b. html); see also Domestication of the horse
[27] Domestication of Reindeer (http:/ / explorenorth. com/ library/ weekly/ aa080798. htm)
[28] Geese: the underestimated species (http:/ / www. fao. org/ docrep/ V6200T/ v6200T0n. htm)
[29] Nice Rats, Nasty Rats: Maybe It’s All in the Genes (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2006/ 07/ 25/ health/ 25rats. html)
[30] .Sometimes it is because these animals don't breed well in captivity (http:/ / www. lioncrusher. com/ animal. asp?animal=54)
Domestication 53

External links
• Discussion of animal domestication (http://www.uh.edu/engines/epi1499.htm)
• Guns, Germs and Steel by Jared Diamond (ISBN 0-393-03891-2)
• News story (http://www.aaas.org/news/releases/2004/0408cats.shtml) about an early domesticated cat find
• Belyaev experiment (http://www.devbio.com/article.php?ch=23&id=223) with the domestic fox
• Use of Domestic Animals in Zoo Education (http://www.csun.edu/~vcpsy00h/domestic.htm)
• The Initial Domestication of Cucurbita pepo in the Americas 10,000 Years Ago (http://www.sciencemag.org/
cgi/content/abstract/276/5314/932)
• Cattle domestication diagram (http://www.geochembio.com/biology/organisms/cattle/)
• Major topic "domestication": free full-text articles (more than 100 plus reviews) in National Library of Medicine
(http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=DetailsSearch&Term=domestication[Title]+
AND+"loattrfree+full+text"[sb])
• Why don't we ride zebras? (http://www.lifeonterra.com/episode.php?id=191l) an online children's film about
animal domestication

British Agricultural Revolution

The British Agricultural Revolution describes a period of development in Britain between the 17th century and the
end of the 19th century, which saw an epoch-making increase in agricultural productivity and net output. This in turn
supported unprecedented population growth, freeing up a significant percentage of the workforce, and thereby helped
drive the Industrial Revolution. How this came about is not entirely clear, but the post-Renaissance advances in
science, engineering and elementary botany will have helped. In recent decades, enclosure, mechanization, four-field
crop rotation, and selective breeding have been highlighted as primary causes, with credit given to only a relatively
few individuals.

Enclosure
Prior to the 18th century, agriculture had been much the same across Europe since the Middle Ages. The open field
system was essentially feudal, with each farmer subsistence-cropping strips of land in one of three or four large
fields held in common and splitting up the products likewise.
Beginning as early as the 12th century, some of the common fields in Britain were enclosed into individually owned
fields, and the process rapidly accelerated in the 15th and 16th centuries. This led to farmers losing their land and
their grazing rights and left many unemployed. In the 16th and 17th centuries, the practice of enclosure was
denounced by the Church, and legislation was drawn up against it; but the developments in agricultural
mechanization during the 18th century required large, enclosed fields so as to be workable. This led to a series of
government acts, culminating in the General enclosure Act of 1801, which sanctioned large-scale land reform.
While small farmers received compensation for their strips, it was minimal, while the loss of rights for the rural
population led to reduction in their diets and an increased dependency on the Poor law. Surveying and legal costs
weighed heavily on poor farmers, who sometimes even had to sell their share of the land to pay for its being split up.
Only a few found work in the (increasingly mechanized) enclosed farms for good. Many relocated to the cities or
colonies to try to find their fortune or work in the emerging factories of the Industrial Revolution.
By the end of the 18th century the process of enclosure was largely complete.
British Agricultural Revolution 54

Mechanization
Jethro Tull made early advancements in agricultural technology with his seed drill (1701) — a mechanical seeder
which distributed seeds efficiently across a plot of land. It took a century and a half after the publication in 1731 of
his Horse hoeing husbandry for farmers to widely adopt the technology. (Although a pioneer in Europe, Tull was not
the first to invent a seed drill; its origins can be traced back thousands of years to the East and Asia.)
Joseph Foljambe's Rotherham plough of 1730, while not the first iron plough, was the first iron plough to have any
commercial success in Europe, combining an earlier Dutch design with a number of technological innovations. Its
fittings and coulter were made of iron and the mouldboard and share were covered with an iron plate making it
lighter to pull and more controllable than previous ploughs. It remained in use in Britain until the development of the
tractor. It was followed by John Small of Doncaster and Berwickshire in 1763, whose 'Scots Plough' used an
improved cast iron share to turn the soil more effectively with less draft, wear, or strain on the ploughing team.[1]
Andrew Meikle's threshing machine of 1786 was the final straw for many
farm labourers, and led to the 1830 agricultural rebellion of Captain Swing (a
probably mythical character comparable to the Luddite's Ned Ludd).

The Leader of the luddites, engraving of

1812

In the 1850s and '60s John Fowler, an agricultural engineer,

pioneered the use of steam engines for ploughing and digging
drainage channels.

Three-field crop rotation

During the Middle Ages, the open field system had employed a
three year crop rotation, with a different crop in each of two fields,
eg. wheat and barley, and with the third field fallow. Over the
following two centuries, the regular planting of legumes in the
An agricultural engine, towing a living van and a water
fields which were previously fallow slowly increased the fertility
cart:
of croplands. The planting of legumes helped to increase plant Ransomes, Sims & Jefferies Ltd 6nhp Jubilee of 1908
growth in the empty field due to their ability to fix nitrogen in the
soil. Other crops that were occasionally grown were flax and members of the mustard family. The farmers in
Flanders (in parts of France and current day Belgium) discovered a still more effective four-field rotation system,
using turnips and clover (a legume) to replace the fallow year. In addition to improving soil fertility, clover was an
ideal fodder crop, so the improved grain production simultaneously increased livestock production. Farmers could
British Agricultural Revolution 55

grow more livestock because there was more food of higher quality, and the manure was an excellent fertilizer, so
they could have even more productive crops. Charles "Turnip" Townshend (2nd Viscount Townshend) learned the
four-field system from Flanders and introduced it to Great Britain in 1730.

Selective breeding
In England, Robert Bakewell and Thomas Coke introduced selective breeding (mating together two animals with
particularly desirable characteristics), and inbreeding (the mating of close relatives, such as father and daughter, or
brother and sister, to stabilize certain qualities) in order to reduce genetic diversity in desirable animals programs
from the mid 18th century. Robert Bakewell cross-bred the Lincoln and Longhorn sheep to produce the New
Leicester variety. These methods proved successful in the production of larger and more profitable livestock.

Technology from Flanders

The British Agricultural Revolution was sparked in part by advancements in Flanders, including the aforementioned
four-crop rotation. Due to the large and dense population of Flanders, which forced farmers to take advantage of
every inch of usable land, the country had become a pioneer in drainage and reclamation technology. Many Flemish
experts went to what is now called the Netherlands (then called Holland) and reclaimed land there. Finally, Dutch
experts like Cornelius Vermuyden brought the technology to Britain.

Effects on history
The agricultural productivity of Britain grew significantly in the period of the agricultural revolution. It is estimated
that the productivity of wheat was about 19 bushels per acre in 1720 and that it has grown to 21-22 bushels in the
middle of the eighteenth century. It declined slightly in the decades of 1780 and 1790 but it began to grow again by
the end of the century and reached a peak in the 1840s around 30 bushels per acre, stabilising thereafter.[2]
The Agricultural Revolution in Britain proved to be a major turning point in history. The population in 1750 reached
the level of 5.7 million. This had happened before: in around 1350 and again in 1650. Each time, either the
appropriate agricultural infrastructure to support a population this high was not present or plague or war occurred
(which may have been related), a Malthusian catastrophe occurred, and the population fell. However, by 1750, when
the population reached this level again, an onset in agricultural technology and new methods without outside
disruption, and also the effects of sugar imports, allowed the population growth to be sustained.
The increase in population led to more demand from the people for goods such as clothing. A new class of landless
labourers, products of enclosure, provided the basis for cottage industry, a stepping stone to the Industrial
Revolution. To supply continually growing demand, shrewd businessmen began to pioneer new technology to meet
demand from the people. This led to the first industrial factories. People who once were farmers moved to large
cities to get jobs in the factories. The British Agricultural Revolution not only made the population increase possible,
but also increased the yield per agricultural worker, meaning that a larger percentage of the population could no
longer work in agriculture but could and/or had to work in these new, post-Agricultural Revolution jobs.
The British Agricultural Revolution was the cause of drastic changes in the lives of British women. Before the
Agricultural Revolution, women worked alongside their husbands in the fields and were an active part of farming.
The increased efficiency of the new machinery, along with the fact that this new machinery was often heavier and
difficult for a woman to work, made this unnecessary and impractical, and women were relegated to other roles in
society. To supplement the family's income, many went into cottage industries. Others became domestic servants or
were forced into professions such as prostitution. The new, limited roles of women, dubbed by one historian as "this
defamation of women workers", (Valenze) fuelled prejudices of women only being fit to work in the home, and also
effectively separated them from the new, mechanised areas of work, leading to a divide in the pay between men and
women.
British Agricultural Revolution 56

Towards the end of the 19th century, the substantial gains in British agricultural productivity were rapidly offset by
competition from cheaper imports, made possible by advances in transportation, refrigeration, and many other
technologies.

References
[1] The Rotherham Plough (http:/ / www. rotherhamweb. co. uk/ h/ plough. htm)
[2] http:/ / eh. net/ bookreviews/ library/ 0529

• Overton, Mark. Agricultural Revolution in England 1500 - 1850 (http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/

empire_seapower/agricultural_revolution_01.shtml) (19 September 2002), Cambridge University Press. ISBN
0-521-56859-5
• Valenze, Deborah (1995). The First Industrial Woman. Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press. p. 183.
ISBN 0195089812.
• Kagan, Donald. The Western Heritage (London: Prentice Hall, 2004), p. 535-9. ISBN 0-13-182839-8

Selective breeding
Selective breeding is the process of breeding plants and animals for
particular genetic traits. Typically, strains which are selectively bred
are domesticated, and the breeding is sometimes done by a professional
breeder. Bred animals are known as breeds, while bred plants are
known as varieties, cultigens, or cultivars. The cross of animals results
in what is called a crossbreed and crossbred plants are called hybrids.
The term selective breeding is synonymous with artificial selection.

In animal breeding techniques such as inbreeding, linebreeding and

outcrossing are utilized. In plant breeding similar methods are used. A Belgian Blue cow. The defect in the breed's
Charles Darwin discussed how selective breeding had been successful myostatin gene is maintained through
in producing change over time in his book, Origin of Species. The first linebreeding and is responsible for its accelerated
lean muscle growth
chapter of the book discusses selective breeding and domestication of
such animals as pigeons, dogs and cattle. Selective breeding was used
by Darwin as a springboard to introduce the theory of natural selection, and to support it.[1]

Animal breeding
Animals with homogeneous appearance, behavior, and other characteristics are known as particular breeds, and they
are bred through culling particular traits and selecting for others. Purebred animals have a single, recognizable breed,
and purebreds with recorded lineage are called pedigreed. Crossbreeds are a mix of two purebreds, while mixed
breeds are a mix of several breeds, often unknown. Animal breeding begins with breeding stock, a group of animals
used for purpose of planned breeding. When individuals are looking to breed animals, they look for certain valuable
traits in purebred stock for a certain purpose, or may intend to use some type of crossbreeding to produce a new type
of stock with different, and presumably superior abilities in a given area of endeavor. For example, to breed
chickens, a typical breeder intends to receive eggs, meat, and new, young birds for further reproduction. Thus the
breeder has to study different breeds and types of chickens and analyze what can be expected from a certain set of
characteristics before he or she starts breeding them. Accordingly, when purchasing initial breeding stock, the
breeder seeks a group of birds that will most closely fit the purpose intended.
Purebred breeding aims to establish and maintain stable traits, that animals will pass to the next generation. By
"breeding the best to the best," employing a certain degree of inbreeding, considerable culling, and selection for
Selective breeding 57

"superior" qualities, one could develop a bloodline superior in certain respects to the original base stock. Such
animals can be recorded with a breed registry, the organization that maintains pedigrees and/or stud books. However,
single-trait breeding, breeding for only one trait over all others, can be problematic.[2] In one case mentioned by
animal behaviorist Temple Grandin, roosters bred for fast growth or heavy muscles didn't know how to perform
typical rooster courtship dances, which alienated the roosters from hens and led the roosters to kill the hens after
reproducing with them.[2]
The observable phenomenon of hybrid vigor stands in contrast to the notion of breed purity. However, on the other
hand, indiscriminate breeding of crossbred or hybrid animals may also result in degradation of quality.

Plant breeding
Plant breeding has been used for thousands of years, and began with the domestication of
wild plants into uniform and predictable agricultural cultigens. High-yielding varieties
have been particularly important in agriculture.
Selective plant breeding is also used in research to produce transgenic animals that breed
"true" (i.e. are homozygous) for artificially inserted or deleted genes.

Selective breeding in aquaculture

Selective breeding in aquaculture holds high potential for the genetic improvement of
fish and shellfish. Unlike terrestrial livestock the potential benefits of selective breeding
in aquaculture were not realized until recently. This was because high mortality led to Researchers at the USDA
the selection of only a few broodstock causing inbreeding depression which then forced have selectively bred
carrots with a variety of
the use of wild broodstock. This was evident in selective breeding programs for growth
colors.
rate which resulted in slow growth and high mortality.[3]

Control of the reproduction cycle was one of the main reasons as it is a requisite for selective breeding programmes.
Artificial reproduction was not achieved because of the difficulties in hatching or feeding some farmed species such
as eel and yellowtail farming.[4] A suspected reason associated with the late realisation of success in selective
breeding programs in aquaculture was the education of the concerned people – researchers, advisory personnel and
fish farmers. The education of fish biologists paid less attention to quantitative genetics and breeding plans.[5]
Another was the failure of documentation of the genetic gains in successive generations. This in turn led to failure in
quantifying economic benefits that successful selective breeding programs produce. Documentation of the genetic
changes was considered important as they help in fine tuning further selection schemes.[3]

Quality traits in aquaculture

Aquaculture species are reared for particular traits such as growth rate, survival rate, meat quality, resistance to
diseases, age at sexual maturation, fecundity, shell traits like shell size, shell colour, etc.
• Growth rate – growth rate is normally measured as either body weight or body length. (Gjedrem 1985). This
trait is of great economic importance for all aquaculture species as faster growth rate speeds up the turnover of
production (Gjedrem 1983). Improved growth rates show that farmed animals utilize their feed more efficiently
through a correlated response (Gjedrem 1985).
• Survival rate – survival rate may take into account the degrees of resistance to diseases (Gjedrem 1985). This
may also see the stress response as fish under stress are highly vulnerable to diseases (Gjedrem 1983). The stress
fish experience could be of biological, chemical or environmental influence.
Selective breeding 58

• Meat quality – the quality of fish is of great economic importance in the market. Fish quality usually takes into
account size, meatiness, and percentage of fat, colour of flesh, taste, shape of the body, ideal oil and omega-3
content (Gjedrem 1985).
• Age at sexual maturation- The age of maturity in aquaculture species is another very important for farmers as
during early maturation the species divert all their energy to gonad production affecting growth and meat
production and are more susceptible to health problems (Gjerde 1986).
• Fecundity – As the fecundity in fish and shellfish is usually high it is not considered as a major trait for
improvement. However, selective breeding practices may consider the size of the egg and correlate it with
survival and early growth rate (Gjedrem 1985).

Finfish response to selection

Salmonids
Gjedrem (1979) showed that selection of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) led to an increase in body weight by 30%
per generation. A comparative study on the performance of select Atlantic salmon with wild fish was conducted by
AKVAFORSK Genetics Centre in Norway. The traits, for which the selection was done included growth rate, feed
consumption, protein retention, energy retention and feed conversion efficiency. Selected fish had a twice better
growth rate, a 40% higher feed intake and an increased protein and energy retention. This led to an overall 20%
better Fed Conversion Efficiency as compared to the wild stock (Thodeson et al.1999). Atlantic salmon have also
been selected for resistance to bacterial and viral diseases. Selection was done to check resistance to Infectious
Pancreatic Necrosis Virus (IPNV). The results showed 66.6% mortality for low resistant species whereas the high
resistant species showed 29.3% mortality compared to wild species (Storset et al. 2007).
Rainbow trout (S. gairdneri) was reported to show large improvements in growth rate after 7-10 generations of
selection (Donaldson and Olson 1957). Kincaid et al. (1977) showed that growth gains by 30% could be achieved by
selectively breeding rainbow trout for three generations. A 7% increase in growth was recorded per generation for
rainbow trout by Kause et al. (2005). In Japan, high resistance to IPNV in rainbow trout has been achieved by
selectively breeding the stock. Resistant strains were found to have an average mortality of 4.3% whereas 96.1%
mortality was observed in a highly sensitive strain (Okamoto et al. 1993). Coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch)
increase in weight was found to be more than 60% after four generations of selective breeding (Hershberger et al.
1990). In Chile, Neira et al. (2006) conducted experiments on early spawning dates in coho salmon. After selectively
breeding the fish for four generation spawning dates were 13 – 15 days earlier.
Cyprinids
Selective breeding programs for the Common carp (Cyprinus carpio) include improvement in growth, shape and
resistance to disease. Experiments carried out in the USSR used crossings of broodstocks to increase genetic
diversity and then selected the species for traits like growth rate, exterior traits and viability, and/or adaptation to
environmental conditions like variations in temperature. Kirpichnikov et al. (1974) and Babouchkine (1987) selected
carp for fast growth and tolerance to cold, the Ropsha carp. The results showed a 30-40% to 77.4% improvement of
cold tolerance but did not provide any data for growth rate. An increase in growth rate was observed in the second
generation in Vietnam (Tran and Nguyen 1993). Moav and Wohlfarth (1976) showed positive results when selecting
for slower growth for three generations compared to selecting for faster growth. Schaperclaus (1962) showed
resistance to the dropsy disease wherein selected lines suffered low mortality (11.5%) compared to unselected
(57%).
Channel Catfish
Growth was seen to increase by 12 – 20% in selectively bred Iictalurus punctatus (Bondari, 1983). More recently,
the overall response of Channel Catfish response to selection for improved growth rate was found to be
approximately 80% i.e. an average of 13% per generation (Dunham 2006).
Selective breeding 59

Shellfish response to selection

Oysters
Selection for live weight of Pacific oysters showed improvements ranging from 0.4% to 25.6% compared to the wild
stock (Langdon et al. 2003). Sydney-rock oysters (Saccostrea commercialis) showed a 4% increase after one
generation and a 15% increase after two generations (Nell et al. 1996, 1999). Chilean oysters (Ostrea chilensis),
selected for improvement in live weight and shell length showed a 10-13% gain in one generation. Bonamia ostrea is
a protistan parasite which causes catastrophic losses (nearly 98%) in European flat oyster Ostrea edulis L. This
protistan parasite is endemic to three oyster- regions in Europe. Selective breeding programs show that O. edulis
susceptibility to the infection differs across oyster strains in Europe. A study carried out by Culloty et al. (2001)
showed that ‘Rossmore’ oysters in Cork harbour, Ireland had better resistance compared to other Irish strains. A
selective breeding program at Cork harbour uses broodstock from 3 – 4 year-old survivors and is further controlled
until a viable percentage reaches market size (Culloty et al. 2004). Over the years ‘Rossmore’ oysters have shown to
develop lower prevalence to B. ostreae infection and percentage mortality. Ragone Calvo et al. (2003) selectively
bred the eastern oyster, Crassostrea virginica, for resistance against co-occurring parasites Haplosporidium nelson
(MSX) and Perkinsus marinus (Dermo). They achieved dual resistance to the disease in four generations of artificial
selection. The oysters showed higher growth and survival rates and low susceptibility to the infections. At the end of
the experiment, artificially selected C. virginica showed a 34-48% higher survival rate.
Penaeid shrimps
Selection for growth in Penaeid shrimps yielded successful results. A selective breeding program for Litopenaeus
stylirostris saw an 18% increase in growth after the fourth generation and 21% growth after the fifth generation
(Goyard et al. 1999). Marsupenaeus japonicas showed a 10.7% increase in growth after the first generation (Hetzel
et al. 2000). Argue et al. (2002) conducted a selective breeding program on the Pacific White Shrimp, Litopenaeus
vannamei at The Oceanic Institute, Waimanalo, USA from 1995 -1998. They reported significant responses to
selection compared to the unselected control shrimps. After one generation, a 21% increase was observed in growth
and 18.4% increase in survival to TSV. The Taura Syndrome Virus (TSV) causes mortalities of 70% or more in
shrimps. C.I. Oceanos S.A. in Colombia selected the survivors of the disease form infected ponds and used them as
parents for the next generation. They achieved satisfying results in two or three generations wherein survival rates
approached levels before the outbreak of the disease (Cock et al. 2009). The resulting heavy losses (up to 90%)
caused by Infectious hypodermal and haematopoietic necrosis virus (IHHNV) caused a number of shrimp farming
industries started to selectively breed shrimps resistant to this disease. Successful outcomes led to development of
Super Shrimp®, a selected line of L. stylirostris which is resistant to IHHNV infection (Tang et al. 2000). Tang et al.
(2000) confirmed this by showing no mortalities in IHHNV- challenged Super Shrimp® post larvae and juveniles.

Aquatic species versus terrestrial livestock

Selective breeding programs for aquatic species provide better outcomes compared to terrestrial livestock. This
higher response to selection of aquatic farmed species can be attributed to the following:
• High fecundity in both sexes fish and shellfish enabling higher selection intensity.
• Large phenotypic and genetic variation in the selected traits.
Selective breeding in aquaculture provide remarkable economic benefits to the industry. Primarily, it reduces
production costs due to faster turnover rates. This is because of faster growth rates, decreased maintenance rates,
increased energy and protein retention and better feed efficiency (Gjedrem and Baranski 2009). Applying such
genetic improvement program to aquaculture species will increase productivity to meet the increasing demands of
growing populations.
Selective breeding 60

See also
• Artificial selection
• Breed registry
• Breeding
• Breeding back
• Experimental evolution
• Marker assisted selection
• Natural selection
• Quantitative genetics
• Culling

References
[1] *Darwin, Charles (2004). The Origin of Species. London: CRW Publishing Limited. ISBN 1904633781.
[2] Grandin, Temple; Johnson, Catherine (2005). [69-71 Animals in Translation]. New York, New York: Scribner. ISBN 0743247698. 69-71.
[3] Gjedrem and Moranski 2009
[4] Gjedrem 1985
[5] Gjedrem, 1983

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Argue, B. J., arce, S, M., Lotz, J. M & Moss, S.M. 2002. Selective breeding of Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus
vannamei) for growth and resistance to Taura syndrome Virus. Aquaculture, 204: 447 -460.
Babouchkine, Y.P., 1987. La sélection d’une carpe résistant à l’hiver. In: Tiews, K. (Ed.), Proceedings ofWorld
Symposium on Selection,Hybridization, and Genetic Engineering in Aquaculture, Bordeaux 27–30 May 1986, vol.
1. HeenemannVerlagsgesellschaft mbH, Berlin, pp. 447–454.
Bondari, K. 1983. Response to bidirectional selection for body weight in channel catfish. Aquaculture 33:73–81.
Cock, J., Gitterle, T., Salazar, M & Rye, Morten. (2009). Breeding for disease resistance of Penaeid shrimps.
Aquaculture 286: 1 – 11.
Culloty, S.C., Cronin, M.A., Mulcahy, M.F., 2001. An investigation into the relative resistance of Irish flat oysters
Ostrea edulis L. to the parasite Bonamia ostreae (Pichot et al., 1980). Aquaculture 199, 229–244.
Culloty, S.C., Cronin, M.A & Mulchany, M.F. 2004. Potential resistance of a number of populations of the oyster
Ostrea edulis to the parasite Bonamia ostreae. Aquaculture, 237:41-58.
Darwin, C. 2004. The Origin of Species. London: CRW Publishing Limited. ISBN 1904633781.
Donaldson, L.R. and Olson, P.R., 1957. Development of rainbow trout broodstock by selective breeding.
Transactions of the Americans Fisheries Society, 85: 93-101.
Gjerde, B. 1986. Growth and Reproduction in Fish and shellfish. Aquaculture, 57:37-55.
Gjedrem, T., 1979. Selection for growth rate and domestication in Atlantic salmon. Zeitschrift für Tierzüchtung und
Züchtungsbiologie, 96: 56-59.
Gjedrem, T. 1983. Genetic variation in quantitative traits and selective Breeding in fish and shellfish. Aquaculture,
33:51-72.
Gjedrem, T. 1985. Improvement of Productivity through Breeding Schemes. Geo Journal, 10(3): 233-241.
Gjedrem, T., 1997. Selective breeding to improve aquaculture production. World Aquaculture, 28, 33–45.
Gjedrem, G & Baranski, M. 2009. Selective breeding in Aquaculture: An Introduction. 1st Edition. Springer.
Goyard, E., Patrois, J., Reignon, J.-M., Vanaa, V., Dufour, R & Be´dier, E. 1999. IFREMER’s shrimp genetics
program. Global Aquaculture Advocate, 2(6): 26–28.
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Grandin, T & Johnson, C. 2005. [69-71 Animals in Translation]. New York, New York: Scribner. ISBN
0743247698.
Hershberger, W.K., Myers, J.M., Iwamoto, R.N., Mcauley, W.C & Saxton, A.M. 1990. Genetic Changes in the
Growth of Coho Salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) in Marine Net-Pens, Produced by Ten Years of Selection.
Aquaculture, 85:187-197.
Hetzel, D.J.S., Crocos, P.J., Davis, G.P., Moore, S.S., Preston, N.C., 2000. Response to selection and heritability for
growth in the Kuruma prawn, Penaeus japonicus. Aquaculture 181, 215–223.
Kause, A., Ritola, O., Paananen, T., Wahlroos, H & Mäntysaari, E.A. 2005. Genetic trends in growth, sexual
maturity and skeletal deformations, and rate of inbreeding in a breeding programme for rainbow trout
(Oncorhynchus mykiss). Aquaculture 247: 177–187.
Kincaid, A.L.. Bridges, W.R. and Von Limbach, B., 1977. Three generations of selection for growth rate in
fall-spawning rainbow trout. Transactions of the Americans Fisheries Society, 106: 621-628.
Kirpichnikov, V.S., IIYAsov, J.I., Shart, L.A., Vikhman, A.A., Ganchenko, M.V., Ostashevsky, A.L., Simonov,
V.M., Tikhonov, G.F & Tjurin, V.V. 1993. Selection of Krasnodar common carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) for resistance
to dropsy: principal results and prospects. Aquaculture, 111:7-20.
Langdon, C., Evans, F., Jacobson, D & Blouin, M. 2003. Yields of cultures Pacific oysters Crassostrea gigas
Thunberg improved after one generation of selection. Aquaculture, 220:227-244.
Moav, R.,Wohlfarth, G.W., 1976. Two way selection for growth rate in the common carp (Cyprinus carpio L.).
Genetics 82, 83–101.
Neira, R., Díaz, N., Gall, G., Gallardo, J., Lhorente, J &. Alert, A. 2006. Genetic improvement in Coho salmon
(Oncorhynchus kisutch). II: selection response for early spawning date, Aquaculture,257: 1–9.
Nell, J.A., Sheridan, A.K., Smith, I.R., 1996. Progress in a Sydney rock oyster, Saccostrea commercialis (Iredale and
Roughley), breeding program. Aquaculture, 144, 295– 302.
Nell, J.A., Smith, I.R., Sheridan, A.K., 1999. Third generation evaluation of Sydney rock oyster Saccostrea
commercialis (Iredale and Roughley) breeding lines. Aquaculture, 170, 195– 203.
Okamoto, N., Tayama, T., Kawanobe, M., Fujiki, N., Yasuda, Y & Sano, T. 1993. Resistance of a rainbow trout
strain to infectious pancreatic necrosis. Aquaculture, 117: 71-76
Ragone Calvo, L.M., Calvo,G.W & Burreson, E. M. 2003. Dual disease resistance in a selectively bred eastern
oyster, Crassostrea virginica, strain tested in Chesapeake Bay. Aquaculture, 220:69-87.
Schäperclaus,W. 1962. Traité de pisciculture en étang. Vigot Frères, Paris
Storset A, Strand C, Wetten M, Kjøglum S & Ramstad A. 2007. Response to selection for resistance against
infectious pancreatic necrosis in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.). Aquaculture 272: 62–68.
Tang, K. F. J., Durand, S. V., White, B. L., Redman, R. M., Pantoja, C. R & Lightner, D.V. 2000. Postlarvae and
juveniles of a selected line of Penaeus stylirostris are resistant to infectious hypodermal and hematopoietic necrosis
virus infection. Aquaculture, 190: 203-210.
Thodeson, J., Gisdale-Helland, B., Helland, S.J & Gjerde, B. 1999. Feed intake, growth and feed utilization of
offspring from wild and selected Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Aquaculture 180, 237–246.
Tran, M.T., Nguyen, C.T. 1993. Selection of common carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) in Vietnam. Aquaculture 111:
301–302.
Selective breeding 62

External links
• Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: In situ conservation of livestock and poultry, 1992
(http://www.fao.org/docrep/004/T0559E/T0559E00.htm).

Green Revolution
Green Revolution refers to a series of research, development, and technology transfer initiatives, occurring between
1943 and the late 1970s, that increased industrialized agriculture production in India; however, the yield increase has
also occurred world wide.
The initiatives involved the development of high-yielding varieties of cereal grains, expansion of irrigation
infrastructure, and distribution of hybridized seeds, synthetic fertilizers, and pesticides to farmers.
The term "Green Revolution" was first used in 1968 by former USAID director William Gaud, who noted the spread
of the new technologies and said,
"These and other developments in the field of agriculture contain the makings of a new revolution. It is
not a violent Red Revolution like that of the Soviets, nor is it a White Revolution like that of the Shah of
Iran. I call it the Green Revolution."[1]

History
With the experience of agricultural development began in Mexico by Norman Borlaug in 1943 judged as a success,
the Rockefeller Foundation sought to spread it to other nations. The Office of Special Studies in Mexico became an
informal international research institution in 1959, and in 1963 it formally became CIMMYT, The International
Maize and Wheat Improvement Center.
In 1961 India was on the brink of mass famine.[2] Borlaug was invited to India by the adviser to the Indian minister
of agriculture M. S. Swaminathan. Despite bureaucratic hurdles imposed by India's grain monopolies, the Ford
Foundation and Indian government collaborated to import wheat seed from CIMMYT. Punjab was selected by the
Indian government to be the first site to try the new crops because of its reliable water supply and a history of
agricultural success. India began its own Green Revolution program of plant breeding, irrigation development, and
financing of agrochemicals.[3]
India soon adopted IR8 - a semi-dwarf rice variety developed by the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) that
could produce more grains of rice per plant when grown with certain fertilizers and irrigation. In 1968, Indian
agronomist S.K. De Datta published his findings that IR8 rice yielded about 5 tons per hectare with no fertilizer, and
almost 10 tons per hectare under optimal conditions. This was 10 times the yield of traditional rice.[4] IR8 was a
success throughout Asia, and dubbed the "Miracle Rice". IR8 was also developed into Semi-dwarf IR36.
In the 1960s, rice yields in India were about two tons per hectare; by the mid-1990s, they had risen to six tons per
hectare. In the 1970s, rice cost about $550 a ton; in 2001, it cost under $200 a ton.[5] India became one of the world's
most successful rice producers, and is now a major rice exporter, shipping nearly 4.5 million tons in 2006.

IR8 and the Philippines

In 1960, the Government of the Republic of the Philippines with Ford and Rockefeller Foundations established IRRI
(International Rice Research Institute). A rice crossing between Dee-Geo-woo-gen and Peta was done at IRRI in
1962. In 1966, one of the breeding lines became a new cultivar, IR8.[6] IR8 required the use of fertilizers and
pesticides, but produced substantially higher yields than the traditional cultivars. Annual rice production in the
Philippines increased from 3.7 to 7.7 million tonnes in two decades.[7] The switch to IR8 rice made the Philippines a
rice exporter for the first time in the 20th century.[8] But the heavy pesticide use reduced the number of fish and frog
Green Revolution 63

species found in rice paddies.[9]

CGIAR
In 1970, foundation officials proposed a worldwide network of agricultural research centers under a permanent
secretariat. This was further supported and developed by the World Bank; on May 19, 1971, the Consultative Group
on International Agricultural Research was established, co-sponsored by the FAO, IFAD and UNDP. CGIAR, has
added many research centers throughout the world.
CGIAR has responded, at least in part, to criticisms of Green Revolution methodologies. This began in the 1980s,
and mainly was a result of pressure from donor organizations.[10] Methods like Agroecosystem Analysis and
Farming System Research have been adopted to gain a more holistic view of agriculture. Methods like Rapid Rural
Appraisal and Participatory Rural Appraisal have been adopted to help scientists understand the problems faced by
farmers and even give farmers a role in the development process.

Problems in Africa
There have been numerous attempts to introduce the successful concepts from the Mexican and Indian projects into
Africa.[11] These programs have generally been less successful. Reasons cited include widespread corruption,
insecurity, a lack of infrastructure, and a general lack of will on the part of the governments. Yet environmental
factors, such as the availability of water for irrigation, the high diversity in slope and soil types in one given area are
also reasons why the Green Revolution is not so successful in Africa.[12]
A recent program in western Africa is attempting to introduce a new high-yield variety of rice known as "New Rice
for Africa"(NERICA). NERICAs yield about 30% more rice under normal conditions, and can double yields with
small amounts of fertilizer and very basic irrigation. However the program has been beset by problems getting the
rice into the hands of farmers, and to date the only success has been in Guinea where it currently accounts for 16% of
rice cultivation.[13]
After a famine in 2001 and years of chronic hunger and poverty, in 2005 the small African country of Malawi
launched the Agricultural Input Subsidy Program by which vouchers are given to smallholder farmers to buy
subsidized nitrogen fertilizer and maize seeds. Within its first year, the program was reported with extreme success,
producing the largest maize harvest of the country's history; enough to feed the country with tons of maize left over.
The program has advanced yearly ever since. Various sources claim that the program has been an unusual success,
hailing it as a "miracle".[14]

Agricultural production and food security

Technologies
The Green Revolution spread technologies that had already existed before, but had not been widely used outside
industrialized nations. These technologies included pesticides, irrigation projects, synthetic nitrogen fertilizer and
improved crop varieties developed through the conventional, science-based methods available at the time.
The novel technological development of the Green Revolution was the production of novel wheat cultivars.
Agronomists bred cultivars of maize, wheat, and rice that are generally referred to as HYVs or “high-yielding
varieties”. HYVs have higher nitrogen-absorbing potential than other varieties. Since cereals that absorbed extra
nitrogen would typically lodge, or fall over before harvest, semi-dwarfing genes were bred into their genomes. A
Japanese dwarf wheat cultivar (Norin 10 wheat), which was sent to Washington, D.C. by Cecil Salmon, was
instrumental in developing Green Revolution wheat cultivars. IR8, the first widely implemented HYV rice to be
developed by IRRI, was created through a cross between an Indonesian variety named “Peta” and a Chinese variety
named “Dee-geo-woo-gen.”
Green Revolution 64

With advances in molecular genetics, the mutant genes responsible for Arabidopsis thaliana genes (GA
20-oxidase,[15] ga1,[16] ga1-3[17] ), wheat reduced-height genes (Rht)[18] and a rice semidwarf gene (sd1)[19] were
cloned. These were identified as gibberellin biosynthesis genes or cellular signaling component genes. Stem growth
in the mutant background is significantly reduced leading to the dwarf phenotype. Photosynthetic investment in the
stem is reduced dramatically as the shorter plants are inherently more stable mechanically. Assimilates become
redirected to grain production, amplifying in particular the effect of chemical fertilizers on commercial yield.
HYVs significantly outperform traditional varieties in the presence of adequate irrigation, pesticides, and fertilizers.
In the absence of these inputs, traditional varieties may outperform HYVs. Therefore, several authors have
challenged the apparent superiority of HYVs not only compared to the traditional varieties alone, but by contrasting
the monocultural system asssociated with HYVs with the polycultural system associated with traditional ones.[20]

Production increases
Cereal production more than doubled in developing nations between the years 1961–1985.[21] Yields of rice, maize,
and wheat increased steadily during that period.[21] The production increases can be attributed roughly equally to
irrigation, fertilizer, and seed development, at least in the case of Asian rice.[21]
While agricultural output increased as a result of the Green Revolution, the energy input to produce a crop has
increased faster,[22] so that the ratio of crops produced to energy input has decreased over time. Green Revolution
techniques also heavily rely on chemical fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides, some of which must be developed
from fossil fuels, making agriculture increasingly reliant on petroleum products.[23] Proponents of the Peak Oil
theory fear that a future decline in oil and gas production would lead to a decline in food production or even a
Malthusian catastrophe.[24]

Effects on food security

The effects of the Green Revolution on global food security are difficult to assess because of the complexities
involved in food systems.
The world population has grown by about four billion since the beginning of the Green Revolution and many believe
that, without the Revolution, there would have been greater famine and malnutrition. India saw annual wheat
production rise from 10 million tons in the 1960s to 73 million in 2006.[25] The average person in the developing
world consumes roughly 25% more calories per day now than before the Green Revolution.[21] Between 1950 and
1984, as the Green Revolution transformed agriculture around the globe, world grain production increased by over
250%[26]
The production increases fostered by the Green Revolution are often credited with having helped to avoid
widespread famine, and for feeding billions of people.
There are also claims that the Green Revolution has decreased food security for a large number of people. One claim
involves the shift of subsistence-oriented cropland to cropland oriented towards production of grain for export or
animal feed. For example, the Green Revolution replaced much of the land used for pulses that fed Indian peasants
for wheat, which did not make up a large portion of the peasant diet.[27]
Green Revolution 65

Criticism

Food security

Malthusian criticism
Some criticisms generally involve some variation of the Malthusian principle of population. Such concerns often
revolve around the idea that the Green Revolution is unsustainable,[28] and argue that humanity is now in a state of
overpopulation with regards to the sustainable carrying capacity and ecological demands on the Earth.
Although 36 million people die each year as a direct or indirect result of hunger and poor nutrition,[29] Malthus' more
extreme predictions have frequently failed to materialize. In 1798 Thomas Malthus made his prediction of
impending famine.[30] The world's population had doubled by 1923 and doubled again by 1973 without fulfilling
Malthus' prediction. Malthusian Paul R. Ehrlich, in his 1968 book The Population Bomb, said that "India couldn't
possibly feed two hundred million more people by 1980" and "Hundreds of millions of people will starve to death in
spite of any crash programs."[30] Ehrlich's warnings failed to materialize when India became self-sustaining in cereal
production in 1974 (six years later) as a result of the introduction of Norman Borlaug's dwarf wheat varieties.[30]

Famine
To some modern Western sociologists and writers, increasing food production is not synonymous with increasing
food security, and is only part of a larger equation. For example, Harvard professor Amartya Sen claimed large
historic famines were not caused by decreases in food supply, but by socioeconomic dynamics and a failure of public
action.[31] However, economist Peter Bowbrick refutes that Sen's theory is incorrect as Sen relies on inconsistent
arguments, and contradicting available information, including sources that Sen himself cited.[32] Bowbrick further
argues that Sen's views coincide with that of the Bengal government at the time of the Bengal famine of 1943 and the
policies Sen advocates failed to relieve the famine.[32]

Quality of diet
Some have challenged the value of the increased food production of Green Revolution agriculture. Miguel A. Altieri,
(a pioneer of agroecology and peasant-advocate), writes that the comparison between traditional systems of
agriculture and Green Revolution agriculture has been unfair, because Green Revolution agriculture produces
monocultures of cereal grains, while traditional agriculture usually incorporates polycultures.
These monoculture crops are often used for export, feed for animals, or conversion into biofuel. According to Emile
Frison of Bioversity International, the Green Revolution has also led to a change in dietary habits, as less people are
affected by hunger and die from starvation, but many are affected by malnutrition such as iron or vitamin-A
deficiencies.[12] Frison further asserts that almost 60% of yearly deaths of children under age five in developing
countries are related to malnutrition.[12]
High-yield rice (HYR), introduced since 1964 to poverty-ridden Asian countries, (such as the Philippines), was
found to have inferior flavor and be more glutinous and less savory than their native varieties. This caused its price
to be lower than the average market value.[33]
In the Philippines the introduction of heavy pesticides to rice production, in the early part of the green revolution,
poisoned and killed off fish and weedy green vegetables that traditionally coexisted in rice paddies. These were
nutritious food sources for many poor Filipino farmers prior to the introduction of pesticides, further impacting the
diets of locals.[34]
Green Revolution 66

Political impact
A major critic of the Green Revolution, U.S. investigative journalist Mark Dowie, writes:
The primary objective of the program was geopolitical: to provide food for the populace in undeveloped
countries and so bring social stability and weaken the fomenting of communist insurgency.
Citing internal Foundation documents, Dowie states that the Ford Foundation had a greater concern than Rockefeller
in this area.[35]
There is significant evidence that the Green Revolution weakened socialist movements in many nations. In countries
such as India, Mexico, and the Philippines, technological solutions were sought as an alternative to expanding
agrarian reform initiatives, the latter of which were often linked to socialist politics.[36]
Adversely, a similar logic can be applied against Mark Dowie's own argument, such that his politicized argument
against the Green Revolution implies the advocation of and need to starve a nation's population into submission if a
Communist or socialist government is to be considered a viable alternative within the eyes of a desperate population.

Socioeconomic impacts
The transition from traditional agriculture, in which inputs were generated on-farm, to Green Revolution agriculture,
which required the purchase of inputs, led to the widespread establishment of rural credit institutions. Smaller
farmers often went into debt, which in many cases results in a loss of their farmland.[10] [37] The increased level of
mechanization on larger farms made possible by the Green Revolution removed a large source of employment from
the rural economy.[10] Because wealthier farmers had better access to credit and land, the Green Revolution
increased class disparities. The rich - poor gap widened due to that. Because some regions were able to adopt Green
Revolution agriculture more readily than others (for political or geographical reasons), interregional economic
disparities increased as well. Many small farmers are hurt by the dropping prices resulting from increased production
overall. However, large-scale farming companies only account for less than 10% of the total farming capacity.
The new economic difficulties of small holder farmers and landless farm workers led to increased rural-urban
migration. The increase in food production led to a cheaper food for urban dwellers, and the increase in urban
population increased the potential for industrialization.

Globalization
In the most basic sense, the Green Revolution was a product of globalization as evidenced in the creation of
international agricultural research centers that shared information, and with transnational funding from groups like
the Rockefeller Foundation, Ford Foundation, and United States Agency for International Development (USAID).
Additionally, the inputs required in Green Revolution agriculture created new markets for seed and chemical
corporations, many of which were based in the United States. For example, Standard Oil of New Jersey established
hundreds of distributors in the Philippines to sell agricultural packages composed of HYV seed, fertilizer, and
pesticides.
Green Revolution 67

Environmental impact

Pesticides
Green Revolution agriculture relies on extensive use of pesticides, which are necessary to limit the high levels of
pest damage that inevitably occur in monocropping - the practice of producing or growing one single crop over a
wide area.

Biodiversity
The spread of Green Revolution agriculture affected both agricultural biodiversity and wild biodiversity.[38] There is
little disagreement that the Green Revolution acted to reduce agricultural biodiversity, as it relied on just a few
high-yield varieties of each crop.
This has led to concerns about the susceptibility of a food supply to pathogens that cannot be controlled by
agrochemicals, as well as the permanent loss of many valuable genetic traits bred into traditional varieties over
thousands of years. To address these concerns, massive seed banks such as Consultative Group on International
Agricultural Research’s (CGIAR) International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (now Bioversity International [39])
have been established (see Svalbard Global Seed Vault).
There are varying opinions about the effect of the Green Revolution on wild biodiversity. One hypothesis speculates
that by increasing production per unit of land area, agriculture will not need to expand into new, uncultivated areas to
feed a growing human population.[40] However, land degradation and soil nutrients depletion have forced farmers to
clear up formerly forested areas in order to keep up with production.[41] A counter-hypothesis speculates that
biodiversity was sacrificed because traditional systems of agriculture that were displaced sometimes incorporated
practices to preserve wild biodiversity, and because the Green Revolution expanded agricultural development into
new areas where it was once unprofitable or too arid. For example, the development of wheat varieties tolerant to
acid soil conditions with high aluminium content, permitted the introduction of agriculture in the Amazonian
Cerrado ecosystem in Brazil.[40]
Nevertheless, the world community has clearly acknowledged the negative aspects of agricultural expansion as the
1992 Rio Treaty, signed by 189 nations, has generated numerous national Biodiversity Action Plans which assign
significant biodiversity loss to agriculture's expansion into new domains.

Health impact
The consumption of the chemicals and pesticides used to kill pests by humans in some cases may be increasing the
likelihood of cancer in some of the rural villages using them. Poor farming practices including non-compliance to
usage of masks and over-usage of the chemicals compound this situation.[42] In 1989, WHO and UNEP estimated
that there were around 1 million human pesticide poisonings annually. Some 20000 (mostly in developing countries)
ended in death, as a result of poor labeling, loose safety standards etc. [43]

Pesticides and cancer

Long term exposure to pesticides such as organochlorines, creosote, and sulfallate have been correlated with higher
cancer rates and organochlorines DDT, chlordane, and lindane as tumor promoters in animals. Contradictory
epidemiologic studies in humans have linked phenoxy acid herbicides or contaminants in them with soft tissue
sarcoma (STS) and malignant lymphoma, organochlorine insecticides with STS, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (NHL),
leukemia, and, less consistently, with cancers of the lung and breast, organophosphorous compounds with NHL and
leukemia, and triazine herbicides with ovarian cancer.[44] [45]
However, additional comprehensive studies in 2009 have been unable to link any human health issues to the use of
DDT. It is estimated that as many as 60 million people have died of malaria specifically because DDT was banned
from use in their country. Within first-world nations, such as the United States, cancer rates among farmers are
Green Revolution 68

actually much lower than the general United States population.[46]

Punjab case
The Indian state of Punjab pioneered green revolution among the other states transforming India into a food-surplus
country.[47] The state is witnessing serious consequences of intensive farming using chemicals and pesticide. A
comprehensive study conducted by Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research (PGIMER) has
underlined the direct relationship between indiscriminate use of these chemicals and increased incidence of cancer in
this region.[48] Increase in the number of cancer cases has been reported in several villages including Jhariwala,
Koharwala, Puckka, Bhimawali, Khara.[49]
Environmental activist Vandana Shiva has written extensively about the social, political and economic impacts of the
Green Revolution in Punjab. She claims that the Green Revolution's reliance on heavy use of chemical inputs and
monocultures has resulted in water scarcity, vulnerability to pests, and incidence of violent conflict and social
marginalization.[50]
In 2009, under a Greenpeace Research Laboratories investigation, Dr Reyes Tirado, from the University of Exeter,
UK conducted the study in 50 villages in Muktsar, Bathinda and Ludhiana districts revealed chemical, radiation and
biological toxicity rampant in Punjab. 20% of the sampled wells showed nitrate levels above the safety limit of
50 mg/l, established by WHO, the study connected it with high use of synthetic nitrogen fertilizers.[51] With
increasing poisoning of the soil, the region once hailed as the home to the Green revolution, now due to excessive
use of chemical fertilizer, is being termed by one columnist as the "Other Bhopal".[52]

Organic farming
About four decades after the Green Revolution widely helped the world to be able to produce food in sufficient
levels, a small percentage of farmers in India have chosen to employ organic farming methods in response to side
effects from their adoption of modern agriculture techniques.[53]
However, the techniques which these farmers perceive as harmful enough to sacrifice as much as a half of their food
production are often not properly applied in the way they were developed, many conventional Indian farmers misuse
concentrated chemicals in ways such as not wearing protective clothing or equipment, re-using pesticide containers
as kitchen containers, and using more pesticide and fertilizer than necessary to maximize yield. In 2008,
approximately 85% of produce recalls in wholesale markets due to contamination and disease originated from
organic farms, while only 20% of contamination occurred after arrival at market.[53]

Norman Borlaug's response to criticism

He dismissed certain claims of critics, but did take other concerns seriously and stated that his work has been:
"a change in the right direction, but it has not transformed the world into a Utopia".[54]
Of environmental lobbyists he said:
"some of the environmental lobbyists of the Western nations are the salt of the earth, but many of them
are elitists. They've never experienced the physical sensation of hunger. They do their lobbying from
comfortable office suites in Washington or Brussels...If they lived just one month amid the misery of the
developing world, as I have for fifty years, they'd be crying out for tractors and fertilizer and irrigation
canals and be outraged that fashionable elitists back home were trying to deny them these things".[55]
Green Revolution 69

References
[1] [Speech http:/ / www. agbioworld. org/ biotech-info/ topics/ borlaug/ borlaug-green. html] by William S. Gaud to the Society for International
Development. 1968.
[2] "India Girds for Famine Linked With Flowering of Bamboo" (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2001/ 06/ 0621_bamboo. html).
News.nationalgeographic.com. . Retrieved 2010-08-13.
[3] "Newsroom: News Releases" (http:/ / www. cgiar. org/ newsroom/ releases/ news. asp?idnews=532). CGIAR. . Retrieved 2010-08-13.
[4] De Datta SK, Tauro AC, Balaoing SN (1 November 1968). "Effect of plant type and nitrogen level on growth characteristics and grain yield
of indica rice in the tropics" (http:/ / agron. scijournals. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 60/ 6/ 643). Agron. J. 60 (6): 643–7.
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[5] Barta, Patrick (July 28, 2007). "Feeding Billions, A Grain at a Time" (http:/ / online. wsj. com/ article/ SB118556810848880619. html). The
Wall Street Journal: pp. A1. .
[6] IRRI Early research and training results (http:/ / www. irri. org/ publications/ chandler/ pdfs/ chap4a. pdf) (pdf)pp.106-109.
[7] FAO Fisheries & Aquaculture - Rice paddies (http:/ / www. fao. org/ fishery/ topic/ 13472/ en)
[8] Rice of the Gods - TIME (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,900147,00. html)
[9] "Bali Hotel Villa Blog Culture Travel Guide Indonesia – BALIwww.COM » Through the Eyes of Researcher: “Miracle Rice” Unwittingly
Destroys Bali’s Coral Reefs" (http:/ / blog. baliwww. com/ environment-nature/ 1421). Blog.baliwww.com. 2008-05-14. . Retrieved
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[10] Oasa 1987
[11] "Debating Development - A historical analysis of the Sasakawa Global 2000 project in Ghana and indigenous knowledge as an alternative
approach to agricultural development" (http:/ / igitur-archive. library. uu. nl/ student-theses/ 2009-0910-200159/ UUindex. html).
Igitur-archive.library.uu.nl. . Retrieved 2010-08-13.
[12] "D+C 05/2008 – SW2 – Green Revolution in Africa will depend on biodiversity – pre - Development and Cooperation - International
Journal" (http:/ / www. inwent. org/ ez/ articles/ 070224/ index. en. shtml). Inwent.org. . Retrieved 2010-08-13.
[13] In Africa, Prosperity From Seeds Falls Short, New York Times, 10 October 2007 (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2007/ 10/ 10/ world/ africa/
10rice. html?_r=1& hp& oref=slogin)
[14] Malawi Miracle (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ business/ 8363914. stm) article on the BBC website. According to the UN website on
Malawi (http:/ / www. wfp. org/ countries/ Malawi/ News/ Malawi--P4P-raising-income-for-women-farmers) the program was highly
effective. This website highlights the women farmers program. The claims of success are substantiated by Malawi government claims at
Malawi National Statistics Organization site (http:/ / www. nso. malawi. net/ data_on_line/ economics/ Trade on NSO website/ Malawi 2005
Trade Statistics Brief_Release. pdf). The international WaterAid organisation seems to contradict these facts with its report on plans from
2005-2010 (http:/ / www. wateraid. org/ international/ what_we_do/ where_we_work/ malawi/ 3117. asp). Similarly, the World Trade
Organization reported that Malawi had noted problems (http:/ / www. wto. org/ english/ tratop_e/ tpr_e/ tp331_e. htm) including lack of
transparency and administrative difficulties. This follows with a recent (2010 Malawi newspaper tells of UN report (http:/ / www. nyasatimes.
com/ national/ malawi-ranks-153-on-un-human-development-index. html) with Malawi one of the lowest on the UN list of developing states,
confirmed by this UN World Food Program report (http:/ / www. wfp. org/ content/ malawi-20052006-biennial-report). Another report from
the Institute for Security Studies (http:/ / www. iss. co. za/ pubs/ ASR/ 14No4/ EHussein. htm) from 2005, showed corruption still prevailing
in Malawi at that time.
[15] Xu YL, Li L, Wu K, Peeters AJ, Gage DA, Zeevaart JA (July 1995). "The GA5 locus of Arabidopsis thaliana encodes a multifunctional
gibberellin 20-oxidase: molecular cloning and functional expression" (http:/ / www. pnas. org/ content/ 92/ 14/ 6640. abstract). Proc. Natl.
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[16] Silverstone AL, Chang C, Krol E, Sun TP (July 1997). "Developmental regulation of the gibberellin biosynthetic gene GA1 in Arabidopsis
thaliana" (http:/ / www3. interscience. wiley. com/ resolve/ openurl?genre=article& sid=nlm:pubmed& issn=0960-7412& date=1997&
volume=12& issue=1& spage=9). Plant J. 12 (1): 9–19. doi:10.1046/j.1365-313X.1997.12010009.x. PMID 9263448. .
[17] Silverstone AL, Ciampaglio CN, Sun T (February 1998). "The Arabidopsis RGA gene encodes a transcriptional regulator repressing the
gibberellin signal transduction pathway" (http:/ / www. plantcell. org/ cgi/ pmidlookup?view=long& pmid=9490740). Plant Cell 10 (2):
155–69. doi:10.1105/tpc.10.2.155. PMID 9490740. PMC 143987. .
[18] Appleford NE, Wilkinson MD, Ma Q, et al (2007). "Decreased shoot stature and grain alpha-amylase activity following ectopic expression
of a gibberellin 2-oxidase gene in transgenic wheat" (http:/ / jxb. oxfordjournals. org/ cgi/ content/ full/ erm166v1). J. Exp. Bot. 58 (12):
3213–26. doi:10.1093/jxb/erm166. PMID 17916639. .
[19] Monna L, Kitazawa N, Yoshino R, et al (February 2002). "Positional cloning of rice semidwarfing gene, sd-1: rice "green revolution gene"
encodes a mutant enzyme involved in gibberellin synthesis" (http:/ / dnaresearch. oxfordjournals. org/ cgi/ pmidlookup?view=long&
pmid=11939564). DNA Res. 9 (1): 11–7. doi:10.1093/dnares/9.1.11. PMID 11939564. .
[20] Igbozurike, U.M. (1978). "POLYCULTURE AND MONOCULTURE: CONTRAST AND ANALYSIS". GeoJournal 2 (5): 443–49.
[21] Conway, 1997 chpt. 4.
[22] Why Our Food is So Dependent on Oil (http:/ / www. energybulletin. net/ 5045. html)
[23] Fuel costs, drought influence price increase (http:/ / www. timesdaily. com/ article/ 20070914/ NEWS/ 709140329/ 1011/ RSS&
source=RSS)
[24] Rising food prices curb aid to global poor (http:/ / www. csmonitor. com/ 2007/ 0724/ p01s01-wogi. html)
Green Revolution 70

[25] The end of India's green revolution? (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ world/ south_asia/ 4994590. stm)
[26] Kindall, Henery W & Pimentel, David (May 1994). "Constraints on the Expansion of the Global Food Supply" (http:/ / dieoff. org/ page36.
htm). Ambio. 23 (3). .
[27] Spitz, 1987
[28] Food, Land, Population and the U.S. Economy (http:/ / www. dieoff. com/ page55. htm)
[29] Mortality statistics w/references in Wikipedia article on hunger.
[30] Technology Review: Green Revolutionary (https:/ / www. technologyreview. com/ Biotech/ 19871/ )
[31] Drezé and Sen 1991
[32] Bowbrick, Peter (May 1986). "A Refutation of Professor Sen’s Theory of Famine". Food Policy 11 (2): 105–124.
doi:10.1016/0306-9192(86)90059-X.
[33] Chapman, Graham P. (2002). “The Green Revolution.” The Companion to Development Studies. London: Arnold. (pp.155-159).
[34] The Great Rice Robbery (http:/ / www. collectivetech. org/ apc/ sites/ default/ files/ IRRI_Resource Kit_Final_SIBAT_0. pdf#page=21)
[35] Primary objective was geopolitical - see Mark Dowie, American Foundations: An Investigative History, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT
Press, 2001, (pp. 109-114)
[36] Ross 1998. Chpt. 5.
[37] Ponting, Clive (2007). A New Green History of the World: The Environment and the Collapse of Great Civilizations. New York: Penguin
Books. p. 244. ISBN 978-0-14-303898-6.
[38] http:/ / www. collectivetech. org/ apc/ sites/ default/ files/ IRRI_Resource%20Kit_Final_SIBAT_0. pdf#page=21
[39] http:/ / www. bioversityinternational. org/
[40] Davies, Paul (June 2003). "An Historical Perspective from the Green Revolution to the Gene Revolution". Nutrition Reviews 61 (6):
S124–S134. doi:10.1301/nr.2003.jun.S124-S134. PMID 12908744.
[41] Shiva, Vandana (March–April 1991). "The Green Revolution in the Punjab". The Ecologist 21 (2): 57–60.
[42] Punjab suffers from adverse effect of Green revolution, BBC news (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ programmes/
from_our_own_correspondent/ 7366899. stm)
[43] 21. Pimentel, D. Green revolution agriculture and chemical hazards. The Science of the Total Environment 188 Suppl. 1 (1996) $86-$98.
[44] Pesticides and cancer, Jan Dich1, Shelia Hoar Zahm, Annika Hanberg and Hans-Olov Adami, Institute of Environmental Medicine,
Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/ p43860605x4h5v63/ )
[45] Pesticides and childhood cancer, Environ Health Perspect, Zahm SH and Ward MH, Occupational Epidemiology Branch, National Cancer
Institute (http:/ / www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ pubmed/ 9646054?ordinalpos=1& itool=EntrezSystem2. PEntrez. Pubmed. Pubmed_ResultsPanel.
Pubmed_DiscoveryPanel. Pubmed_Discovery_RA& linkpos=3& log$=relatedreviews& logdbfrom=pubmed)
[46] Seavey , Todd. The DDT Ban Turns 30 — Millions Dead of Malaria Because of Ban, More Deaths Likely.June 1, 2002 (http:/ / www. acsh.
org/ healthissues/ newsID. 442/ healthissue_detail. asp)
[47] Green revolution in Punjab, Pakistan (http:/ / punjabgovt. nic. in/ AGRICULTURE/ TheGreen. htm)
[48] PGIMER research (http:/ / www. hardnewsmedia. com/ 2006/ 11/ 648)
[49] Green revolution's cancer train (http:/ / sify. com/ news/ fullstory. php?id=14328580)
[50] Green revolution in Punjab, by Vandana Shiva (http:/ / livingheritage. org/ green-revolution. htm)
[51] Garg, Balwant (June 15, 2010). "Uranium, metals make Punjab toxic hotspot" (http:/ / timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ india/
Uranium-metals-make-Punjab-toxic-hotspot/ articleshow/ 6048431. cms). The Times of India. .
[52] "Laws To Tackle Other ‘Bhopals’" (http:/ / www. livemint. com/ 2010/ 06/ 09212410/ LAWS-TO-TACKLE-OTHER-8216BH.
html?atype=tp). Mint (newspaper). June 10, 2010. .
[53] The Toxic Consequences of the Green Revolution (http:/ / www. usnews. com/ articles/ news/ world/ 2008/ 07/ 07/
the-toxic-consequences-of-the-green-revolution. html)
[54] "http:/ / www. agbioworld. org/ biotech-info/ topics/ borlaug/ iowans. html"
[55] Tierney, John (2008-05-19). "Greens and Hunger" (http:/ / tierneylab. blogs. nytimes. com/ 2008/ 05/ 19/ greens-and-hunger/
?pagemode=print). TierneyLab - Putting Ideas in Science to the Test (The New York Times). . Retrieved 2009-02-13.

Bibliography
• Jain, H.K. (2010). THE GREEN REVOLUTION: HISTORY, IMPACT AND FUTURE (1st ed.). LLC HOUSTON,
TEXAS 77072 USA: STUDIUM PRESS. ISBN 1933699639.
• Cleaver, Harry (May 1972). "The Contradictions of the Green Revolution" (http://utexas.academia.edu/
HarryMCleaverJr/Papers/27744/-The-Contradictions-of-the-Green-Revolution---1972). American Economic
Review 62 (2): 177–86.
• Conway, Gordon (1998). The doubly green revolution: food for all in the twenty-first century. Ithaca, N.Y:
Comstock Pub. ISBN 0-8014-8610-6.
• Dowie, Mark (2001). American foundations: an investigative history. Cambridge, Mass: MIT.
ISBN 0-262-04189-8.
Green Revolution 71

• Farrell, John Joseph; Altieri, Miguel A. (1995). Agroecology: the science of sustainable agriculture (2nd ed.).
Boulder, CO: Westview. ISBN 0-8133-1718-5.
• Frison, Emile (2008). "Green Revolution in Africa will depend on biodiversity" (http://www.inwent.org/ez/
articles/070224/index.en.shtml). Development and Cooperation 49 (5): 190–3.
• Oasa, Edmud K (1987). "The Political Economy of International Agricultural Research in Glass". In Glaeser,
Bernhard. The Green Revolution revisited: critique and alternatives. Allen & Unwin. pp. 13–55.
ISBN 0-04-630014-7.
• Ross, Eric (1998). The Malthus Factor: Poverty, Politics and Population in Capitalist Development. London: Zed
Books. ISBN 1-85649-564-7.
• Ruttan, Vernon (1977). "The Green Revolution: Seven Generalizations". International Development Review 19:
16–23.
• Sen, Amartya Kumar; Drèze, Jean (1989). Hunger and public action. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
ISBN 0-19-828365-2.
• Shiva, Vandana (1989). The violence of the green revolution: Ecological degradation and political conflict in
Punjab. Dehra Dun: Research Foundation for Science and Ecology. ISBN 81-85019-19-3.
• Spitz, Pierre (1987). "The Green Revolution Re-Examined in India in Glass". In Glaeser, Bernhard. The Green
Revolution revisited: critique and alternatives. Allen & Unwin. pp. 57–75. ISBN 0-04-630014-7.
• Wright, Angus (1984). "Innocence Abroad: American Agricultural Research in Mexico". In Bruce Colman;
Jackson, Wes; Berry, Wendell. Meeting the expectations of the land: essays in sustainable agriculture and
stewardship. San Francisco: North Point Press. pp. 124–38. ISBN 0-86547-171-1.
• Wright, Angus Lindsay (2005). The death of Ramón González: the modern agricultural dilemma. Austin:
University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-71268-5.

External links
• Norman Borlaug talk transcript, 1996 (http://www.archive.org/details/BorlaugIARI)
• The Green Revolution in the Punjab, by Vandana Shiva (http://livingheritage.org/green-revolution.htm)
• Debating Development - A historical analysis of the Sasakawa Global 2000 project in Ghana and indigenous
knowledge as an alternative approach to agricultural development, Master Thesis by Wout Gröniger (http://
igitur-archive.library.uu.nl/student-theses/2009-0910-200159/UUindex.html)
• Rockefeller Foundation: Accelerating the Green Revolution in Africa (http://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/
what-we-do/where-we-work/africa/accelerating-green-revolution-africa)
 72

Livestock

Livestock
Livestock (also cattle) refers to one or
more domesticated animals raised in an
agricultural setting to produce
commodities such as food, fiber and
labor. The term "livestock" as used in
this article does not include poultry or
farmed fish; however the inclusion of
these, especially poultry, within the
meaning of "livestock" is common.

Livestock generally are raised for

subsistence or for profit. Raising Domestic sheep and a cow (heifer) pastured together in South Africa
animals (animal husbandry) is an
important component of modern agriculture. It has been practised in many cultures since the transition to farming
from hunter-gather lifestyles.

History
Animal-rearing has its origins in the transition of cultures to settled farming communities rather than hunter-gatherer
lifestyles. Animals are ‘domesticated’ when their breeding and living conditions are controlled by humans. Over
time, the collective behaviour, life cycle, and physiology of livestock have changed radically. Many modern farm
animals are unsuited to life in the wild. Dogs were domesticated in East Asia about 15,000 years ago, Goats and
sheep were domesticated around 8000 BCE in Asia. Swine or pigs were domesticated by 7000 BCE in the Middle
East and China. The earliest evidence of horse domestication dates to around 4000 BCE[1]
Older English sources, such as the King James Version of the Bible, refer to livestock in general as "cattle", as
opposed to the word "deer", which then was used for wild animals which were not owned. The word cattle is derived
from Middle English chatel, which meant all kinds of movable personal property,[2] including of course livestock,
which was differentiated from non-movable real-estate ("real property"). In later English, sometimes smaller
livestock was called "small cattle" in that sense of movable property on land, which was not automatically bought or
sold with the land. Today, the modern meaning of "cattle", without a qualifier, usually refers to domesticated bovines
(see Cattle). Other species of the genus Bos sometimes are called wild cattle.

Types
The term "livestock" is nebulous and may be defined narrowly or broadly. On a broader view, livestock refers to any
breed or population of animal kept by humans for a useful, commercial purpose. This can mean domestic animals,
semi-domestic animals, or captive wild animals. Semi-domesticated refers to animals which are only lightly
domesticated or of disputed status. These populations may also be in the process of domestication. Some people may
use the term livestock to refer just to domestic animals or even just to red meat animals.
Livestock 73

Animal / Type Domestication Wild Ancestor Time of first Area of first Current Commercial Uses
Status Captivity / Captivity /
Domestication Domestication

Alpaca domestic Vicuña Between 5000 BC and Andes wool

Mammal, 4000 BC
herbivore

Bison captive (see also N/A Late 19th Century North America meat, leather
Mammal, Beefalo)
herbivore

Camel domestic Wild Dromedary Between 4000 BC and Asia mount, pack animal, meat, dairy,
Mammal, and Bactrian 1400 BC camel hair
herbivore camels

Cat domestic African Wildcat [3] [4] [5] Near East pest control, companionship, meat
7500 BC
Mammal, [6]
carnivore

Cattle domestic Aurochs (extinct) 6000 BC Southwest Asia, India, Meat (beef, veal, blood), dairy, leather,
Mammal, North Africa (?) draught
herbivore

Deer captive N/A 1970 North America Meat (venison), leather, antlers, antler
Mammal, velvet
herbivore

Dog domestic Wolf 12000 BC pack animal, draught, hunting,

Mammal, herding, searching/gathering,
omnivore watching/guarding, meat

Donkey domestic African Wild Ass 4000 BC Egypt mount, pack animal, draught, meat,
Mammal, dairy
herbivore

Goat domestic Bezoar goat 8000 BC Southwest Asia Dairy, meat, wool, leather, light
Mammal, draught
herbivore

Guinea pig domestic Cavia tschudii 5000 BC South America Meat

Mammal,
herbivore

Llama domestic Guanaco 3500 BC Andes light mount, pack animal, draught,
Mammal, meat, wool
herbivore

Mule domestic Sterile hybrid of mount, pack animal, draught

Mammal, donkey and horse
herbivore

Pig domestic Wild boar 7000 BC Eastern Anatolia Meat (pork, bacon, etc.), leather
Mammal,
omnivore

Rabbit domestic Wild rabbit between AD 400-900 France Meat, fur

Mammal,
herbivore

Reindeer semi-domestic reindeer 3000 BC Northern Russia Meat, leather, antlers, dairy, draught,
Mammal,
herbivore
Livestock 74

Sheep domestic Asiatic mouflon Between 9000 Southwest Asia Wool, dairy, leather, meat (mutton and
Mammal, sheep BC-11000 BC lamb)
herbivore

Domestic domestic Wild Asian Water 4000 BC South Asia mount, draught, meat, dairy
Asian Water buffalo, (Arni)
buffalo
Mammal,
herbivore

Yak domestic Wild yak Tibet, Nepal Meat, dairy, wool, mount, pack
Mammal, animal, draught
herbivore

Animal rearing
‘Livestock’ are defined, in part, by their end purpose as the
production of food, fiber and/or labor.
The economic value of livestock includes:
Meat
the production of a useful form of dietary protein and energy
Dairy products
Mammalian livestock can be used as a source of milk, which
can in turn easily be processed into other dairy products,
such as yogurt, cheese, butter, ice cream, kefir, and kumis.
Using livestock for this purpose can often yield several
times the food energy of slaughtering the animal outright.
Fiber
Livestock produce a range of fiber/textiles. For example,
sheep and goats produce wool and mohair; cows, deer, and
sheep skins can be made into leather; and bones, hooves and
horns of livestock can be used.
Fertilizer
A Brown Swiss cow in the Swiss Alps
Manure can be spread on fields to increase crop yields. This
is an important reason why historically, plant and animal
domestication have been intimately linked. Manure is also used to make plaster for walls and floors, and can
be used as a fuel for fires. The blood and bone of animals are also used as fertilizer.
Labor
Animals such as horses, donkey, and yaks can be used for mechanical energy. Prior to steam power, livestock
were the only available source of non-human labor. They are still used for this purpose in many places of the
world, including ploughing fields, transporting goods, and military functions.
Land management
The grazing of livestock is sometimes used as a way to control weeds and undergrowth. For example, in areas
prone to wild fires, goats and sheep are set to graze on dry scrub which removes combustible material and
reduces the risk of fires.
During the history of animal husbandry, many secondary products have arisen in an attempt to increase carcass
utilization and reduce waste. For example, animal offal and non-edible parts may be transformed into products such
Livestock 75

as pet food and fertilizer. In the past, such waste products were sometimes also fed to livestock as well. However,
intra-species recycling poses a disease risk, threatening animal and even human health (see bovine spongiform
encephalopathy (BSE), scrapie and prion). Due primarily to BSE (mad cow disease), feeding animal scraps to
animals has been banned in many countries, at least in regards to ruminants and pigs.

Farming practices
Farming practices vary dramatically worldwide and
between types of animals. Livestock are generally kept
in an enclosure, are fed by human-provided food and
are intentionally bred, but some livestock are not
enclosed, or are fed by access to natural foods, or are
allowed to breed freely, or any combination thereof.
Livestock raising historically was part of a nomadic or
pastoral form of material culture. The herding of
camels and reindeer in some parts of the world remains
unassociated with sedentary agriculture. The
transhumance form of herding in the Sierra Nevada
Goat family with 1-week-old young
Mountains of California still continues, as cattle, sheep
or goats are moved from winter pasture in lower
elevation valleys to spring pasture and summer pasture in the foothills and alpine regions, as the seasons progress.
Cattle were raised on the open range in the Western United States and Canada, on the Pampas of Argentina, and
other prairie and steppe regions of the world.

The enclosure of livestock in pastures and barns is a relatively new development in the history of agriculture. When
cattle are enclosed, the type of ‘enclosure’ may vary from a small crate, a large fenced pasture or a paddock. The type
of feed may vary from natural growing grass, to highly sophisticated processed feed. Animals are usually
intentionally bred through artificial insemination or through supervised mating. Indoor production systems are
generally used only for pigs and poultry, as well as for veal cattle. Indoor animals are generally farmed intensively,
as large space requirements would make indoor farming unprofitable and impossible. However, indoor farming
systems are controversial due to the waste they produce, odour problems, the potential for groundwater
contamination and animal welfare concerns. (For further discussion on intensively farmed livestock, see factory
farming, and intensive pig farming).
Other livestock are farmed outside, although the size of enclosure and level of supervision may vary. In large open
ranges animals may be only occasionally inspected or yarded in "round-ups" or a muster (livestock). Working dogs
such as sheep dogs and cattle dogs may be used for mustering livestock as are cowboys, stockmen and jackaroos on
horses, or with vehicles and also by helicopters. Since the advent of barbed wire (in the 1870s) and electric fence
technology, fencing pastures has become much more feasible and pasture management simplified. Rotation of
pasturage is a modern technique for improving nutrition and health while avoiding environmental damage to the
land. In some cases very large numbers of animals may be kept in indoor or outdoor feeding operations (on feedlots),
where the animals' feed is processed, offsite or onsite, and stored on site then fed to the animals.
Livestock - especially cattle - may be branded to indicate ownership and age, but in modern farming identification is
more likely to be indicated by means of ear tags than branding. Sheep are also frequently marked by means of ear
marks and/or ear tags. As fears of mad cow disease and other epidemic illnesses mount, the use of microchip
identification to monitor and trace animals in the food production system is increasingly common, and sometimes
required by governmental regulations.
Livestock 76

Modern farming techniques seek to minimize human involvement, increase yield, and improve animal health.
Economics, quality and consumer safety all play a role in how animals are raised. Drug use and feed supplements (or
even feed type) may be regulated, or prohibited, to ensure yield is not increased at the expense of consumer health,
safety or animal welfare. Practices vary around the world, for example growth hormone use is permitted in the
United States, but not in stock to be sold to the European Union. The improvement of health, using modern farming
techniques, on the part of animals has come into question. Feeding corn to cattle, which have historically eaten
grasses, is an example; where the cattle are less adapted, the rumen pH changes to more acidic, leading to liver
damage and other difficulties. The US F.D.A. still allows feedlots to feed nonruminant animal proteins to cattle. For
example, feeding chicken manure and poultry meal is acceptable for cattle, and beef or pork meat and bone meal is
being fed to chickens.

Predation
Livestock farmers had suffered from wild animal predation and theft by rustlers. In North America, gray wolf,
grizzly bear, cougar, black bear, and coyote are sometimes considered a threat to livestock. In Eurasia and Africa,
wolf, brown bear, leopard, tiger, lion, dhole, black bear, spotted hyena, and others caused livestock deaths. In
Australia, the dingo, foxes, wedge-tailed eagles, hunting and domestic dogs (especially) cause problems for graziers
because they often kill for fun.[7] [8] In Latin America, feral dogs cause livestock deaths in nightfall.

Disease
Livestock diseases compromise animal welfare, reduce productivity, and can infect humans. Animal diseases may be
tolerated, reduced through animal husbandry, or reduced through antibiotics and vaccines. In developing countries,
animal diseases are tolerated in animal husbandry, resulting in considerably reduced productivity, especially given
the low health-status of many developing country herds. Disease management for gains in productivity is often the
first step taken in implementing an agriculture policy.
Disease management can be achieved through changes in animal husbandry. These measures may aim to control
spread using biosecurity measures, such as controlling animal mixing, controlling entry to farm lots and the use of
protective clothing, and quarantining sick animals. Diseases also may be controlled by the use of vaccines and
antibiotics. Antibiotics in sub-therapeutic doses may also be used as a growth-promoter, increasing growth by
10-15%.[9] The issue of antibiotic resistance has limited the practices of preventative dosing such as antibiotic-laced
feed. Countries will often require the use of veterinary certificates before transporting, selling or showing animals.
Disease-free areas often rigorously enforce rules for entry of potentially diseased animals, including quarantine.
Livestock 77

Transportation and marketing

Since many livestock are herd animals, they were
historically driven to market "on the hoof" to a town or
other central location. During the period after the
American Civil War, the abundance of Longhorn cattle
in Texas, and the demand for beef in Northern markets,
led to the implementation of the Old West cattle drive.
The method is still used in some parts of the world.
Truck transport is now common in developed countries.
Local and regional livestock auctions and commodity
markets facilitate trade in livestock. In other areas,
livestock may be bought and sold in a bazaar, such as
may be found in many parts of Central Asia, or a flea
market type setting. Grass-fed cattle, saleyards, Walcha, NSW

Stock shows and fairs are events where people bring their best livestock to compete with one another. Organizations
like 4-H, Block & Bridle, and FFA encourage young people to raise livestock for show purposes. Special feeds are
purchased and hours may be spent prior to the show grooming the animal to look its best. In cattle, sheep, and swine
shows, the winning animals are frequently auctioned off to the highest bidder, and the funds are placed into a
scholarship fund for its owner. The movie Grand Champion, released in 2004, is the story of a young Texas boy's
experience raising a prize steer.

Animal welfare
The issue of raising livestock for human benefit raises
the issue of the relationship between humans and
animals, in terms of the status of animals and
obligations of people. Animal welfare is the viewpoint
that animals under human care should be treated in
such a way that they do not suffer unnecessarily. What
is ‘unnecessary’ suffering may vary. Generally, though,
the animal welfare perspective is based on an
interpretation of scientific research on farming
practices. By contrast, animal rights is the viewpoint
that using animals for human benefit is, by its nature,
generally exploitation, regardless of the farming
A shepherd boy in India. Livestock are extremely important to the
practices used. Animal rights activists would generally
livelihoods of rural smallholder farmers, particularly in the
be vegan or vegetarian, whereas it is consistent with the developing world.
animal welfare perspective to eat meat, depending on
production processes.

Animal welfare groups generally seek to generate public discussion on livestock raising practices and secure greater
regulation and scrutiny of livestock industry practices. Animal rights groups usually seek the abolition of livestock
farming, although some groups may recognise the necessity of achieving more stringent regulation first. Animal
welfare groups, such as the RSPCA, are often, in first world countries, given a voice at governmental level in the
development of policy. Animal rights groups find it harder to find methods of input, and may go further and
advocate civil disobedience or violence.
Livestock 78

A number of animal husbandry practices have been the subject of campaigns in the 1990s and 2000s and have led to
legislation in some countries. Confinement of livestock in small and unnatural spaces is often done for economic or
health reasons. Animals may be kept in the minimum size of cage or pen with little or no space to exercise. Where
livestock are used as a source of power, they may be pushed beyond their limits to the point of exhaustion. The
public visibility of this abuse meant it was one of the first areas to receive legislation in the nineteenth century in
European countries, but it still goes on in parts of Asia. Broiler hens may be de-beaked, pigs may have deciduous
teeth pulled, cattle may be de-horned and branded, dairy cows and sheep may have tails cropped, merino sheep may
be mulesed, and many types of male animals are castrated. Animals may be transported long distances to market and
slaughter. Overcrowded conditions, heat from tropical-area shipping and lack of food, water and rest breaks have
been subject to legislation and protest. (See Live Export) Slaughter of livestock was an early target for legislation.
Campaigns continue to target Halal and Kosher religious ritual slaughter.

Environmental impact
At first reports like the United Nations report "Livestock's Long Shadow" cast a pall over the livestock sector
(primarily cattle, chickens, and pigs) for 'emerging as one of the top two or three most significant contributors to our
most serious environmental problems.' The United Nations controversially included emissions from deforestation as
part of its methodology. Rather than the 18% figure that placed on the sector as major contributor to emissions, the
real figure, less deforestation is actually 12%. In April 2008, the [United States Environmental Protection Agency]
released a major stocktake of emissions in the United States entitled Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions
and Sinks: 1990-2006 [10]. On 6.1 it found "In 2006, the agricultural sector was responsible for emissions of 454.1
teragrams of CO2 equivalent (Tg CO2 Eq.), or 6 percent of total U.S. greenhouse gas emissions." By way of
comparison, transportation in the US produces more than 25% of all emissions.
The issue of livestock as a major policy focus remains, especially when dealing with problems of deforestation in
neotropical areas, land degradation, climate change and air pollution, water shortage and water pollution, and loss of
biodiversity. A research team at Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine in Hokkaidō found that
supplementing the animals' diet with cysteine, a type of amino acid, and nitrate can reduce the methane gas
produced, without jeopardising the cattle's productivity or the quality of their meat and milk. [11]
Researchers in Australia are looking into the possibility of reducing methane from cattle and sheep by introducing
digestive bacteria from kangaroo intestines into livestock.[12]
Research from the University of Botswana in 2008 has found that farmers' common practice of overstocking cattle to
cope with drought losses made ecosystems more vulnerable and risked long term damage to cattle herds, in turn, by
actually depleting scarce biomass. The study of the Kgatleng district of Botswana predicted that by 2050, the cycle
of mild drought is likely to become shorter for the region (18 months instead of two years) due to climate change.
[13]

Legal definitions
United States federal legislation sometimes more narrowly defines the term to make specified agricultural
commodities either eligible, or ineligible, for a program or activity. For example, the Livestock Mandatory Reporting
Act of 1999 (P.L. 106-78, Title IX) defines livestock only as cattle, swine, and lambs. However, 1988 disaster
assistance legislation defined the term as “cattle, sheep, goats, swine, poultry (including egg-producing poultry),
equine animals used for food or in the production of food, fish used for food, and other animals designated by the
Secretary.”[14]
Livestock 79

References
[1] "Breeds of Livestock" (http:/ / www. ansi. okstate. edu/ breeds/ ). Department of Animal Science - Oklahoma State University. . Retrieved
2009-09-30.
[2] http:/ / dictionary. reference. com/ browse/ chattel Origin of chattel, accessed August 15, 2009
[3] (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2004/ 04/ 0408_040408_oldestpetcat. html), domestication of the cat on Cyprus, National
Geographic.
[4] "Oldest Known Pet Cat? 9500-Year-Old Burial Found on Cyprus" (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2004/ 04/
0408_040408_oldestpetcat. html). National Geographic News. 2004-04-08. . Retrieved 2007-03-06.
[5] Muir, Hazel (2004-04-08). "Ancient remains could be oldest pet cat" (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/ dn4867. html). New Scientist. .
Retrieved 2007-11-23.
[6] Walton, Marsha (April 9, 2004). "Ancient burial looks like human and pet cat" (http:/ / edition. cnn. com/ 2004/ TECH/ science/ 04/ 08/ cats.
cyprus/ index. html). CNN. . Retrieved 2007-11-23.
[7] Northern Daily Leader, 20 May 2010, Dogs mauled 30 sheep (and killed them), p.3, Rural Press
[8] The Times: Dogs seized for killing sheep (http:/ / www. victorharbortimes. com. au/ news/ local/ news/ general/
dogs-seized-for-killing-sheep/ 1619896. aspx) Retrieved 2010-6-2
[9] Encyclopaedia Britannica - Basic nutrients and additives » Antibiotics and other growth stimulants (http:/ / www. britannica. com/
EBchecked/ topic/ 203664/ feed/ 67871/ Antibiotics-and-other-growth-stimulants)
[10] http:/ / www. epa. gov/ climatechange/ emissions/ usinventoryreport. html
[11] http:/ / www. smh. com. au/ news/ unusual-tales/ global-warming-breakthrough-way-to-stop-cow-gas/ 2008/ 01/ 22/ 1200764221842. html
[12] Australian researchers looking for kangaroo bacteria to modify livestock (http:/ / www. news. com. au/ couriermail/ story/
0,23739,22880187-5013016,00. html)
[13] http:/ / www. scidev. net/ en/ sub-suharan-africa/ news/ sub-saharan-africa-news-in-brief-10-22-april-2008. html
[14] CRS Report for Congress: Agriculture: A Glossary of Terms, Programs, and Laws, 2005 Edition - Order Code 97-905 (http:/ / ncseonline.
org/ nle/ crsreports/ 05jun/ 97-905. pdf)

External links
• Livestock (http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/livestock) - New South Wales Government
• Havana Livestock Fair (Photo Feature) (http://www.havanatimes.org/?p=31372) - Havana Times, October 19,
2010
Breed 80

Breed
A breed is a group of domestic animals or plants with a homogeneous appearance, behavior, and other
characteristics that distinguish it from other animals of the same species. When bred together, animals of the same
breed pass on these uniform traits to their offspring, and this ability—known as "breeding true"—is a definitive
requirement for a breed. Plant breeds are more commonly known as cultivars. The offspring produced as a result of
breeding animals of one breed with other animals of another breed are known as crossbreeds or mixed breeds.
Crosses between animal or plant variants above the level of breed/cultivar (species, subspecies, botanical variety,
even different genera) are referred to as hybrids.[1] . Breeds are usually not classified scientifically; instead being
grouped by breeders according to similar characteristics.

Breeders
The breeder or breeders who initially establish a breed, do so by selecting individual animals from within the groups
gene pool that they see as having the necessary qualities needed to enhance the breed model they are aiming for.
These animals are referred to as “breed foundation”, or “breed origination”. Further, the breeder mates the most
desirable from his point of view representatives, aiming to pass such characteristics to their progeny. This process is
known as selective breeding. A written description of desirable and undesirable breed representatives is referred to as
a breed standard.

Breed characteristics
Breed specific characteristics also known as breed traits are inherited, and purebred animals pass such traits from
generation to generation. Thus, all specimens of the same breed carry several genetic characteristics of the original
foundation animal(s). In order to maintain the breed, a breeder would select those animals with the most desirable
traits, to achieve further maintenance and developing of such traits. At the same time, avoiding animals carrying
characteristics, not typical and/or undesirable for the breed, known as faults or genetic defects. The population within
the same breed consists of a sufficient number of animals to maintain the breed within the specified parameters
without the necessity of forced inbreeding. The breed includes several bloodlines that can be interbred to sustain the
breed in whole without weakening the gene pool.
Domestic animal breeds commonly differ from country to country, and from nation to nation. Breeds originating in a
certain country are known as "native breeds" of that country.

Domestic animal breeds

Mammals Birds
• List of pig breeds • List of chicken breeds
• List of dog breeds • List of pigeon breeds
• List of cat breeds • List of goose breeds
• List of horse breeds • List of duck breeds
• List of rabbit breeds • List of turkey breeds
• List of sheep breeds
• List of goat breeds
• List of breeds of cattle
• List of domestic pig breeds
• Guinea pig breeds
• List of domestic Asian water buffalo breeds
Breed 81

References
[1] Banga, Surinder S. (November 25, 1998). Hybrid Cultivar Development, p. 119. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 3540635238
 82

Crops

Crop
A crop is a non-animal species or variety that is
grown to be harvested as food, livestock fodder,
fuel or for any other economic purpose. Major
world crops include maize (corn), wheat, rice,
soybeans, hay, potatoes and cotton. While the
term "crop" most commonly refers to plants, it
can also include species from other biological
kingdoms. For example, mushrooms like
shiitake, which are in the fungi kingdom, can be
Domesticated plants
referred to as crops. In addition, certain species
of algae are also cultivated, although it is also
harvested from the wild. In contrast, animal
species that are raised by humans are called
livestock, except those that are kept as pets.
Microbial species, such as bacteria or viruses,
are referred to as cultures. Microbes are not
typically grown for food, but are rather used to
alter food. For example, bacteria is used to
ferment milk to produce yogurt.

Crops drying in a home in Punjab, India.

Cultivar 83

Cultivar
A cultivar is a cultivated variety of a plant that has been deliberately
selected for specific desirable characteristics (such as the colour and
form of the flower, yield of the crop, disease resistance, etc.). When
propagated correctly, the plants of a particular cultivar retain their
special characteristics.
The naming of cultivars is an important aspect of cultivated plant
taxonomy, and the correct naming of a cultivar is prescribed by the
Rules and Recommendations of the International Code of
Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants (the ICNCP, commonly known as Osteospermum 'Pink Whirls' a cultivar selected
the Cultivated Plant Code). A cultivar is given a cultivar name, which for its intriguing and colourful flowers
is a Latin botanical name followed by a cultivar epithet, mostly in a
vernacular language. For example, the full cultivar name of the King Edward potato is Solanum tuberosum 'King
Edward'. The 'King Edward' part of the name is the cultivar epithet which, according to the Rules of the Cultivated
Plant Code, is bounded by single quotation marks.[1]

Cultivars make up a major part of Liberty Hyde Bailey's broader grouping, the cultigen,[2] which is defined as a plant
whose origin or selection is primarily due to intentional human activity.[3] The word cultivar was coined by Liberty
Hyde Bailey and it is generally regarded as a portmanteau of "cultivated" and "variety", but could also be derived
from "cultigen" and "variety".
A cultivar is not the same as a botanical variety,[4] and there are differences in the rules for the formation and use of
the names of botanical varieties and cultivars. In recent times the naming of cultivars has been complicated by the
use of statutary Plant Patents and Plant Breeders' Rights.[5]

Origin of term
By scientific convention (the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature), the starting point for modern botanical
nomenclature is taken to be those names that appeared in Linnaeus's publications Species Plantarum (edn 10) and
Genera Plantarum (edn 5). In Species Plantarum, Linnaeus listed all the plants known to him, either directly or from
his extensive reading. Linnaeus recognized the rank of varietas (in English this is the botanical "variety", a rank
below that of species and subspecies) and he indicated these varieties by using letters of the Greek alphabet such as
α, β, λ etc. (rather than the abbreviation var., which is the current convention). Most of Linnaeus's varieties were of
“garden” origin rather than being wild plants.[6] Over time the need increased to distinguish between plants growing
in the wild, and those with variations that had been produced in cultivation, a distinction that dates back to
Theophrastus (370–285 BCE), the "Father of Botany" and head of the Peripatetic School of Philosophy at the
Lyceum in Athens, who was keenly aware of this difference. Theophrastus, in his Enquiry into Plants, "had an
inkling of the limits of culturally induced (phenotypic) changes and of the importance of genetic constitution"
(Historia Plantarum III, 2,2 and Causa Plantarum I, 9,3).[7]
In the nineteenth century many of these "garden-derived" plants were given horticultural names, sometimes in Latin.
From about the 1900s plants produced in cultivation in Europe were recognised in the Scandinavian, Germanic and
Slavic literature through the words stamm or sorte[8] but these words could not be used internationally since, by
international agreement, any new terms had to be based in Latin.[9] Eventually, in the twentieth century, an improved
international terminology was proposed for the classification and nomenclature of cultivated plants.[10]
In 1923 the word cultivar was coined by Liberty Hyde Bailey of the Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium, Cornell
University, New York State, when he wrote:
Cultivar 84

“ The cultigen is a species, or its equivalent, that has appeared under domestication – the plant is cultigenous. I now propose another name,

”
cultivar, for a botanical variety, or for a race subordinate to species, that has originated under cultivation; it is not necessarily, however,
referable to a recognized botanical species. It is essentially the equivalent of the botanical variety except in respect to its origin.
[11]

In this paper Bailey used only the rank of species for the cultigen but it was clear to him that many domesticated
plants were more like botanical varieties than species, and that appears to have motivated the suggestion of the new
classification category cultivar, which is generally assumed to be a contraction of the words cultivated and variety.
However, Bailey was never explicit about the etymology of the word cultivar and it has been suggested that it is a
contraction of the words cultigen and variety, which seems more appropriate.[12]
The new word cultivar was promoted as ... euphonious. It is free from ambiguity. It serves a purpose.[13] [14] Its use
was subsequently recommended by the first Cultivated Plant Code, which was published in 1953, and by 1960 it had
achieved wide international acceptance.[15]

Cultigens and cultivars

The terms cultigen and cultivar may be confused with each other. Cultigen is a general-purpose term for plants that
have been deliberately altered or specially selected by humans, while cultivar is a formal classification category.
Cultigens include not only plants with cultivar names but also those with names in the classification categories of
grex and Group. The Cultivated Plant Code points out that cultigens are: deliberately selected plants that may have
arisen by intentional or accidental hybridization in cultivation, by selection from existing cultivated stocks, or from
variants within wild populations that are maintained as recognizable entities solely by continued propagation.[16]
Included within the group of plants known as cultigens are genetically modified plants, plants with binomial Latin
names that are the result of ancient human selection, and any plants that have been altered by humans but which have
not been given formal names.[17] Nevertheless, almost all cultigens are cultivars.[18]

Formal definition
The Cultivated Plant Code points out that the word cultivar is used in two different senses. As a classification
category the cultivar is defined in Article 2 of the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants (2009,
8th edition) as follows: The basic category of cultivated plants whose nomenclature is governed by this Code is the
cultivar.[19] There are two other classification categories, the grex[20] and the Group.[21]
The Code then defines a cultivar in the sense of a taxonomic unit within the classification category of cultivar. This
is the sense of cultivar that is most generally understood and which is used as a general definition.

“ A cultivar is an assemblage of plants that (a) has been selected for a particular character or combination of characters, (b) is distinct,
uniform and stable in those characters, and (c) when propagated by appropriate means, retains those characters.
[22]
”
Cultivar 85

Different kinds of cultivar

What constitutes a cultivar is driven by pragmatism, as the category
was created to serve the practical needs of horticulture, agriculture and
forestry.
Cultivars may arise by deliberate or accidental breeding, they may be
variants selected from plants grown in cultivation, or they may be
special selections from plants growing naturally in the wild.
Members of a particular cultivar are not necessarily genetically
identical. The Cultivated Plant Code emphasizes that different
A cultivar of the orchid genus Oncidium cultivated plants may be accepted as different cultivars, even if they
have the same genome, while cultivated plants with different genomes
may be regarded as the same cultivar. The production of cultivars generally entails considerable human involvement
although in a few cases it may be as little as simply selecting variation from plants growing in the wild (whether by
collecting growing tissue to propagate from or by gathering seed).[23]

Cultivars generally occur as garden and food crops: Malus 'Granny Smith' and Malus 'Red Delicious' are cultivars of
apples propagated by cuttings or grafting, Lactuca 'Red Sails' and Lactuca 'Great Lakes' are lettuce cultivars
propagated by seeds. Named cultivars of Hosta and Hemerocallis plants are cultivars produced by micropropagation
or division.

Clones
Cultivars that are produced asexually are genetically identical and
known as clones. Included here are plants propagated by division,
cuttings, grafts, and budding. The propagating material may be taken
from a particular part of the plant, for example a lateral branch, or from
a particular phase of the life cycle, say a juvenile leaf, or from aberrant
growth as occurs with witches brooms. Plants whose distinctive
characters are derived from the presence of an intracellular organism
may also form a cultivar provided the characters are reproduced
Leucospermum 'Scarlet Ribbon'a cross performed
reliably from generation to generation. Plants of the same chimaera
in Tasmania between Leucospermum glabrumL.
(which have mutant tissues close to normal tissue) or graft-chimaeras glabrum and Leucospermum tottumL. tottum
(which have vegetative tissue from different kinds of plants and which
originate by grafting) may also form a cultivar.[24]

Seed-produced
Seed-raised cultivars can be produced by uncontrolled pollination provided the cultivar can be distinguished by one
or more characters that are distinct, uniform and stable under propagation. They may be produced as “lines” that are
produced by repeated self-fertilization or inbreeding or “multilines” that are made up of several closely related lines.
Sometimes they are F1 hybrids which are the result of a deliberate repeatable single cross between two pure lines.
There are a few F2 hybrid seed cultivars too (such as Achillea 'Summer Berries').
Cultivars may also arise as a result of a change in ploidy level of a plant and agamospermous plants that retain their
genetic composition and characteristics under reproduction may form cultivars.[25] Occasionally cultivars are raised
from seed of a specially selected provenance – for example the seed may be taken from plants that are disease
resistant.[26]
Cultivar 86

Genetically modified
Genetically modified plants with characters resulting from the deliberate implantation of genetic material from a
different germplasm may form a cultivar.[27]

Cultivar names
Cultivars are identified by uniquely distinguishing names. Names of cultivars are regulated by the International
Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants, are registered with an International Cultivar Registration Authority
(ICRA) and conform to the rules of the ISHS International Society for Horticultural Science (ISIS) Commission for
Nomenclature and Cultivar Registration. There are separate registration authorities for different plant-groups. In
addition, cultivars may get a trademark name, protected by law (see Trade designations and "selling names", below).

Presenting in text
A cultivar name consists of a botanical name (of a genus, species,
infraspecific taxon, interspecific hybrid or intergeneric hybrid) followed by a
cultivar epithet. The cultivar epithet is capitalised and put between single
quotes: preferably it should not be italicized.[28] Cultivar epithets published
before 1 January 1959 were often given a Latin form and can be readily
confused with the specific epithets in botanical names: after that date, newly
coined cultivar epithets must be in a modern vernacular language to
distinguish them from botanical epithets.[29]

Cryptomeria japonica 'Elegans'

Chamaecyparis lawsoniana 'Aureomarginata' (pre-1959 name, Latin in
form)
Chamaecyparis lawsoniana 'Golden Wonder' (post-1959 name, English
language) Viola 'Clear Crystals Apricot'The
Pinus densiflora 'Akebono' (post-1959 name, Japanese language) specific epithet may be omitted from a
cultivar name
Some incorrect examples:
Cryptomeria japonica "Elegans" (double quotes are unacceptable)
Berberis thunbergii cv. 'Crimson Pygmy' (this once-common usage is now unacceptable, as it is no
longer correct to use "cv." in this context; Berberis thunbergii 'Crimson Pygmy' is correct)
Rosa cv. 'Peace' (this is now incorrect for two reasons: firstly, the use of "cv."; secondly, "Peace" is a
trade designation or "selling name" for the cultivar R. 'Madame A. Meilland' and should therefore be
printed in a different typeface from the rest of the name, without any quote marks, for example: Rosa
Peace.)
Cultivar 87

Group names
Where several very similar cultivars exist, these are termed Groups; the name is in normal type and capitalised as in
a single cultivar, but not in single quotes, and followed by "Group" (or its equivalent in other languages).[30]

Presenting in text
Brassica oleracea Capitata Group (the group of cultivars including all typical cabbages)
Brassica oleracea Botrytis Group (the group of cultivars including all typical cauliflowers)
Hydrangea macrophylla Groupe Hortensis (in French) = Hydrangea macrophylla Hortensia Group (in
English)
Where cited with a cultivar name the Group should be enclosed in parentheses, as follows:
Hydrangea macrophylla (Hortensia Group) 'Ayesha' [31]
Some cultivars and cultivar Groups are so well "fixed" or established that they "come true from seed", meaning that
the plants from a seed sowing (rather than vegetatively propagated) will show very little variation. In the past, such
plants were often called by the terms "variety", "selection" or "strain"; these terms (particularly "variety", which has
a very different botanical meaning) are best avoided with cultivated plants. Normally, however, plants grown from
seed taken from a cultivar can be very variable and such seeds or seedling plants should never be labelled with, or
sold under, the parent cultivar's name (see [32] an article by Tony Lord of The RHS Plant Finder).

International Cultivar Registration Authorities

An International Cultivar Registration Authority (ICRA) is a voluntary, non-statutory organization appointed by the
ISHS’s Commission for Nomenclature and Cultivar Registration. The members of the system come mostly from
societies and institutions specializing in particular plant genera such as Dahlia or Rhododendron and are currently
located in Europe, North America, China, India, Singapore, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and Puerto
Rico.[33]
Annual reports are produced by each ICRA and reappointment is considered every four years. Each ICRA maintains
the names for the cultivars in its interest group registers of the names within th group are maintained and published
periodically. One major aim is to prevent duplicated uses of cultivar and Group epithets within a genus, as well as
ensuring that names are in accord with the latest edition of the Cultivated Plant Code. This is a way of regulating
cultivated plant nomenclature; over the 50 years or so that ICRAs have existed they have contributed significantly to
the stability and fixity of cultivated plant nomenclature. In recent times many ICRAs have also recorded trade
designations and trademarks used in labelling plant material, to avoid confusion with established names.
New names and other relevant data are collected by and submitted to the ICRA and in most cases there is no cost.
The ICRA then checks each new epithet to ensure that it has not been used before and that it is in accord with the
Cultivated Plant Code. Each ICRA also ensures that new names are formally established (i.e. published in hard copy,
with a description in a dated publication). They also record details about the plant, such as parentage, the names of
those concerned with its development and introduction, together with a basic description highlighting its distinctive
characters. ICRAs are not responsible for assessing the distinctiveness of the plant in question.
Most ICRAs can be contacted electronically and many maintain excellent web sites: for an up-to-date listing see here
[34]
.
Cultivar 88

Trade designations and "selling names"

Cultivars that are still being developed and not yet ready for release to retail sale are often coded with letters and/or
numbers before being assigned a name. It is common for this code name to be quoted alongside the new cultivar
name or trade designation when the plant is made available commercially (for example Rosa Fascination =
'Poulmax') and this may continue, in books or magazines and on plant labels, for several years after the plant was
released. Because a name that is attractive in one language may have less appeal in another country, a plant may be
given different selling names from country to country. Quoting the original code name allows the correct
identification of cultivars around the world and helps to avoid the once-common situation where the same plant
might, confusingly, be sold under several different names in one country, having been imported under different
aliases.
Another form of what the Cultivated Plant Code (ICNCP) calls a trade designation is the plant "variety", as defined
in the UPOV Convention (not to be confused with the botanical rank of variety).

Legal protection
Cultivars are not legally protected, as such. The status as cultivar deals only with the name it should be given (under
the ICNCP), and has no legal dimension. However, a cultivar is not prevented from being legally protected; in as far
as it is possible to legally protect particular kinds of plants, this can be done whether they also enjoy recognition as a
cultivar or not.
Legal protection may help to encourage the development of new useful cultivars; "protected cultivars" are the result
of deliberate breeding programs and selection activity by nurseries and plant breeders, and are often the result of
years of work.[35] "Plant patents" and "plant breeder's rights" (which can be expensive to obtain) are means for the
breeder or inventor to obtain financial reward for their work.[36]
With plants produced by genetic engineering becoming more widely used, the companies producing these plants (or
plants produced by traditional means) often claim a patent on their product. Plants so controlled retain certain rights
that accrue not to the grower, but to the firm or agency that engineered the variety.
Such plants are often labeled "PBR", which stands for "plant breeders' rights", or "PVR", which stands for "plant
variety rights." It is illegal in countries that obey international law to harvest seeds from a patented "variety" or
cultivar except for personal use. Other means of legal protection include the use of trade marked names whereby the
name the plant is sold under is trademarked, but the plant itself is not protected. Trademarking a name is inexpensive
and fairly simple, while patents can take a few years to be granted and be more expensive. Some previously named
cultivars have been renamed and sold under trademarked names.
In horticulture, plants that are patented or trademarked are often licensed to large wholesalers who multiply and
distribute the plants to retailers. The wholesalers pay a fee to the patent or trademark holders for each plant sold; the
patented plants are labeled with "It is unlawful to propagate this plant" or a similar phrase. Typically the license
agreement specifies that a plant must be sold with a tag marked in this way to help ensure that no illegally produced
plants are sold.
The use of plant patents (particularly for food crops that are staples in developing countries,[37] or for plants selected
from the wild and propagated for sale without any additional breeding work) is considered unethical by some
people.[38]
Cultivar 89

Propagation of cultivars in gardens

Some cultivars sexually reproduce within the garden and the distinct cultivar
characters disappear, especially those that originated from hybridization, the
resulting offspring are no longer the same cultivar.[39]
Cultivars that are propagated by asexual means (such as division, cuttings or
micropropagation) generally do not "come true" from seed. Plants raised from
seed saved from these plants should never be called by the cultivar name.
Seeds collected from seed-raised cultivars may or may not "come true" when
sown. Cross-pollination with other plants in the garden or from the
surrounding area could occur that could contaminate the seed line and
produce different plants in the next generation. Even if a seed-raised cultivar
is grown in isolation, its seedlings can alter as different combinations of
Pavlovo lemon is a lemon cultivar grown
recessive genes are expressed, so good breeders maintain the seed lines by
in Russia as a houseplant; it is celebrated
weeding out atypical plants before they can pass on their genes (or pathogens) by a monument in its hometown
to the next generation and affect the cultivar line.[40] Nevertheless, each new
generation may still differ imperceptibly in their flower colour, habit or other characteristics from the previous one,
resulting in a gradual drift away from the original cultivar. It may therefore be necessary to re-select the best
seedlings in order to get back, as nearly as possible, to the original cultivar: these selections are often listed by seed
suppliers as "Improved" (e.g. Myosotis sylvatica 'Royal Blue Improved', Lobelia 'Mrs Clibran Improved').[41]

See also
• Variety (plant)

Notes
[1] Cultivated Plant Code Article 14.1 Brickell 2009, p. 19
[2] Bailey 1923, p. 113
[3] Spencer & Cross 2007, p. 938
[4] Lawrence 1953, pp. 19–20
[5] See (http:/ / www. hort. purdue. edu/ hort/ courses/ HORT217/ Nomenclature/ description. htm) Retrieved: 2010-1-7.
[6] Lawrence 1955, p. 177
[7] Morton 1981, pp. 38–39
[8] Lawrence 1955, p. 180
[9] Lawrence 1955, p. 181
[10] Lawrence 1955, pp. 179–180
[11] Bailey 1923, p. 113
[12] Trehane 2004, p. 17
[13] Lawrence 1955, p. 180
[14] This ignored its prior existence as a transitive verb in Spanish, meaning to farm, to cultivate, to grow, or to practice. Online Spanish
dictionary (http:/ / www. spanishdict. com/ translate/ cultivar) Retrieved 2010-8-6, and in Portuguese meaning to cultivate, to husband, to
farm, to plant, to polish, to reclaim, to improve. Ectaco online Portuguese dictionary (http:/ / online. ectaco. co. uk/ main.
jsp;jsessionid=bc304a778686293e1e2f?do=e-services-dictionaries-word_translate1& direction=2& status=translate& lang1=23& lang2=pt&
source=cultivar) Retrieved 2010-8-6.
[15] Lawrence 1960, p. 1
[16] Cultivated Plant Code Art. 2.3 Brickell 2009, p. 1
[17] Spencer, Cross & Lumley 2007, p. 47
[18] Spencer, Cross & Lumley 2007, p. 53
[19] Cultivated Plant Code. Art. 2.1 Brickell 2009, p. 6
[20] Cultivated Plant Code. Art. 4 Brickell 2009, p. 12
[21] Cultivated Plant Code. Art. 3 Brickell 2009, pp. 10–12
[22] Cultivated Plant Code. Art. 2.2 Brickell 2009, p. 6
Cultivar 90

[23] Cultivated Plant Code, Article 2.20 Brickell 2009, p. 9

[24] Cultivated Plant Code, Articles 2.5–2.11 Brickell 2009, pp. 6–7
[25] Cultivated Plant Code, Articles 2.17–2.18 Brickell 2009, pp. 7–8
[26] Cultivated Plant Code, Articles 2.12–2.16 Brickell 2009, pp. 7–8
[27] Cultivated Plant Code, Articles 2.19 Brickell 2009, pp. 8–9
[28] Lawrence 1957, pp. 162–165
[29] Cultivated Plant Code Art. 14 Brickell 2009, p. 19
[30] Cultivated Plant Code Art. 3 Brickell 2009, pp. 10–12
[31] Cultivated Plant Code Art. 15 Brickell 2009, p. 19
[32] http:/ / www. rhs. org. uk/ learning/ publications/ plantsman/ 0605/ opinion. asp
[33] Cultivated Plant Code Brickell 2009, pp. 62, 67–83
[34] http:/ / www. ishs. org/ sci/ icra. htm
[35] BSPB Plant breeding - The business and science of crop improvement (http:/ / www. bspb. co. uk/ BSPB Handbook. pdf) British Society of
Plant Breeders booklet
[36] P. Gepts (2004) Who Owns Biodiversity, and How Should the Owners Be Compensated? Plant Physiology 134, 1295-1307
[37] Adi, A.B.C., Intellectual Property Rights in Biotechnology and the Fate of Poor Farmers' Agriculture. Social Science Research Network
(http:/ / papers. ssrn. com/ sol3/ papers. cfm?abstract_id=647863) accessed 5 January 2010
[38] 'Who owns nature?' (http:/ / www. callygardens. co. uk/ pbr_article. html) (article by nurseryman and plant hunter Michael Wickenden,
published in The Plantsman)
[39] http:/ / www. ext. colostate. edu/ Pubs/ Garden/ 07602. html
[40] Oregonstate.edu (http:/ / oregonstate. edu/ potatoes/ ROGUING. pdf)
[41] Jellito.com (>Breeding) (https:/ / www. jelitto. com/ haupt_en. html)Commercial seed company's website, accessed 5 January 2010

Footnotes

References
• Bailey, Liberty Hyde (1923). "Various cultigens, and transfers in nomenclature". Gentes Herbarum 1: 113–136.
• Brickell, Chris D. et al. (eds) (2009). "International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP or
Cultivated Plant Code) incorporating the Rules and Recommendations for naming plants in cultivation. 8th edn,
adopted by the International Union of Biological Sciences International Commission for the Nomenclature of
Cultivated Plants". Scripta Horticulturae (International Society of Horticultural Science) 10: 1–184.
ISBN 9780643094406.
• Lawrence, George H.M. (1953). "Cultivar, Distinguished from Variety". Baileya 1: 19–20.
• Lawrence, George H.M. (1955). "The Term and Category of Cultivar". Baileya 3: 177–181.
• Lawrence, George H.M. (1957). "The Designation of Cultivar-names". Baileya 5: 162–165.
• Lawrence, George H.M. (1960). "Notes on Cultivar Names". Baileya 8: 1–4.
• Morton, Alan G. (1981). History of Botanical Science: An Account of the Development of Botany from Ancient
Times to the Present Day. London: Academic Press. ISBN 0125083823.
• Spencer, Roger; Cross, Robert; Lumley, Peter (2007). Plant names: a guide to botanical nomenclature. (3rd edn).
Collingwood, Australia: CSIRO Publishing (also Earthscan, UK.). ISBN 9780643094406..
• Spencer, Roger D.; Cross, Robert G. (2007). "The Cultigen". Taxon 56 (3): 938.
• Trehane, Piers (2004). "50 years of the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants". Acta
Horticulturae 634: 17–27.
Cultivar 91

External links
• Sale point of the Latest Edition (February 2004) (http://www.ishs.org/sci/icracpco.htm) of The International
Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants
• International Cultivar Registration Authorities (http://www.ishs.org/sci/icralist/icralist.htm)
• The Language of Horticulture (http://www.hcs.ohio-state.edu/hcs/TMI/HORT234/Nomenclature.html)
• Opinion piece by Tony Lord (http://www.rhs.org.uk/learning/publications/plantsman/0605/opinion.asp)
(from The Plantsman magazine)
• Hortivar - The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Horticulture Cultivars Performance
Database (http://www.fao.org/hortivar)

Plant breeding
Plant breeding is the art and science of changing the genetics of plants for the benefit of mankind[1] . Plant breeding
can be accomplished through many different techniques ranging from simply selecting plants with desirable
characteristics for propagation, to more complex molecular techniques (see cultigen and cultivar).
Plant breeding has been practiced for thousands of years, since near the beginning of human civilization. It is now
practiced worldwide by individuals such as gardeners and farmers, or by professional plant breeders employed by
organizations such as government institutions, universities, crop-specific industry associations or research centers.
International development agencies believe that breeding new crops is important for ensuring food security by
developing new varieties that are higher-yielding, resistant to pests and diseases, drought-resistant or regionally
adapted to different environments and growing conditions.

Domestication
Plant breeding in certain situations
may lead to the domestication of wild
plants. Domestication of plants is an
artificial selection process conducted
by humans to produce plants that have
more desirable traits than wild plants,
and which renders them dependent on
artificial (usually enhanced)
environments for their continued
existence. The practice is estimated to
date back 9,000-11,000 years. Many
crops in present day cultivation are the
result of domestication in ancient
times, about 5,000 years ago in the Old
World and 3,000 years ago in the New This map shows the sites of domestication for a number of crops. Places where crops
World. In the Neolithic period, were initially domesticated are called centers of origin
domestication took a minimum of
1,000 years and a maximum of 7,000 years. Today, all of our principal food crops come from domesticated varieties.
Almost all the domesticated plants used today for food and agriculture were domesticated in the centers of origin. In
these centers there is still a great diversity of closely related wild plants, so-called crop wild relatives, that can also
be used for improving modern cultivars by plant breeding.
Plant breeding 92

A plant whose origin or selection is due primarily to intentional human activity is called a cultigen, and a cultivated
crop species that has evolved from wild populations due to selective pressures from traditional farmers is called a
landrace. Landraces, which can be the result of natural forces or domestication, are plants (or animals) that are
ideally suited to a particular region or environment. An example are the landraces of rice, Oryza sativa subspecies
indica, which was developed in South Asia, and Oryza sativa subspecies japonica, which was developed in China.
For more on the mechanisms of domestication, see Hybrid (biology).

Classical plant breeding

Classical plant breeding uses deliberate interbreeding (crossing) of closely or distantly related individuals to produce
new crop varieties or lines with desirable properties. Plants are crossbred to introduce traits/genes from one variety
or line into a new genetic background. For example, a mildew-resistant pea may be crossed with a high-yielding but
susceptible pea, the goal of the cross being to introduce mildew resistance without losing the high-yield
characteristics. Progeny from the cross would then be crossed with the high-yielding parent to ensure that the
progeny were most like the high-yielding parent, (backcrossing). The progeny from that cross would then be tested
for yield and mildew resistance and high-yielding resistant plants would be further developed. Plants may also be
crossed with themselves to produce inbred varieties for breeding.
Classical breeding relies largely on homologous recombination between chromosomes to generate genetic diversity.
The classical plant breeder may also makes use of a number of in vitro techniques such as protoplast fusion, embryo
rescue or mutagenesis (see below) to generate diversity and produce hybrid plants that would not exist in nature.
Traits that breeders have tried to incorporate into
crop plants in the last 100 years include:
1. Increased quality and yield of the crop
2. Increased tolerance of environmental pressures
(salinity, extreme temperature, drought)
3. Resistance to viruses, fungi and bacteria
4. Increased tolerance to insect pests
5. Increased tolerance of herbicides

Before World War II

Intraspecific hybridization within a plant species
was demonstrated by Charles Darwin and Gregor
Mendel, and was further developed by geneticists The Yecoro wheat (right) cultivar is sensitive to salinity, plants resulting
from a hybrid cross with cultivar W4910 (left) show greater tolerance to
and plant breeders. In the United Kingdom in the
high salinity
1880s, it was the pioneering work of Gartons
Agricultural Plant Breeders. In the early 20th
century, plant breeders realized that Mendel's findings on the non-random nature of inheritance could be applied to
seedling populations produced through deliberate pollinations to predict the frequencies of different types.

From 1904 to the World War II in Italy Nazareno Strampelli created a number of wheat hybrids. His work allowed
Italy to increase hugely crop production during the so called "Battle for Grain" (1925–1940) and some varieties was
exported in foreign countries, as Argentina, Mexico, China and others. After the war, the work of Strampelli was
quickly forgotten, but thanks to the hybrids he created, Norman Borlaug was able to move the very first steps of the
Green Revolution.
In 1908, George Harrison Shull described heterosis, also known as hybrid vigor. Heterosis describes the tendency of
the progeny of a specific cross to outperform both parents. The detection of the usefulness of heterosis for plant
breeding has led to the development of inbred lines that reveal a heterotic yield advantage when they are crossed.
Plant breeding 93

Maize was the first species where heterosis was widely used to produce hybrids.
By the 1920s, statistical methods were developed to analyze gene action and distinguish heritable variation from
variation caused by environment. In 1933, another important breeding technique, cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS),
developed in maize, was described by Marcus Morton Rhoades. CMS is a maternally inherited trait that makes the
plant produce sterile pollen. This enables the production of hybrids without the need for labor intensive detasseling.
These early breeding techniques resulted in large yield increase in the United States in the early 20th century. Similar
yield increases were not produced elsewhere until after World War II, the Green Revolution increased crop
production in the developing world in the 1960s.

After World War II

Following World War II a number of techniques were developed that allowed plant breeders to hybridize distantly
related species, and artificially induce genetic diversity.
When distantly related species are crossed, plant breeders make use of a number of plant tissue culture techniques to
produce progeny from otherwise fruitless mating. Interspecific and intergeneric hybrids are produced from a cross of
related species or genera that do not normally sexually reproduce with each other. These crosses are referred to as
Wide crosses. For example, the cereal triticale is a wheat and rye hybrid. The cells in the plants derived from the first
generation created from the cross contained an uneven number of chromosomes and as result was sterile. The cell
division inhibitor colchicine was used to double the number of chromosomes in the cell and thus allow the
production of a fertile line.
Failure to produce a hybrid may be due to pre- or post-fertilization incompatibility. If fertilization is possible
between two species or genera, the hybrid embryo may abort before maturation. If this does occur the embryo
resulting from an interspecific or intergeneric cross can sometimes be rescued and cultured to produce a whole plant.
Such a method is referred to as Embryo Rescue. This technique has been used to produce new rice for Africa, an
interspecific cross of Asian rice (Oryza sativa) and African rice (Oryza glaberrima).
Hybrids may also be produced by a technique called protoplast fusion. In this case protoplasts are fused, usually in
an electric field. Viable recombinants can be regenerated in culture.
Chemical mutagens like EMS and DMS, radiation and transposons are used to generate mutants with desirable traits
to be bred with other cultivars - a process known as Mutation Breeding. Classical plant breeders also generate
genetic diversity within a species by exploiting a process called somaclonal variation, which occurs in plants
produced from tissue culture, particularly plants derived from callus. Induced polyploidy, and the addition or
removal of chromosomes using a technique called chromosome engineering may also be used.
When a desirable trait has been bred into a species, a number of crosses to the favored parent are made to make the
new plant as similar to the favored parent as possible. Returning to the example of the mildew resistant pea being
crossed with a high-yielding but susceptible pea, to make the mildew resistant progeny of the cross most like the
high-yielding parent, the progeny will be crossed back to that parent for several generations (See backcrossing ).
This process removes most of the genetic contribution of the mildew resistant parent. Classical breeding is therefore
a cyclical process.
With classical breeding techniques, the breeder does not know exactly what genes have been introduced to the new
cultivars. Some scientists therefore argue that plants produced by classical breeding methods should undergo the
same safety testing regime as genetically modified plants. There have been instances where plants bred using
classical techniques have been unsuitable for human consumption, for example the poison solanine was
unintentionally increased to unacceptable levels in certain varieties of potato through plant breeding. New potato
varieties are often screened for solanine levels before reaching the marketplace.
Plant breeding 94

Modern plant breeding

Modern plant breeding uses techniques of molecular biology to select, or in the case of genetic modification, to
insert, desirable traits into plants.

Steps of Plant Breeding

The following are the major activities
of plant breeding;
1. Creation of variation
2. Selection
3. Evaluation
4. Release
5. Multiplication
6. Distribution of the new variety

Marker assisted selection

See main article on Marker
assisted selection.
Sometimes many different genes can
Modern facilities in molecular biology has converted classical plant breeding to molecular
influence a desirable trait in plant
plant breeding
breeding. The use of tools such as
molecular markers or DNA
fingerprinting can map thousands of genes. This allows plant breeders to screen large populations of plants for those
that possess the trait of interest. The screening is based on the presence or absence of a certain gene as determined by
laboratory procedures, rather than on the visual identification of the expressed trait in the plant.

Reverse Breeding and Doubled Haploids (DH)

See also main article on Doubled haploidy.
A method for efficiently producing homozygous plants from a heterozygous starting plant, which has all desirable
traits. This starting plant is induced to produce doubled haploid from haploid cells, and later on creating
homozygous/doubled haploid plants from those cells. While in natural offspring genetic recombination occurs and
traits can be unlinked from each other, in doubled haploid cells and in the resulting DH plants recombination is no
longer an issue. There, a recombination between two corresponding chromosomes does not lead to un-linkage of
alleles or traits, since it just leads to recombination with its identical copy. Thus, traits on one chromosome stay
linked. Selecting those offspring having the desired set of chromosomes and crossing them will result in a final F1
hybrid plant, having exactly the same set of chromosomes, genes and traits as the starting hybrid plant. The
homozygous parental lines can reconstitute the original heterozygous plant by crossing, if desired even in a large
quantity. An individual heterozygous plant can be converted into a heterozygous variety (F1 hybrid) without the
necessity of vegetative propagation but as the result of the cross of two homozygous/doubled haploid lines derived
from the originally selected plant. patent [2]
Plant breeding 95

Genetic modification
See main article on Transgenic plants.
Genetic modification of plants is achieved by adding a specific gene or genes to a plant, or by knocking down a gene
with RNAi, to produce a desirable phenotype. The plants resulting from adding a gene are often referred to as
transgenic plants. If for genetic modification genes of the species or of a crossable plant are used under control of
their native promoter, then they are called cisgenic plants. Genetic modification can produce a plant with the desired
trait or traits faster than classical breeding because the majority of the plant's genome is not altered.
To genetically modify a plant, a genetic construct must be designed so that the gene to be added or removed will be
expressed by the plant. To do this, a promoter to drive transcription and a termination sequence to stop transcription
of the new gene, and the gene or genes of interest must be introduced to the plant. A marker for the selection of
transformed plants is also included. In the laboratory, antibiotic resistance is a commonly used marker: Plants that
have been successfully transformed will grow on media containing antibiotics; plants that have not been transformed
will die. In some instances markers for selection are removed by backcrossing with the parent plant prior to
commercial release.
The construct can be inserted in the plant genome by genetic recombination using the bacteria Agrobacterium
tumefaciens or A. rhizogenes, or by direct methods like the gene gun or microinjection. Using plant viruses to insert
genetic constructs into plants is also a possibility, but the technique is limited by the host range of the virus. For
example, Cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) only infects cauliflower and related species. Another limitation of viral
vectors is that the virus is not usually passed on the progeny, so every plant has to be inoculated.
The majority of commercially released transgenic plants are currently limited to plants that have introduced
resistance to insect pests and herbicides. Insect resistance is achieved through incorporation of a gene from Bacillus
thuringiensis (Bt) that encodes a protein that is toxic to some insects. For example, the cotton bollworm, a common
cotton pest, feeds on Bt cotton it will ingest the toxin and die. Herbicides usually work by binding to certain plant
enzymes and inhibiting their action. The enzymes that the herbicide inhibits are known as the herbicides target site.
Herbicide resistance can be engineered into crops by expressing a version of target site protein that is not inhibited
by the herbicide. This is the method used to produce glyphosate resistant crop plants (See Glyphosate)
Genetic modification of plants that can produce pharmaceuticals (and industrial chemicals), sometimes called
pharmacrops, is a rather radical new area of plant breeding.

Issues and concerns

Modern plant breeding, whether classical or through genetic engineering, comes with issues of concern, particularly
with regard to food crops. The question of whether breeding can have a negative effect on nutritional value is central
in this respect. Although relatively little direct research in this area has been done, there are scientific indications
that, by favoring certain aspects of a plant's development, other aspects may be retarded. A study published in the
Journal of the American College of Nutrition in 2004, entitled Changes in USDA Food Composition Data for 43
Garden Crops, 1950 to 1999, compared nutritional analysis of vegetables done in 1950 and in 1999, and found
substantial decreases in six of 13 nutrients measured, including 6% of protein and 38% of riboflavin. Reductions in
calcium, phosphorus, iron and ascorbic acid were also found. The study, conducted at the Biochemical Institute,
University of Texas at Austin, concluded in summary: "We suggest that any real declines are generally most easily
explained by changes in cultivated varieties between 1950 and 1999, in which there may be trade-offs between yield
and nutrient content.[3] "
The debate surrounding genetically modified food during the 1990s peaked in 1999 in terms of media coverage and
risk perception,[4] and continues today - for example, "Germany has thrown its weight behind a growing European
mutiny over genetically modified crops by banning the planting of a widely grown pest-resistant corn variety.".[5]
The debate encompasses the ecological impact of genetically modified plants, the safety of genetically modified food
Plant breeding 96

and concepts used for safety evaluation like substantial equivalence. Such concerns are not new to plant breeding.
Most countries have regulatory processes in place to help ensure that new crop varieties entering the marketplace are
both safe and meet farmers' needs. Examples include variety registration, seed schemes, regulatory authorizations for
GM plants, etc.
Plant breeders' rights is also a major and controversial issue. Today, production of new varieties is dominated by
commercial plant breeders, who seek to protect their work and collect royalties through national and international
agreements based in intellectual property rights. The range of related issues is complex. In the simplest terms, critics
of the increasingly restrictive regulations argue that, through a combination of technical and economic pressures,
commercial breeders are reducing biodiversity and significantly constraining individuals (such as farmers) from
developing and trading seed on a regional level. Efforts to strengthen breeders' rights, for example, by lengthening
periods of variety protection, are ongoing.
When new plant breeds or cultivars are bred, they must be maintained and propagated. Some plants are propagated
by asexual means while others are propagated by seeds. Seed propagated cultivars require specific control over seed
source and production procedures to maintain the integrity of the plant breeds results. Isolation is necessary to
prevent cross contamination with related plants or the mixing of seeds after harvesting. Isolation is normally
accomplished by planting distance but in certain crops, plants are enclosed in greenhouses or cages (most commonly
used when producing F1 hybrids.)

Participatory Plant Breeding

The development of agricultural science, with
phenomenon like the Green Revolution arising, have
left millions of farmers in developing countries, most
of whom operate small farms under unstable and
difficult growing conditions, in a precarious situation.
The adoption of new plant varieties by this group has
been hampered by the constraints of poverty and the
international policies promoting an industrialized
model of agriculture. Their response has been the
creation of a novel and promising set of research Participatory Plant Breeding is carried out, for example, in northern
methods collectively known as participatory plant Vietnam, where government scientists work with farmers from the
Muong people ethnic minority to improve local rice varieties. See
breeding. Participatory means that farmers are more
short DIVERSEEDS video [6] on Participatory Plant Breeding in
involved in the breeding process and breeding goals are Vietnam This file has an uncertain copyright status and may be
defined by farmers instead of international seed deleted. You can comment on its removal.
companies with their large-scale breeding programs.
Farmers' groups and NGOs[7] , for example, may wish to affirm local people's rights over genetic resources, produce
seeds themselves, build farmers' technical expertise, or develop new products for niche markets, like organically
grown food.[8] [9] [10]

List of notable plant breeders

• Gartons Agricultural Plant Breeders
• Norman Borlaug
• Nazareno Strampelli
• Luther Burbank
• Roger Doucet
• Keith Downey
Plant breeding 97

• Niels Ebbesen Hansen

• Gregor Mendel
• Colin Wyatt

Notes
[1] Breeding Field Crops. 1995. Sleper and Poehlman. Page 3
[2] http:/ / www. wipo. int/ pctdb/ en/ wo. jsp?wo=2003017753& IA=WO2003017753& DISPLAY=STATUS
[3] Davis, D.R., Epp, M.D., and Riordan, H.D. 2004. Changes in USDA Food Composition Data for 43 Garden Crops (http:/ / www. jacn. org/
cgi/ content/ abstract/ 23/ 6/ 669?maxtoshow=& HITS=10& hits=10& RESULTFORMAT=& author1=donald+ davis& andorexacttitle=and&
andorexacttitleabs=and& andorexactfulltext=and& searchid=1110477116345_697& stored_search=& FIRSTINDEX=0&
sortspec=relevance& journalcode=jamcnutr), 1950 to 1999. Journal of the American College of Nutrition 23(6):669-682
[4] Costa-Font, J. and E. Mossialos. 2007. (http:/ / www. aseanbiotechnology. info/ Abstract/ 21020573. pdf)Food Quality and Preference
18(2007):173-182
[5] Connoly, Kate (2009-04-14). "Germany deals blow to GM crops" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ environment/ 2009/ apr/ 14/
germany-gm-crops). The Guardian. . Retrieved 2009-06-25.
[6] http:/ / www. diverseeds. eu/ uploads/ media/ Vietnam%20Muang-korr. mp4
[7] LI-BIRD (http:/ / libird. org/ index. php?option=com_content& task=view& id=112& Itemid=82), Participatory Plant Breeding in LI-BIRD.
[8] PRGA 2008. Participatory Plant Breeding (PPB) (http:/ / www. prgaprogram. org/ index. php?module=htmlpages& func=display& pid=9)
[9] Sperling et al. 2001. A Framework For Analizing Participatory Plant Breeding Approaches And Results. (http:/ / wwww. cirad. fr/ colloque/
selpart/ partie12(ls). pdf)
[10] Ceccarelli 2001. Decentralized-Participatory Plant Breeding: Adapting Crops to Environments and Clients (http:/ / www. icarda. org/
Farmer_Participation/ PDF/ Papers/ 8IBGS00S. pdf)

See also
• Cisgenesis
• Crop breeding in Nepal
• Cultivated plant taxonomy
• Double-pair mating
• International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants
• Marker assisted selection
• Orthodox seed
• Physiological and molecular wheat breeding
• Recalcitrant seed
• Selection methods in plant breeding based on mode of reproduction
• Smart breeding

References
• Borem, A.; Miranda, G. V. Melhoramento de Plantas. 5ª. ed. Viçosa: Editora UFV, 2009. v. 1. 543 p.
• Borem, A. (Org.). Domesticação e Melhoramento: espécies amazônicas1. ed. Visconde do Rio Branco: Suprema
Grafica e Editora, 2009. (in press)v. 1. 588 p.
• Borem, A. (Org.); Caixeta, E. T. (Org.) . Marcadores Moleculares. 2a.. ed. Visconde do Rio Branco: Suprema
Grafica e Editora, 2008. v. 1. 532 p.
• Borem, A.; Condori, M.; Miranda, G. V. Mejoramiento de Plantas (in Spanish). 1. ed. Viçosa: Editora UFV,
2008. v. 1. 438 p.
• McCouch, S. 2004. Diversifying Selection in Plant Breeding (http://biology.plosjournals.org/perlserv/
?request=get-document&doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0020347). PLoS Biol 2(10): e347.
• Briggs, F.N. and Knowles, P.F. 1967. Introduction to Plant Breeding. Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New
York.
Plant breeding 98

• Gepts, P. (2002). A Comparison between Crop Domestication, Classical Plant Breeding, and Genetic Engineering
(https://www.crops.org/publications/cs/abstracts/42/6/1780). Crop Science 42:1780–1790
• The Origins of Agriculture and Crop Domestication - The Harlan Symposium (http://www.ipgri.cgiar.org/
publications/pubfile.asp?ID_PUB=47)
• news@nature.com. 1999 Are non-GM crops safe? (http://www.nature.com/news/1999/990923/pf/
990923-3_pf.html)
• Schlegel,Rolf (2003) Encyclopedic Dictionary of Plant Breeding, (ISBN 1-56022-950-0), Haworth Press, New
York, London, Oxford, USA, 2003, pp 563
• Schlegel, Rolf (2007) Concise Encyclopedia of Crop Improvement: Institutions, Persons, Theories, Methods, and
Histories. Haworth Press, New York, London, Oxford, USA, 1- 331.
• Schouten, Henk J., Frans A. Krens & Evert Jacobsen Do cisgenic plants warrant less stringent oversight? Nature
Biotechnology 24, 753 (2006).
• Schouten, Henk J., Frans A Krens & Evert Jacobsen Cisgenic plants are similar to traditionally bred plants:
EMBO reports 7, 750 - 753 (2006).
• Sun, C. et al. 1998. From indica and japonica splitting in common wild rice DNA to the origin and evolution of
Asian cultivated rice (http://www.carleton.ca/~bgordon/Rice/papers/SUN98.htm). Agricultural Archaeology
1998:21-29

External links
• Plant Breeding Updates (http://www.desicca.de/plant_breeding)
• Hybridization of Crop Plants (http://www.agron.iastate.edu/faculty/fehr/FehrHOCP.aspx) - large practical
reference on plant hybridization
• Making genetically engineered plants (http://pubs.cas.psu.edu/freepubs/pdfs/uk102.pdf)
• NYTimes - Useful Mutants, Bred With Radiation (http://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/28/science/28crop.
html?8dpc=&pagewanted=all)
• Infography about the History of Plant Breeding (http://www.infography.com/content/098241002810.html)
• Glossary of plant breeding terminology by the Open Plant Breeding Foundation (http://www.opbf.org/
glossary)
• National Association of Plant Breeders (NAPB) (http://www.plantbreeding.org)
• The Global Partnership Initiative for Plant Breeding Capacity Building - GIPB (http://km.fao.org/gipb/)
 99

Methods

Intensive farming
Intensive farming or intensive agriculture is an agricultural production system characterized by the high inputs of
capital, labour, or heavy usage of technologies such as pesticides and chemical fertilizers relative to land area.[1] [2]
This is in contrast to many sorts of sustainable agriculture such as organic farming or extensive agriculture, which
involve a relatively low input of labour, relative to the area of land farmed, and which focus on maintaining
long-term ecological health of farmland, so that it can be farmed indefinitely.
Modern day forms of intensive crop based agriculture involve the use of mechanical ploughing, chemical fertilizers,
plant growth regulators and/or pesticides. It is associated with the increasing use of agricultural mechanization,
which have enabled a substantial increase in production, yet have also dramatically increased environmental
pollution by increasing erosion and poisoning water with agricultural chemicals.
Intensive animal farming practices can involve very large numbers of animals raised on limited land which require
large amounts of food, water and medical inputs (required to keep the animals healthy in cramped conditions).[2]
Very large or confined indoor intensive livestock operations (particularly descriptive of common US farming
practices) are often referred to as Factory farming[1] [3] [4] and are criticised by opponents for the low level of animal
welfare standards[4] [5] and associated pollution and health issues.[6] [7]

Advantages
Intensive agriculture has a number of benefits:[8]
• Significantly increased yield per acre, per person, and per dollar relative to extensive farming and therefore,
• Food becomes more affordable to the consumer as it costs less to produce.
• The same area of land is able to supply food and fibre for a larger population reducing the risk of starvation.
• The preservation of existing areas of woodland and rainforest habitats (and the ecosystems and other sustainable
economies that these may harbour), which would need to be felled for extensive farming methods in the same
geographical location. This also leads to a reduction in anthropomorphic CO2 generation (resulting from removal
of the sequestration afforded by woodlands and rainforests).
• In the case of intensive livestock farming: an opportunity to capture methane emissions which would otherwise
contribute to global warming. Once captured, these emissions can be used to generate heat and/or electrical
energy, thereby reducing local demand for fossil fuels.

Disadvantages
Intensive farming alters the environment in many ways.
• Limits or destroys the natural habitat of most wild creatures, and leads to soil erosion.
• Use of fertilizers can alter the biology of rivers and lakes.[7] Some environmentalists attribute the hypoxic zone in
the Gulf of Mexico as being encouraged by nitrogen fertilization of the algae bloom.
• Pesticides generally kill useful insects as well as those that destroy crops.
• Is often not sustainable if not properly managed—may result in desertification, or land that is so poisonous and
eroded that nothing else will grow there.
• Requires large amounts of energy input to produce, transport, and apply chemical fertilizers/pesticides
Intensive farming 100

• The chemicals used may leave the field as runoff eventually ending up in rivers and lakes or may drain into
groundwater aquifers.
• Use of pesticides have numerous negative health effects in workers who apply them, people that live nearby the
area of application or downstream/downwind from it, and consumers who eat the pesticides which remain on their
food.

Pre modern intensive farming

Pre modern intensive farming techniques and structures include terracing, rice paddies, and various forms of
aquaculture.

Terrace
In agriculture, a terrace is a leveled section of a hilly cultivated area,
designed as a method of soil conservation to slow or prevent the rapid
surface runoff of irrigation water. Often such land is formed into
multiple terraces, giving a stepped appearance. The human landscapes
of rice cultivation in terraces that follow the natural contours of the
escarpments like contour ploughing is a classic feature of the island of
Bali and the Banaue Rice Terraces in Benguet, Philippines. In Peru, the
Inca made use of otherwise unusable slopes by drystone walling to
Terrace rice fields in Yunnan Province, China
create terraces.

Rice paddy
A paddy field is a flooded parcel of arable land used for growing rice and other semiaquatic crops. Paddy fields are
a typical feature of rice-growing countries of east and southeast Asia including Malaysia, China, Sri Lanka,
Myanmar, Thailand, Korea, Japan, Vietnam, Taiwan, Indonesia, India, and the Philippines. They are also found in
other rice-growing regions such as Piedmont (Italy), the Camargue (France) and the Artibonite Valley (Haiti). They
can occur naturally along rivers or marshes, or can be constructed, even on hillsides, often with much labour and
materials. They require large quantities of water for irrigation, which can be quite complex for a highly developed
system of paddy fields. Flooding provides water essential to the growth of the crop. It also gives an environment
favourable to the strain of rice being grown, and is hostile to many species of weeds. As the only draft animal species
which is adapted for life in wetlands, the water buffalo is in widespread use in Asian rice paddies. World methane
production due to rice paddies has been estimated in the range of 50 to 100 million tonnes per annum.[9]
Paddy-based rice-farming has been practiced Korea since ancient times. A pit-house at the Daecheon-ni site yielded
carbonized rice grains and radiocarbon dates indicating that rice cultivation may have begun as early as the Middle
Jeulmun Pottery Period (c. 3500-2000 B.C.) in the Korean Peninsula (Crawford and Lee 2003). The earliest rice
cultivation in the Korean Peninsula may have used dry-fields instead of paddies.
The earliest Mumun features were usually located in low-lying narrow gulleys that were naturally swampy and fed
by the local stream system. Some Mumun paddies in flat areas were made of a series of squares and rectangles
separated by bunds approximately 10 cm in height, while terraced paddies consisted of long irregularly shapes that
followed natural contours of the land at various levels (Bale 2001; Kwak 2001).
Mumun Period rice farmers used all of the elements that are present in today's paddies such terracing, bunds, canals,
and small reservoirs. Some paddy-farming techniques of the Middle Mumun (c. 850-550 B.C.) can be interpreted
from the well-preserved wooden tools excavated from archaeological rice paddies at the Majeon-ni Site. However,
iron tools for paddy-farming were not introduced until sometime after 200 B.C. The spatial scale of individual
Intensive farming 101

paddies, and thus entire paddy-fields, increased with the regular use of iron tools in the Three Kingdoms of Korea
Period (c. A.D. 300/400-668).

Modern intensive farming types

Modern intensive farming refers to the industrialized production of animals (livestock, poultry and fish) and crops.
The methods deployed are designed to produce the highest output at the lowest cost; usually using economies of
scale, modern machinery, modern medicine, and global trade for financing, purchases and sales. The practice is
widespread in developed nations, and most of the meat, dairy, eggs, and crops available in supermarkets are
produced in this manner.

Sustainable intensive farming

Biointensive agriculture focuses on maximizing efficiency: yield per unit area, yield per energy input, yield per
water input, etc. Agroforestry combines agriculture and orchard/forestry technologies to create more integrated,
diverse, productive, profitable, healthy and sustainable land-use systems. Intercropping can also increase total yields
per unit of area or reduce inputs to achieve the same, and thus represents (potentially sustainable) agricultural
intensification. Unfortunately, bra's of any specific crop often diminish and the change can present new challenges to
farmers relying on modern farming equipment which is best suited to monoculture. Vertical farming, a type of
intensive crop production that would grow food on a large scale in urban centers, has been proposed as a way to
reduce the negative environmental impact of traditional rural agriculture.

Intensive aquaculture
Aquaculture is the cultivation of the natural produce of water (fish, shellfish, algae, seaweed and other aquatic
organisms). Intensive Aquaculture can often involve tanks or other highly controlled systems which are designed to
boost production for the available volume or area of water resource.[10] [11]

Intensive livestock farming

"Factory farming" is a term referring to the process of raising livestock
in confinement at high stocking density, where a farm operates as a
factory — a practice typical in industrial farming by agribusinesses.[12]
[13] [14] [15] [16]
The main product of this industry is meat, milk and
eggs for human consumption.[17] The term is often used in a pejorative
sense, criticising large scale farming processes which confine
animals.[18]

A commercial chicken house raising broiler

Managed intensive grazing
pullets for meat.
This sustainable intensive livestock management system is increasingly
used to optimize production within a sustainability framework and is generally not considered Factory farming.
Intensive farming or intensive agriculture is an agricultural production system characterized by the high inputs of
capital, labour, or heavy usage of technologies such as pesticides and chemical fertilizers relative to land area.[1][2]
This is in contrast to many forms of sustainable agriculture such as permaculture or extensive agriculture, which
involve a relatively low input of materials and labour, relative to the area of land farmed, and which focus on
maintaining long-term ecological health of farmland, so that it can be farmed indefinitely.
Modern day forms of intensive crop based agriculture involve the use of mechanical ploughing, chemical fertilizers,
herbicides, fungicides, insecticides, plant growth regulators and/or pesticides. It is associated with the increasing use
of agricultural mechanization, which have enabled a substantial increase in production, yet have also dramatically
Intensive farming 102

increased environmental pollution by increasing erosion, poisoning water with agricultural chemicals, and destroying
forests to make room for farmland.[1]
Intensive animal farming practices can involve very large numbers of animals raised on limited land which require
large amounts of food, water and medical inputs (required to keep the animals healthy in cramped conditions).[2]
Very large or confined indoor intensive livestock operations (particularly descriptive of common US farming
practices) are often referred to as Factory farming[3][1][4] and are criticised by opponents for the low level of animal
welfare standards[4][5] and associated pollution and health issues.[6][7]

Individual industrial agriculture farm

Major challenges and issues faced by individual industrial agriculture farms include:
• integrated farming systems
• crop sequencing
• water use efficiency
• nutrient audits
• herbicide resistance
• financial instruments (such as futures and options)
• collect and understand own farm information;
• knowing your products
• knowing your markets
• knowing your customers
• satisfying customer needs
• securing an acceptable profit margin
• cost of servicing debt
• ability to earn and access off-farm income;
• management of machinery and stewardship investments.[19]

Integrated farming systems

An integrated farming system is a progressive biologically integrated sustainable agriculture system such as
Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture or Zero waste agriculture whose implementation requires exacting knowledge
of the interactions of numerous species and whose benefits include sustainability and increased profitability.
Elements of this integration can include:
• intentionally introducing flowering plants into agricultural ecosystems to increase pollen-and nectar-resources
required by natural enemies of insect pests[20]
• using crop rotation and cover crops to suppress nematodes in potatoes[21]
Intensive farming 103

Crop rotation

Crop rotation or crop sequencing is the

practice of growing a series of dissimilar
types of crops in the same space in
sequential seasons for various benefits such
as to avoid the build up of pathogens and
pests that often occurs when one species is
continuously cropped. Crop rotation also
seeks to balance the fertility demands of
various crops to avoid excessive depletion
of soil nutrients. A traditional component of
crop rotation is the replenishment of
nitrogen through the use of green manure in
sequence with cereals and other crops. It is
one component of polyculture. Crop rotation
can also improve soil structure and fertility
by alternating deep-rooted and
shallow-rooted plants.

Satellite image of circular crop fields in Haskell County, Kansas in late June 2001.
Healthy, growing crops of corn and sorghum are green (Sorghum may be slightly
paler). Wheat is brilliant gold. Fields of brown have been recently harvested and
plowed under or have lain in fallow for the year.

Water use efficiency

Crop irrigation accounts for 70% of the world's fresh water

use.[22] The agricultural sector of most countries is important
both economically and politically, and water subsidies are
common. Conservation advocates have urged removal of all
subsidies to force farmers to grow more water-efficient crops
and adopt less wasteful irrigation techniques.

Optimal water efficiency means minimizing losses due to

evaporation, runoff or subsurface drainage. An evaporation
pan can be used to determine how much water is required to
irrigate the land. Flood irrigation, the oldest and most Overhead irrigation, center pivot design
common type, is often very uneven in distribution, as parts of
a field may receive excess water in order to deliver sufficient quantities to other parts. Overhead irrigation, using
center-pivot or lateral-moving sprinklers, gives a much more equal and controlled distribution pattern. Drip irrigation
is the most expensive and least-used type, but offers the best results in delivering water to plant roots with minimal
losses.

As changing irrigation systems can be a costly undertaking, conservation efforts often concentrate on maximizing
the efficiency of the existing system. This may include chiseling compacted soils, creating furrow dikes to prevent
runoff, and using soil moisture and rainfall sensors to optimize irrigation schedules.[23]
Water catchment management measures include recharge pits, which capture rainwater and runoff and use it to
recharge ground water supplies. This helps in the formation of ground water wells etc. and eventually reduces soil
Intensive farming 104

erosion caused due to running water.

Nutrient audits
Better nutrient audits allow farmers to spend less money on nutrients and to create less pollution since less nutrient is
added to the soil and thus there is less to run off and pollute. Methodologies for assessing soil nutrient balances have
been studied and used for farms and entire countries for decades.[24] But at present "there is no standard
methodology for calculating nutrient budgets and there are no accepted 'benchmarks' figures against which to assess
farm nutrient use efficiency. [A standard methodology] for calculating nutrient budgets on farms [is hoped to help
reduce] diffuse water and air pollution from agriculture [through] best management practices in the use of fertilisers
and organic manures, as part of the continued development of economically and environmentally sustainable farming
systems."[25]

Herbicide resistance
In agriculture large scale and systematic weeding is usually required, often performed by machines such as
cultivators or liquid herbicide sprayers. Selective herbicides kill specific targets while leaving the desired crop
relatively unharmed. Some of these act by interfering with the growth of the weed and are often based on plant
hormones. Weed control through herbicide is made more difficult when the weeds become resistant to the herbicide.
Solutions include:
• using cover crops (especially those with allelopathic properties) that out-compete weeds and/or inhibit their
regeneration.
• using a different herbicide
• using a different crop (e.g. genetically altered to be herbicide resistant; which ironically can create herbicide
resistant weeds through horizontal gene transfer)
• using a different variety (e.g. locally adapted variety that resists, tolerates, or even out-competes weeds)
• ploughing
• ground cover such as mulch or plastic
• manual removal

References
[1] Encyclopaedia Britannica's definition of Intensive Agriculture (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/ article-9042533)
[2] BBC School fact sheet on intensive farming (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ schools/ gcsebitesize/ biology/ livingthingsenvironment/
4foodandsustainabilityrev5. shtml)
[3] Factory farming. Webster's Dictionary definition of Factory farming (http:/ / dictionary. reference. com/ browse/ Factory farming)
[4] Encyclopaedia Britannica's definition of Factory farm (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ ebc/ article-9364147)
[5] The Welfare of Intensively Kept Pigs (http:/ / ec. europa. eu/ food/ fs/ sc/ oldcomm4/ out17_en. html)
[6] Commissioner points to factory farming as source of contamination (http:/ / www. cbc. ca/ news/ story/ 2000/ 07/ 28/ 000727farming. html)
[7] Rebuilding Agriculture - EPA of UK (http:/ / www. environment-agency. gov. uk/ commondata/ 105385/ rebuildag_908097. pdf)
[8] Encyclopaedia Britannica - Intensive Agriculture (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/ article-9042533/ intensive-agriculture)
[9] Methane gas generation from rice paddies (http:/ / www. ghgonline. org/ methanerice. htm)
[10] American Heritage Definition of Aquaculture (http:/ / www. answers. com/ topic/ aquaculture)
[11] McGraw Hill Sci-Tech Encyclopedia (http:/ / www. answers. com/ topic/ aquaculture)
[12] Sources discussing "intensive farming", "intensive agriculture" or "factory farming":
• Fraser, David. Animal welfare and the intensification of animal production: An alternative interpretation (http:/ / www. fao. org/ docrep/
009/ a0158e/ a0158e00. HTM), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2005.
• Turner, Jacky. "History of factory farming" (http:/ / www. unsystem. org/ SCN/ archives/ scnnews21/ ch04. htm#TopOfPage), United
Nations: "Fifty years ago in Europe, intensification of animal production was seen as the road to national food security and a better diet ...
The intensive systems – called 'factory farms' – were characterised by confinement of the animals at high stocking density, often in
barren and unnatural conditions."
• Simpson, John. Why the organic revolution had to happen (http:/ / observer. guardian. co. uk/ foodmonthly/ story/ 0,,475210,00. html),
The Observer, April 21, 2001: "Nor is a return to 'primitive' farming practices the only alternative to factory farming and highly intensive
Intensive farming 105

agriculture."
• Baker, Stanley. "Factory farms — the only answer to our growing appetite? (http:/ / century. guardian. co. uk/ 1960-1969/ Story/
0,,105655,00. html), The Guardian, December 29, 1964: "Factory farming, whether we like it or not, has come to stay ... In a year which
has been as uneventful on the husbandry side as it has been significant in economic and political developments touching the future of food
procurement, the more far-seeing would name the growth of intensive farming as the major development." (Note: Stanley Baker was the
Guardian's agriculture correspondent.)
• "Head to head: Intensive farming" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ uk/ 1205545. stm), BBC News, March 6, 2001: "Here, Green MEP
Caroline Lucas takes issue with the intensive farming methods of recent decades ... In the wake of the spread of BSE from the UK to the
continent of Europe, the German Government has appointed an Agriculture Minister from the Green Party. She intends to end factory
farming in her country. This must be the way forward and we should end industrial agriculture in this country as well."
[13] Sources discussing "industrial farming" , "industrial agriculture" and "factory farming":
• "Annex 2. Permitted substances for the production of organic foods" (http:/ / www. fao. org/ docrep/ 005/ Y2772E/ y2772e0c. htm), Food
and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: "'Factory' farming refers to industrial management systems that are heavily reliant
on veterinary and feed inputs not permitted in organic agriculture.
• "Head to head: Intensive farming" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ uk/ 1205545. stm), BBC News, March 6, 2001: "Here, Green MEP
Caroline Lucas takes issue with the intensive farming methods of recent decades ... In the wake of the spread of BSE from the UK to the
continent of Europe, the German Government has appointed an Agriculture Minister from the Green Party. She intends to end factory
farming in her country. This must be the way forward and we should end industrial agriculture in this country as well."
[14] Kaufmann, Mark. "Largest Pork Processor to Phase Out Crates" (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-dyn/ content/ article/ 2007/ 01/ 25/
AR2007012501785. html), The Washington Post, January 26, 2007.
[15] "EU tackles BSE crisis" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ europe/ 1046184. stm), BBC News, November 29, 2000.
[16] "Is factory farming really cheaper?" in New Scientist, Institution of Electrical Engineers, New Science Publications, University of Michigan,
1971, p. 12.
[17] Danielle Nierenberg (2005) Happier Meals: Rethinking the Global Meat Industry. Worldwatch Paper 121: 5
[18] Duram, Leslie A. (2010). Encyclopedia of Organic, Sustainable, and Local Food. ABC-CLIO. p. 139. ISBN 0313359636.
[19] The Regional Institute (http:/ / www. regional. org. au/ au/ roc/ 1995/ roc1995001. htm) article EVOLUTION OF THE FARM OFFICE
[20] Oregon State University - Integrated Farming Systems - Insectary Plantings - Enhancing Biological Control with Beneficial Insectary Plants
(http:/ / ifs. orst. edu/ insect. html)
[21] Oregon State University - Integrated Farming Systems - Nematode Supression by Cover Crops (http:/ / ifs. orst. edu/ pubs/ nscc. html)
[22] Pimentel, Berger, et al., "Water resources: agricultural and environmental issues", BioScience 54.10 (Oct 2004), p909
[23] US EPA, " Clean Water Through Conservation (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ ow/ you/ chap3. html)", Practices for Agricultural Users
[24] FAO (http:/ / www. fao. org/ docrep/ 006/ y5066e/ y5066e06. htm) Methodologies for assessing soil nutrient balances
[25] DEFRA (http:/ / www2. defra. gov. uk/ research/ project_data/ More. asp?I=ES0124& M=CFO& V=ADAS)
Sustainable agriculture 106

Sustainable agriculture
Sustainable agriculture is the practice of farming using principles of ecology, the study of relationships between
organisms and their environment. It has been defined as "an integrated system of plant and animal production
practices having a site-specific application that will last over the long term:
• Satisfy human food and fiber needs
• Make the most efficient use of non-renewable resources and on-farm resources and integrate, where appropriate,
natural biological cycles and controls
• Sustain the economic viability of farm operations
• Enhance the quality of life for farmers and society as a whole.”[1]
Sustainable Agriculture in the United States was addressed by the 1990 farm bill.[2] More recently, as consumer and
retail demand for sustainable products has risen, organizations such as Food Alliance and Protected Harvest have
started to provide measurement standards and certification programs for what constitutes a sustainably grown crop.[3]

Farming and Natural Resources

The physical aspects of sustainability are partly understood.[4] Practices that can cause long-term damage to soil
include excessive tillage (leading to erosion) and irrigation without adequate drainage (leading to salinization).
Long-term experiments have provided some of the best data on how various practices affect soil properties essential
to sustainability. There is a federal agency, USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service that specializes in
providing technical and financial assistance for those interested in pursing natural resource conservation and
production agriculture as compatible goals.
The most important factors for an individual site are sun, air, soil and water. Of the four, water and soil quality and
quantity are most amenable to human intervention through time and labour.
Although air and sunlight are available everywhere on Earth, crops also depend on soil nutrients and the availability
of water. When farmers grow and harvest crops, they remove some of these nutrients from the soil. Without
replenishment, land suffers from nutrient depletion and becomes either unusable or suffers from reduced yields.
Sustainable agriculture depends on replenishing the soil while minimizing the use of non-renewable resources, such
as natural gas (used in converting atmospheric nitrogen into synthetic fertilizer), or mineral ores (e.g., phosphate).
Possible sources of nitrogen that would, in principle, be available indefinitely, include:
1. recycling crop waste and livestock or treated human manure
2. growing legume crops and forages such as peanuts or alfalfa that form symbioses with nitrogen-fixing bacteria
called rhizobia
3. industrial production of nitrogen by the Haber Process uses hydrogen, which is currently derived from natural
gas, (but this hydrogen could instead be made by electrolysis of water using electricity (perhaps from solar cells
or windmills)) or
4. genetically engineering (non-legume) crops to form nitrogen-fixing symbioses or fix nitrogen without microbial
symbionts.
The last option was proposed in the 1970s, but is only recently becoming feasible.[5] [6]
Sustainable options for
replacing other nutrient inputs (phosphorus, potassium, etc.) are more limited.
More realistic, and often overlooked, options include long-term crop rotations, returning to natural cycles that
annually flood cultivated lands (returning lost nutrients indefinitely) such as the Flooding of the Nile, the long-term
use of biochar, and use of crop and livestock landraces that are adapted to less than ideal conditions such as pests,
drought, or lack of nutrients.
Crops that require high levels of soil nutrients can be cultivated in a more sustainable manner if certain fertilizer
management practices are adhered to.
Sustainable agriculture 107

Water
In some areas, sufficient rainfall is available for crop growth, but many other areas require irrigation. For irrigation
systems to be sustainable they require proper management (to avoid salinization) and must not use more water from
their source than is naturally replenished, otherwise the water source becomes, in effect, a non-renewable resource.
Improvements in water well drilling technology and submersible pumps combined with the development of drip
irrigation and low pressure pivots have made it possible to regularly achieve high crop yields where reliance on
rainfall alone previously made this level of success unpredictable. However, this progress has come at a price, in that
in many areas where this has occurred, such as the Ogallala Aquifer, the water is being used at a greater rate than its
rate of recharge.
Several steps should be taken to develop drought-resistant farming systems even in "normal" years, including both
policy and management actions: 1) improving water conservation and storage measures, 2) providing incentives for
selection of drought-tolerant crop species, 3) using reduced-volume irrigation systems, 4) managing crops to reduce
water loss, or 5) not planting at all.[7]

Soil
Soil erosion is fast becoming the one of the worlds greatest problems. It is estimated that "more than a thousand
million tonnes of southern Africa's soil are eroded every year. Experts predict that crop yields will be halved within
thirty to fifty years if erosion continues at present rates."[8] Soil erosion is not unique to Africa but is occurring
worldwide. The phenomenon is being called Peak Soil as present large scale factory farming techniques are
jeopardizing humanity's ability to grow food in the present and in the future.[9] Without efforts to improve soil
management practices, the availability of arable soil will become increasingly problematic.[10]
Some Soil Management techniques
1. No-till farming
2. Keyline design
3. Growing wind breaks to hold the soil
4. Incorporating organic matter back into fields
5. Stop using chemical fertilizers (which contain salt)

Economics
Socioeconomic aspects of sustainability are also partly understood. Regarding less concentrated farming, the best
known analysis is Netting's study on smallholder systems through history.[11] The Oxford Sustainable Group defines
sustainability in this context in a much broader form, considering effect on all stakeholders in a 360 degree approach
Given the finite supply of natural resources at any specific cost and location, agriculture that is inefficient or
damaging to needed resources may eventually exhaust the available resources or the ability to afford and acquire
them. It may also generate negative externality, such as pollution as well as financial and production costs.
The way that crops are sold must be accounted for in the sustainability equation. Food sold locally does not require
additional energy for transportation (including consumers). Food sold at a remote location, whether at a farmers'
market or the supermarket, incurs a different set of energy cost for materials, labour, and transport.

Methods
What grows where and how it is grown are a matter of choice. Two of the many possible practices of sustainable
agriculture are crop rotation and soil amendment, both designed to ensure that crops being cultivated can obtain the
necessary nutrients for healthy growth. Soil amendments would include using locally available compost from
community recycling centers. These community recycling centers help produce the compost needed by the local
organic farms.
Sustainable agriculture 108

Many scientists, farmers, and businesses have debated how to make agriculture sustainable. Using community
recycling from yard and kitchen waste utilizes a local area's commonly available resources. These resources in the
past were thrown away into large waste disposal sites, are now used to produce low cost organic compost for organic
farming. Other practices includes growing a diverse number of perennial crops in a single field, each of which would
grow in separate season so as not to compete with each other for natural resources.[12] This system would result in
increased resistance to diseases and decreased effects of erosion and loss of nutrients in soil. Nitrogen fixation from
legumes, for example, used in conjunction with plants that rely on nitrate from soil for growth, helps to allow the
land to be reused annually. Legumes will grow for a season and replenish the soil with ammonium and nitrate, and
the next season other plants can be seeded and grown in the field in preparation for harvest.
Monoculture, a method of growing only one crop at a time in a given field, is a very widespread practice, but there
are questions about its sustainability, especially if the same crop is grown every year. Today it is realized to get
around this problem local cities and farms can work together to produce the needed compost for the farmers around
them. This combined with growing a mixture of crops (polyculture) sometimes reduces disease or pest problems [13]
but polyculture has rarely, if ever, been compared to the more widespread practice of growing different crops in
successive years (crop rotation) with the same overall crop diversity. Cropping systems that include a variety of
crops (polyculture and/or rotation) may also replenish nitrogen (if legumes are included) and may also use resources
such as sunlight, water, or nutrients more efficiently (Field Crops Res. 34:239).
Replacing a natural ecosystem with a few specifically chosen plant varieties reduces the genetic diversity found in
wildlife and makes the organisms susceptible to widespread disease. The Great Irish Famine (1845–1849) is a
well-known example of the dangers of monoculture. In practice, there is no single approach to sustainable
agriculture, as the precise goals and methods must be adapted to each individual case. There may be some techniques
of farming that are inherently in conflict with the concept of sustainability, but there is widespread misunderstanding
on impacts of some practices. Today the growth of local farmers' markets offer small farms the ability to sell the
products that they have grown back to the cities that they got the recycled compost from. By using local recycling
this will help move people away from the slash-and-burn techniques that are the characteristic feature of shifting
cultivators are often cited as inherently destructive, yet slash-and-burn cultivation has been practiced in the Amazon
for at least 6000 years;[14] serious deforestation did not begin until the 1970s, largely as the result of Brazilian
government programs and policies.[15] To note that it may not have been slash-and-burn so much as slash-and-char,
which with the addition of organic matter produces terra preta, one of the richest soils on Earth and the only one that
regenerates itself.
There are also many ways to practice sustainable animal husbandry. Some of the key tools to grazing management
include fencing off the grazing area into smaller areas called paddocks, lowering stock density, and moving the stock
between paddocks frequently.[16]
Several attempts have been made to produce an artificial meat, using isolated tissues to produce it in vitro; Jason
Matheny's work on this topic, which in the New Harvest project, is one of the most commented.[17]
Sustainable agriculture 109

Soil treatment
Soil steaming can be used as an ecological alternative to chemicals for soil sterilization. Different methods are
available to induce steam into the soil in order to kill pests and increase soil health. Community and farm
composting of kitchen, yard, and farm organic waste can provide most if not all the required needs of local farms.
This composting could potentially be a reliable source of energy.

Off-farm impacts
A farm that is able to "produce perpetually", yet has negative effects on environmental quality elsewhere is not
sustainable agriculture. An example of a case in which a global view may be warranted is over-application of
synthetic fertilizer or animal manures, which can improve productivity of a farm but can pollute nearby rivers and
coastal waters (eutrophication). The other extreme can also be undesirable, as the problem of low crop yields due to
exhaustion of nutrients in the soil has been related to rainforest destruction, as in the case of slash and burn farming
for livestock feed.
Sustainability affects overall production, which must increase to meet the increasing food and fiber requirements as
the world's human population expands to a projected 9.3 billion people by 2050. Increased production may come
from creating new farmland, which may ameliorate carbon dioxide emissions if done through reclamation of desert
as in Palestine, or may worsen emissions if done through slash and burn farming, as in Brazil. Additionally,
Genetically modified organism crops show promise for radically increasing crop yields, although many people and
governments are apprehensive of this new farming method.
Some advocates of sustainable agriculture favour as the only system which can be sustained over the long-term.
However, organic production methods, especially in transition, yield less than their conventional counterparts and
raise the same problems of sustaining populations globally While evidence suggests that organic farms handle
periods of drought better and...... this method is very useful to poor farmers living in Eloor.

Urban planning
There has been considerable debate about which form of human residential habitat may be a better social form for
sustainable agriculture.
Many environmentalists advocate urban developments with high population density as a way of preserving
agricultural land and maximizing energy efficiency. However, others have theorized that sustainable ecocities, or
ecovillages which combine habitation and farming with close proximity between producers and consumers, may
provide greater sustainability.
The use of available city space (e.g., rooftop gardens, community gardens, garden sharing, and other forms of urban
agriculture) for cooperative food production is another way to achieve greater sustainability.
One of the latest ideas in achieving sustainable agricultural involves shifting the production of food plants from
major factory farming operations to large, urban, technical facilities called vertical farms. The advantages of vertical
farming include year-round production, isolation from pests and diseases, controllable resource recycling, and
on-site production that reduces transportation costs. While a vertical farm has yet to become a reality, the idea is
gaining momentum among those who believe that current sustainable farming methods will be insufficient to provide
for a growing global population[18] .
Sustainable agriculture 110

Footnotes
[1] Gold, M. (July 2009). What is Sustainable Agriculture? (http:/ / www. nal. usda. gov/ afsic/ pubs/ agnic/ susag. shtml). United States
Department of Agriculture, Alternative Farming Systems Information Center.
[2] Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act of 1990 (FACTA), Public Law 101-624, Title XVI, Subtitle A, Section 1603
[3] Organic and non-GMO Report. New certification programs aim to encourage sustainable farming (http:/ / www. non-gmoreport. com/
articles/ jul06/ sustainable_farming. php).
[4] Altieri, Miguel A. (1995) Agroecology: The science of sustainable agriculture. Westview Press, Boulder, CO.
[5] (http:/ / news. mongabay. com/ bioenergy/ 2008/ 03/ scientists-discover-genetics-of. html)
[6] Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, March 25, 2008 vol. 105 no. 12 4928-4932 (http:/ / www.
pnas. org/ content/ 105/ 12/ 4928. full. pdf+ html)
[7] (http:/ / www. sarep. ucdavis. edu/ concept. htm)
[8] Musokotwane Environment Resource Centre for Southern Africa CEP Factsheet. http:/ / www. sardc. net/ imercsa/ Programs/ CEP/ Pubs/
CEPFS/ CEPFS01. htm
[9] Peak Soil: Why cellulosic ethanol, biofuels are unsustainable and a threat to America http:/ / culturechange. org/ cms/ index.
php?option=com_content& task=view& id=107& Itemid=1
[10] CopperWiki Soil erosion http:/ / www. copperwiki. org/ index. php?title=Soil_erosion
[11] Netting, Robert McC. (1993) Smallholders, Householders: Farm Families and the Ecology of Intensive, Sustainable Agriculture. Stanford
Univ. Press, Palo Alto.
[12] Glover et al. 2007. Scientific American (http:/ / www. landinstitute. org/ pages/ Glover-et-al-2007-Sci-Am. pdf)
[13] Nature 406, 718-722 Genetic diversity and disease control in rice (http:/ / www. nature. com/ nature/ journal/ v406/ n6797/ abs/ 406718a0.
html), Environ. Entomol. 12:625)
[14] Sponsel, Leslie E. (1986) Amazon ecology and adaptation. Annual Review of Anthropology 15: 67-97.
[15] Hecht, Susanna and Alexander Cockburn (1989) The Fate of the Forest: developers, destroyers and defenders of the Amazon. New York:
Verso.
[16] Pastures: Sustainable Management (http:/ / attra. ncat. org/ attra-pub/ sustpast. html)
[17] "PETA’s Latest Tactic: $1 Million for Fake Meat" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2008/ 04/ 21/ us/ 21meat. html), NYT, April 21, 2023.
[18] Vertical Farming (http:/ / www. verticalfarm. com/ pdf/ PopSci-Jul-2007. pdf)

Sources
• Dore, J. 1997. Sustainability Indicators for Agriculture: Introductory Guide to Regional/National and On-farm
Indicators (http://www.rirdc.gov.au/pub/shortreps/sr20.html), Rural Industries Research and Development
Corporation (http://www.rirdc.gov.au/home.html), Australia.
• Gold, Mary. 1999. Sustainable Agriculture: Definitions and Terms (http://www.nal.usda.gov/afsic/
AFSIC_pubs/srb9902.htm). Special Reference Briefs Series no. SRB 99-02 Updates SRB 94-5 September 1999.
National Agricultural Library, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture.
• Hayes, B. 2008. Trial Proposal: Soil Amelioration in the South Australian Riverland.
• Jahn, GC, B. Khiev, C. Pol, N. Chhorn, S. Pheng, and V. Preap. 2001. Developing sustainable pest management
for rice in Cambodia. pp. 243–258, In S. Suthipradit, C. Kuntha, S. Lorlowhakarn, and J. Rakngan [eds.]
“Sustainable Agriculture: Possibility and Direction” Proceedings of the 2nd Asia-Pacific Conference on
Sustainable Agriculture 18–20 October 1999, Phitsanulok, Thailand. Bangkok (Thailand): National Science and
Technology Development Agency. 386 p.
• Lindsay Falvey (2004) Sustainability - Elusive or Illusion: Wise Environmental Management. Institute for
International Development, Adelaide pp259.
• Hecht, Susanna and Alexander Cockburn (1989) The Fate of the Forest: developers, destroyers and defenders of
the Amazon. New York: Verso.
• Netting, Robert McC. (1993) Smallholders, Householders: Farm Families and the Ecology of Intensive,
Sustainable Agriculture. Stanford Univ. Press, Palo Alto.
• Dedicated double issue of Philosophical Transactions B on Sustainable Agriculture. Some articles are freely
available. (http://publishing.royalsociety.org/sustainable-agriculture)
Sustainable agriculture 111

University programs
• Central Carolina Community College, Pittsboro, North Carolina
• Chiang Mai University/ Sustainable Agriculture and Integrated Watershed Management MSc, Chiang Mai
University, Thailand
• Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina
• The Evergreen State College, Olympia, Washington
• Imperial College London, UK
• Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa
• Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
• Educational and Training Opportunities in Sustainable Agriculture. 19th ed. 2009. World-wide directory of
academic and organizational programs. Alternative Farming Systems Information Center, National Agricultural
Library. http://www.nal.usda.gov/afsic/pubs/edtr/EDTR2006.shtml
• North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina
• Penn State University, University Park, Pennsylvania
• Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana
• Rutgers University / Student Sustainable Farm at Rutgers, New Brunswick, New Jersey
• Santa Rosa Junior College, Santa Rosa, California
• Sterling College (Vermont), Craftsbury, Vermont
• Universidad Bolivariana de Venezuela, Caracas-Ciudad Bolivar-Coro-Maracaibo, Venezuela
• University of Alaska, Fairbanks, Alaska
• University of British Columbia, Centre for Sustainable Food Systems at UBC Farm (website) (http://www.
landfood.ubc.ca/)
• University of California, Davis, California
• University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
• University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii
• University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Illinois
• University of Kassel/Faculty of Organic Agricultural Sciences, Witzenhausen, Germany
• University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky
• University of Maine, Orono, Maine
• University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts
• University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri
• University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont
• University of Wisconsin–River Falls, River Falls, Wisconsin
• Wageningen University, Netherlands
• Washington State University, Pullman, Washington
• West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia
• Yale Sustainable Food Project, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut
Sustainable agriculture 112

Further reading
• Madden, Patrick (March/April 1986). "Debt-Free Farming is Possible". Farm Economics (Pennsylvania:
Cooperative Extension Service, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture [and] The Pennsylvania State University).
ISSN 0555-9456
• Pender J., Place F., Ehui S. (2006) Strategies for Sustainable Land Management in the East African Highlands
(http://www.ifpri.org/pubs/books/oc53.asp)
• Pollan M. (2007) The Omnivore's Dilemma: A Natural History of Four Meals (http://www.michaelpollan.com/
omnivore.php) by
• Roberts W. (2008) The No-Nonsense Guide to World Food by Roberts W. (2008)

External links
• Africa Project 2020 (http://africaproject2020.com/) An Effort to Eradicate Hunger in Africa by empowering
Farmers through Sustainable Agriculture.
• Agricultural Sustainability Institute at UC Davis (http://asi.ucdavis.edu/)
• Biodynamic Agriculture Australia (http://www.biodynamics.net.au) Promoting the practice and understanding
of the Biodynamic system of sustainable agriculture.
• Center for Environmental Farming Systems (http://www.cefs.ncsu.edu/)
• Center for Sustaining Agriculture & Natural Resources (http://csanr.wsu.edu/) (WSU)
• Food Alliance (http://www.foodalliance.org/) The most credible and comprehensive certification for
sustainable agriculture and food handling in North America.
• A special issue of the Journal of Environmental Management (https://enduser.elsevier.com/farmmanagement)
focuses on farm management and sustainable agriculture.
• Greenpeace Sustainable Agriculture campaign (http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/
agriculture/)
• The Land Institute (http://www.landinstitute.org/) Research on sustainable perennial crop systems
• National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service (http://www.attra.org/)
• National Campaign for Sustainable Agriculture (http://www.sustainableagriculture.net/)
• What is Sustainable Agriculture? (http://www.sarep.ucdavis.edu/concept.htm) (from SAREP: University of
California Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education Program)
• Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education (SARE) (http://www.sare.org/)
• SAREP: University of California Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education Program (http://sarep.
ucdavis.edu/)
• Sustainable Commodity Initiative (http://www.sustainablecommodities.org)
• Industry-based initiative promoting sustainable agriculture for the production of mainstream agricultural materials
(http://www.saiplatform.org/)
• Rainforest Alliance's Sustainable Agriculture program (http://www.rainforest-alliance.org/programs/
agriculture/)
• The Vertical Farm Project (http://www.verticalfarm.com) Envisioning the future of human food production as a
mechanism for environmental restoration, protection from infectious disease, and a source of sustainable energy
• SANREM CRSP (http://www.oired.vt.edu/sanremcrsp/) Sustainable Agriculture and Natural Resource
Management Collaborative Research Support Program at Virginia Tech
• Self Help Development International (http://www.shdi.org) SHDI is an Irish agency engaged in promoting long
term sustainable development projects in Africa.
• Spade & Spoon: Localizing the Way Westerners Eat (http://www.newwest.net/index.php/topic/main/C520/
L40)
Sustainable agriculture 113

• SAFECROP Centre for research and development of crop protection with low environment and consumer health
impact (http://www.safecrop.org/)
• Sustainable Agriculture, Biodiversity and Livelihoods Programme, part of the Natural Resources Group,
International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) (http://www.iied.org/NR/agbioliv/index.
html)
• Research on Agriculture (http://www.odi.org.uk/agriculture) and its role in international development from
the Overseas Development Institute
• A Natural Step Case Study: Planning for the future harvest: Sustainability in the food industry - The Organically
Grown Company (http://www.naturalstepusa.org/case-studies/
organically-grown-company-sustainable-agriculture.html)
• Sustainable Agriculture Portal on WiserEarth (http://www.wiserearth.org/aof/195)
• List of Sustainable Agriculture Organizations on WiserEarth (http://www.wiserearth.org/organization/
limitToMasterid/195/limitToType/aof)
• Center for Sustainable Energy Farming (http://www.cfsef.org/)

Permaculture
Permaculture is an approach to designing human settlements and agricultural systems that are modeled on the
relationships found in natural ecologies.
Permaculture is sustainable land use design. This is based on ecological and biological principles, often using
patterns that occur in nature to maximise effect and minimise work. Permaculture aims to create stable, productive
systems that provide for human needs, harmoniously integrating the land with its inhabitants. The ecological
processes of plants, animals, their nutrient cycles, climatic factors and weather cycles are all part of the picture.
Inhabitants’ needs are provided for using proven technologies for food, energy, shelter and infrastructure. Elements
in a system are viewed in relationship to other elements, where the outputs of one element become the inputs of
another. Within a Permaculture system, work is minimised, "wastes" become resources, productivity and yields
increase, and environments are restored. Permaculture principles can be applied to any environment, at any scale
from dense urban settlements to individual homes, from farms to entire regions.
The first recorded modern practice of permaculture as a systematic method was by Austrian farmer Sepp Holzer in
the 1960s, but the method was scientifically developed by Australians Bill Mollison and David Holmgren and their
associates during the 1970s in a series of publications.
The word permaculture is described by Mollison as a portmanteau of permanent agriculture, and permanent culture.
The intent is that, by training individuals in a core set of design principles, those individuals can design their own
environments and build increasingly self-sufficient human settlements — ones that reduce society's reliance on
industrial systems of production and distribution that Mollison identified as fundamentally and systematically
destroying Earth's ecosystems.
While originating as an agro-ecological design theory, permaculture has developed a large international following.
This "permaculture community" continues to expand on the original ideas, integrating a range of ideas of alternative
culture, through a network of publications, permaculture gardens, intentional communities, training programs, and
internet forums. In this way, permaculture has become a form of architecture of nature and ecology as well as an
informal institution of alternative social ideals.
Permaculture 114

History
Franklin Hiram King coined the term
permanent agriculture in his classic
book from 1911, Farmers of Forty
Centuries: Or Permanent Agriculture
in China, Korea and Japan. In this
context, permanent agriculture is
understood as agriculture that can be
sustained indefinitely.

In 1929, Joseph Russell Smith took up

the term as the subtitle for Tree Crops:
A Permanent Agriculture, a book in
which he summed up his long
experience experimenting with fruits
and nuts as crops for human food and
animal feed. A revised and updated
An example of permaculture utilizing animals and gardens.
edition was published in 1950.[1] Smith
observed, "Forest -- field -- plow --
desert -- that is the cycle of the hills under most plow agricultures... When we develop an agriculture that fits this
land, it will become an almost endless vista of green, crop-yielding trees."[1] Smith saw the world as an inter-related
whole and suggested mixed systems of trees and crops underneath.

The work of Howard T. Odum was also an early influence on Permaculture, especially for Holmgren.[2] Odum
focused on system ecology, in particular the maximum power principle, which claims that natural systems tend to
maximize the energy embodied in a system. For example, the total calorific value of woodland is very high with its
multitude of plants and animals. It is an efficient converter of sunlight into biomass. A wheat field, on the other
hand, has much less total energy and often requires a large energy input in terms of fertilizer if the wheat and straw
are harvested and removed from the field.
The definition of permanent agriculture as that which can be sustained indefinitely was supported by Australian P. A.
Yeomans in the 1973 book "Water for Every Farm" who introduced an observation-based approach to land use in
Australia in the 1940s, based partially on his understanding of geology. Yeomans introduced Keyline Design as a
way of managing water supply and distribution. Holmgren based his EcoVillage design on the keyline principle, (see
WikiMapia view [3])
Other early influences were the work of Esther Deans, who pioneered No-Dig Gardening methods, and Masanobu
Fukuoka[4] who, in the late 1930s in Japan, began advocating no-till orchards, gardens and natural philosophy.
Other recent influences include the Vegetable Aquaculture and Animal enClosures (VAC) system in Vietnam which
is a government-supported system to recycle resources.

Mollison and Holmgren

In the mid 1970s, Australians Bill Mollison and David Holmgren started to develop ideas about stable agricultural
systems in Tasmania, Australia. This was a result of rapid growth of destructive industrial-agricultural methods.
They saw that these methods were poisoning the land and water, reducing biodiversity, and removing billions of tons
of topsoil from previously fertile landscapes. They announced their permaculture approach with the publication of
Permaculture One in 1978.
The term permaculture initially meant "permanent agriculture" but was quickly expanded to also stand for
"permanent culture" as it was seen that social aspects were integral to a truly sustainable system.
Permaculture 115

After Permaculture One, Mollison further refined and developed the

ideas by designing hundreds of permaculture sites and organizing this
information into more detailed books. Mollison lectured in over 80
countries and taught his two-week Design Course to many hundreds of
students. By the early 1980s, the concept had broadened from
agricultural systems design towards complete, sustainable human
habitats.

By the mid 1980s, many of the students had become successful

practitioners and had themselves begun teaching the techniques they Observation develops design—Termite mounds
had learned. In a short period of time permaculture groups, projects, inspire biomimicry for passive climate control in
associations, and institutes were established in over one hundred modern housing

countries. In 1991 a four-part Television documentary by ABC

productions called "The Global Gardener" showed permaculture applied to a range of worldwide situations, bringing
the concept to a much broader public. Excerpts are available online through YouTube.

Further developments
Permaculture has developed from its Australian origins into an international movement. English permaculture
teacher Patrick Whitefield, author of The Earth Care Manual and Permaculture in a Nutshell, suggests that there are
now two strands of permaculture: Original and Design permaculture.
Original permaculture attempts to closely replicate nature by developing edible ecosystems which closely resemble
their wild counterparts.
Design permaculture takes the working connections at use in an ecosystem and uses them as its basis. The end result
may not look as natural as a forest garden, but still respects ecological principles. Through close observation of
natural energies and flow patterns efficient design systems can be developed. This has become known as Natural
Systems Design. (Dr. M Millington and A Sampson-Kelly)

Elements of design
Permaculture principles draw heavily on the practical application of
ecological theory to analyze the characteristics and potential
relationships between design elements.
Each element of a design is carefully analyzed in terms of its needs,
outputs, and properties. For example chickens need water, moderated
microclimate and food, producing meat, eggs, and feathers as well as
manure which can help break up hardsoil hardpan.
Design elements are then assembled in relation to one another so that
the products of one element feed the needs of adjacent elements.
Synergy between design elements is achieved while minimizing waste
and the demand for human labor or energy. Exemplary permaculture
designs evolve over time, and can become extremely complex mosaics
of conventional and inventive cultural systems that produce a high
density of food and materials with minimal input.

Mature species on a keyline irrigation channel,

'Orana' Farm Temperate Victoria, Australia
Permaculture 116

While techniques and cultural systems are freely borrowed from organic agriculture, sustainable forestry,
horticulture, agroforestry, and the land management systems of indigenous peoples, permaculture's fundamental
contribution to the field of ecological design is the development of a concise set of broadly applicable organizing
principles that can be transferred through a brief intensive training.

Modern permaculture
Modern permaculture is a system design tool. It is a way of:
1. looking at a whole system or problem;
2. observing how the parts relate;
3. planning to mend sick systems by applying ideas learned from long-term sustainable working systems;
4. seeing connections between key parts.
In permaculture, practitioners learn from the working systems of nature to plan to fix the damaged landscapes of
human agricultural and city systems. This thinking applies to the design of a kitchen tool as easily to the re-design of
a farm.
Permaculture practitioners apply it to everything deemed necessary to build a sustainable future. Commonly,
"Initiatives ... tend to evolve from strategies that focus on efficiency (for example, more accurate and controlled uses
of inputs and minimization of waste) to substitution (for example, from more to less disruptive interventions, such as
from biocides to more specific biological controls and other more benign alternatives) to redesign (fundamental
changes in the design and management of the operation) (Hill & MacRae 1995, Hill et al. 1999)." "Permaculture is
about helping people make redesign choices: setting new goals and a shift in thinking that affects not only their home
but their actions in the workplace, borrowings and investments" (A Sampson-Kelly and Michel Fanton 1991).
Examples include the design and employment of complex transport solutions, optimum use of natural resources such
as sunlight, and "radical design of information-rich, multi-storey polyculture systems" (Mollison & Slay 1991).
"This progression generally involves a shift in the nature of one's dependence — from relying primarily on universal,
purchased, imported, technology-based interventions to more specific locally available knowledge and skill-based
ones. This usually eventually also involves fundamental shifts in world-views, senses of meaning, and associated
lifestyles (Hill 1991)." "My experience is that although efficiency and substitution initiatives can make significant
contributions to sustainability over the short term, much greater longer-term improvements can only be achieved by
redesign strategies; and, furthermore, that steps need to be taken at the outset to ensure that efficiency and
substitution strategies can serve as stepping stones and not barriers to redesign..." (Hill 2000)

Core values
Permaculture 117

Permaculture is a broad-based and holistic

approach that has many applications to all
aspects of life. At the heart of permaculture
design and practice is a fundamental set of ‘core
values’ or ethics which remain constant whatever
a person's situation, whether they are creating
systems for town planning or trade; whether the
land they care for is only a windowbox or an
entire forest. These 'ethics' are often summarized
as;

• Earthcare – recognising that Earth is the

source of all life (and is possibly itself a Permaculture on an organic farm on the Swabian Mountains in Germany.
living entity — see Gaia theory), that Earth is
our valuable home, and that we are a part of Earth, not apart from it. Agriculturalists traditionally exploit soil,
plants and animals so intensely that serious internal (e.g. diseases, soil erosion, decrease of production through the
years) as well as external problems (e.g. pollution from fertilizers, human diseases originating from farm
factories) occur. Permaculturalists have introduced new ways of practicing agriculture, based on moderate yet
problem-free rates of production. These ways are fundamental in restoring a mutually beneficial (and healthy)
relationship between people and the environmental factors indispensable to their survival.
• Peoplecare – supporting and helping each other to change to ways of living that do not harm ourselves or the
planet, and to develop healthy societies.
• Fairshare (or placing limits on consumption) - ensuring that Earth's limited resources are used in ways that are
equitable and wise.
Modern thought about permaculture began with the issue of sustainable food production. It started with the belief
that for people to feed themselves sustainably, they need to move away from reliance on industrialized agriculture.
Where industrial farms use technology powered by fossil fuels (such as gasoline, diesel and natural gas), and each
farm specializes in producing high yields of a single crop, permaculture stresses the value of low inputs and diverse
crops. The model for this was an abundance of small-scale market and home gardens for food production, and a main
issue was food miles.

Design innovation
The core of permaculture has always been in supplying a design toolkit for human habitation. This toolkit helps the
designer to model a final design based on an observation of how ecosystems interact. A simple example of this is
how the Sun interacts with a plant by providing it with energy to grow. This plant may then be pollinated by bees or
eaten by deer. These may disperse seed to allow other plants to grow into tall trees and provide shelter to these
creatures from the wind. The bees may provide food for birds and the trees provide roosting for them. The tree's
leaves fall and rot, providing food for small insects and fungus. Such a web of intricate connections allows a diverse
population of plant life and animals to survive by giving them food and shelter. One of the innovations of
permaculture design was to appreciate the efficiency and productivity of natural ecosystems, to use natural energies
(wind, gravity, solar, fire, wave and more) and seek to apply this to the way human needs for food and shelter are
met. One of the most notable proponents of this design system has been David Holmgren, who based much of his
permaculture innovation on zone analysis.
Permaculture 118

OBREDIM design methodology

OBREDIM is an acronym for observation, boundaries, resources, evaluation, design, implementation and
maintenance.
• Observation allows you first to see how the site functions within itself, to gain an understanding of its initial
relationships. Some recommend a year-long observation of a site before anything is planted. During this period all
factors, such as lay of the land, natural flora and so forth, can be brought into the design. A year allows the site to
be observed through all seasons, although it must be realized that, particularly in temperate climates, there can be
substantial variations between years.
• Boundaries refer to physical ones as well as to those neighbors might place, for example.
• Resources include the people involved, funding, as well as what can be grown or produced in the future.
• Evaluation of the first three will then allow one to prepare for the next three. This is a careful phase of taking
stock of what is at hand to work with.
• Design is a creative and intensive process, and must stretch the ability to see possible future synergetic
relationships.
• Implementation is literally the ground-breaking part of the process when digging and shaping of the site occurs.
• Maintenance is then required to keep the site at a healthy optimum, making minor adjustments as necessary.
Good design will preclude the need for any major adjustment.

General Structure
An ideal permacultural system possesses the following structural features:[5]
• Large trees dominate but not saturate the area, i.e. there exist patches barren of trees.
• Edges that create special favorable conditions exist.
• Initially the system is in a state of controlled -possibly ongoing- succession.

Patterns
The use of patterns both in nature and
reusable patterns from other sites is
often key to permaculture design. This
echoes the pattern language of
Christopher Alexander used in
architecture which has been an
inspiration for many permaculture
designers. All things, even the wind,
the waves and the earth on its axis,
moving around the Sun, form patterns.
In pattern application, permaculture
designers are encouraged to develop:

1. Awareness of the patterns that exist

in nature (and how these function) Herb spiral

2. Application of pattern on sites in

order to satisfy specific design needs.
"The application of pattern on a design site involves the designer recognizing the shape and potential to fit these
patterns or combinations of patterns comfortably onto the landscape" Sampson-Kelly. Branching can be used for the
direction of paths, rather than straight paths with square angles. Lobe-like paths off the main path (known as keyhole
paths) can be used to minimize waste and compaction of the soil.
Permaculture 119

Zones
Permaculture zones are a way of organizing design elements in a human environment on the basis of the frequency
of human use and plant or animal needs.
Frequently manipulated or harvested elements of the design are located close to the house in zones one and two such
as herbs for the kitchen.
Whereas chickens, for example, like to be close for their security but need to be kept at a safe distance to reduce
noise, destruction of delicate plants such as herbs and vegetables and any risk of contamination. Less frequently used
or manipulated elements, and elements that benefit from isolation (such as wild species) are farther away.

Links and connections

Also key to the permacultural design model is that useful connections are made between components in the final
design. The formal analogy for this is a natural mature ecosystem. So, in much the same way as there are useful
connections between Sun, plants, insects and soil there will be useful connections between different plants and their
relationship to the landscape and humans.
Another innovation of the permaculture design is to design a landuse or other system that has multiple outputs. In
terms of Holmgren's application of H.T. Odum's work, a useful connection is viewed as one that maximizes power:
that is, maximizes the rate of useful energy transformation. A comparison which illustrates this is between a wheat
field and a forest.
"It is not the number of diverse things in a design that leads to stability, it is the number of beneficial
connections between these components" Mollison 1988.

Layers/'stacking'
In permaculture and forest gardening, seven
layers are identified:
1. The canopy
2. Low tree layer (dwarf fruit trees)
3. Shrubs
4. Herbaceous
5. Rhizosphere (root crops)
6. Soil surface (cover crops)
7. Vertical layer (climbers, vines)
An eighth layer, mycosphere (fungi), is
often included.
A mature ecosystem such as ancient The seven layers of the forest garden.
woodland has a huge number of
relationships between its component parts: trees, understory, ground cover, soil, fungi, insects and other animals.
Plants grow at different heights. This allows a diverse community of life to grow in a relatively small space. Plants
come into leaf and fruit at different times of year.
Permaculture 120

For example, in the UK, wild garlic comes into leaf on the woodland
floor in the time before the top canopy re-appears with the spring. A
wood suffers very little soil erosion, as there are always roots in the
soil. It offers a habitat to a wide variety of animal life, which the plants
rely on for pollination and seed distribution.
The productivity of such a forest, in terms of how much new growth it
produces, exceeds that of the most productive wheat field. It is in this
observation — of how much more productive a wood may be on far
less fertilizer input — that the potential productivity of a permaculture
design is modeled. The many connections in a wood contribute
together to a proliferation of opportunities for amplifier feedback to
evolve that in turn maximize energy flow through the system.

Polyculture
Polyculture is agriculture using multiple crops in the same space, in
imitation of the diversity of natural ecosystems, and avoiding large
stands of single crops, or monoculture. It includes crop rotation,
multi-cropping, and inter-cropping. Alley cropping is a simplification Layering in a temperate garden in New South
Wales, Australia
of the layered system which typically uses just two layers, with
alternate rows of trees and smaller plants.

Guild
Permaculture guilds are groups of organisms - plants, animals, fungi, bacteria etc. - which work particularly well
together. These can be those observed in nature such as the White Oak guild which centers on the White Oak tree
and includes 10 other plants. Native communities can be adapted by substitution of plants more suitable for human
use.
The Three Sisters of maize, squash and beans is a well known guild. The British National Vegetation Classification
provides a comprehensive list of plant communities in the UK. Guilds can be thought of as an extension of
companion planting.

Increased edge
See also edge effect
Permaculturists maintain that where vastly differing systems meet, there is an intense area of productivity and useful
connections.
The greatest example of this is the coast. Where the land and the sea meet there is a particularly rich area that meets a
disproportionate percentage of human and animal needs. This is evidenced by the fact that the overwhelming
majority of humankind lives within 100 km of the sea. So this idea is played out in permacultural designs by using
spirals in the herb garden or creating ponds that have wavy undulating shorelines rather than a simple circle or oval
(thereby increasing the amount of edge for a given area). Edges between woodland and open areas have been
claimed to be the most productive.[6]
Permaculture 121

Perennial plants
Perennial plants are often used in permaculture design. As they do not need to be planted every year they require less
maintenance and fertilizers. They are especially important in the outer zones and in layered systems.
Ken Fern of Plants For A Future has spent many years investigating suitable perennial plants, as has Wes Jackson of
The Land Institute.

Animals
Many permaculture designs involve animals other than humans.
Chickens can be used as a method of weed control and also as a
producer of eggs, meat and fertilizer. Some types of agroforestry
systems combine trees with grazing animals.
Some projects are critical of the use of animals (see vegan organic
gardening). However not all permaculture sites farm the animals. The
animals are pets and can be treated as co-habitators and co-workers of
the site, eating foods normally unpalatable to people such as slugs and
termites, being an integral part of the pest management by eating some
Chickens in a chicken tractor prepare a section of
pests, supplying fertilizer through their droppings and controlling some land before being dug up for a new vegetable bed.
weed species. (An organic farm near Bruthen, Victoria)

Annual monoculture (anti-pattern)

Annual monoculture such as a wheatfield can be considered a pattern to be avoided in terms of space (height is
uniform) and time (crops grow at the same rate until harvesting). During growth and especially after harvesting the
system is prone to soil erosion from rain. The field requires a hefty input of fertilizers for growth and machinery for
harvesting. The work is more likely to be repetitive, mechanized and rely on fossil fuels.
No pattern should be hard and fast and depending on the design considerations they can be broken. An example of
this is broadscale permaculture[7] [8] practiced at Ragmans Lane Farm, which has a component of annual farming.
Here the amount of human involvement is a key factor influencing the design.

Energy
Applying these values means using
fewer non-renewable sources of
energy, particularly petroleum based
forms of energy. Burning fossil fuels
contributes to greenhouse gases and
global warming; however, using less
energy is more than just combating
global warming. Natural Energy use: e.g. a cave for preservation

Using current agricultural systems the

food production system is not fully renewable. Industrial agriculture uses large amounts of petroleum and natural
gas, both to run the equipment, and to supply pesticides and fertilizers. Permaculture is in part an attempt to create a
renewable system of food production that relies upon minimal amounts of energy.
For example permaculture focuses on maximizing the use of trees (agroforestry) and perennial food crops because
they make a more efficient and long term use of energy than traditional seasonal crops. A farmer does not have to
exert energy every year replanting them, and this frees up that energy to be used somewhere else.
Permaculture 122

Traditional pre-industrial agriculture was labor intensive, industrial agriculture is fossil fuel intensive, and
permaculture is design and information intensive and petrofree. Partially permaculture is an attempt to work smarter,
not harder; and when possible the energy used should come from renewable sources such as passive solar designs.

Chicken example
A good example of this kind of efficient design is the chicken greenhouse. By attaching a chicken coop to a
greenhouse you can reduce the need to heat the greenhouse by fossil fuels, as the chickens' bodies heat the area.
The chickens scratching and pecking can be put to good use to clear new land for crops. Their manure can be used in
composting to fertilize the soil. Feathers could be used in compost or as a mulch. In a conventional factory situation
all these chicken outputs are seen as a waste problem.
In large factory farms (cooled by large air conditioning systems), chicken heat is a waste byproduct, along with their
manure. All energy is focused on egg production. Thus it is a further principle of permaculture that "pollution is
energy in the wrong place".

Holmgren's 12 design principles

These restatements of the principles of permaculture appear in Holmgren's Permaculture: Principles and Pathways
Beyond Sustainability [9] ; also see permacultureprinciples.com [10] ;
1. Observe and interact - By taking time to engage with nature we can design solutions that suit our particular
situation.
2. Catch and store energy - By developing systems that collect resources at peak abundance, we can use them in
times of need.
3. Obtain a yield - Ensure that you are getting truly useful rewards as part of the work that you are doing.
4. Apply self-regulation and accept feedback - We need to discourage inappropriate activity to ensure that
systems can continue to function well.
5. Use and value renewable resources and services - Make the best use of nature's abundance to reduce our
consumptive behaviour and dependence on non-renewable resources.
6. Produce no waste - By valuing and making use of all the resources that are available to us, nothing goes to
waste.
7. Design from patterns to details - By stepping back, we can observe patterns in nature and society. These can
form the backbone of our designs, with the details filled in as we go.
8. Integrate rather than segregate - By putting the right things in the right place, relationships develop between
those things and they work together to support each other.
9. Use small and slow solutions - Small and slow systems are easier to maintain than big ones, making better use of
local resources and producing more sustainable outcomes.
10. Use and value diversity - Diversity reduces vulnerability to a variety of threats and takes advantage of the
unique nature of the environment in which it resides.
11. Use edges and value the marginal - The interface between things is where the most interesting events take
place. These are often the most valuable, diverse and productive elements in the system.
12. Creatively use and respond to change - We can have a positive impact on inevitable change by carefully
observing, and then intervening at the right time.
Permaculture 123

Design for ecologinomic (ecology-economic) ethics

A basic principle is thus to "add value" to existing crops. A permaculture design therefore seeks to provide a wide
range of solutions by including its main ethics (see above) as an integral part of the final value-added design.
Crucially, it seeks to address problems that include the economic question of how to either make money from
growing crops or exchange crops for labor such as in the LETS scheme. Each final design therefore should include
economic considerations as well as give equal weight to maintaining ecological balance, making sure that the needs
of people working on the project are met and that no one is exploited.
Community economics requires a balance between the three aspects that comprise a community: justice,
environment and economics, also called the triple bottom line, or "ecological-economics-ethics" (EEE) or "triple E".
A cooperative farmer's market could be an example of this structure. The farmers are the workers and owners.
Additionally, all economics are limited by their ecology. No economic system stands apart independently from its
eco-system; therefore, all external costs must be considered when discussing economics.

Examples of ecolonomic design

One way of doing this is through designing a system that has "multiple outputs". For example, a wheat field
interspersed with nut trees will reduce soil erosion, act as a windbreak and provide a nut crop as well as a wheat
crop. Here the system comes into conflict with conventional agriculture and economics. Interplanting trees in a
wheat field reduces the wheat yield and makes the field harder to harvest using machinery, as the operator has to
drive around the trees.
Most farms specialize in a few crops at a time and seek to maximize surplus in order to increase profit. This surplus
can only be maintained with a massive injection of fossil fuels.

Contemporary projects
In the years since its conception, permaculture has become a successful approach to designing sustainable systems.
Its adaptability and emphasis on meeting human needs means that it can be utilized in every climatic and cultural
zone.
Permaculture is about creating small successful interconnected domestic food forests. Permaculture has also been
used successfully in Eco-Village design, many of its strategies have been applied to large scale broadscale
commercial farming, and it has been successful as a development tool to help meet the needs of indigenous
communities facing degraded standards of living from development of land and the introduction of industrialized
food in Australia and in Africa.

Critiques
John Robin has been one the strongest critics of permaculture, criticizing it for its potential to spread environmental
weeds, reflecting a divide between native plant advocates and permaculture.[11]
Bill Mollison himself has also been critical of itinerant teachers of permaculture who would go on to teach after only
a short course. At one point Mollison unsuccessfully attempted to trademark the term permaculture to prevent this
practice.[12]
Another criticism of permaculture is to be found in a book review of Hemenway's Gaia's Garden, published in the
Whole Earth Review.[13] In it, Williams critiques the view that woods are more highly productive than farmland on
the basis of the theory of ecological succession which states that net productivity declines as ecosystems mature. He
also criticized the lack of scientifically tested data and questions whether permaculture is applicable to more than a
small number of dedicated people.
Permaculture 124

Hemenway's response in the same magazine disputes Williams's claim on productivity as focusing on climax rather
than on maturing forests, citing data from ecologist Robert Whittaker's book Communities and Ecosystems.
Hemenway is also critical of Williams's characterisation of permaculture as simply forest gardening.[14]

References
[1] Smith, Joseph Russell; Smith, John (1987). Tree Crops. Island Press.
[2] Energy and Permaculture (by David Holmgren)Reprinted from The Permaculture Activist #31 (http:/ / www. permacultureactivist. net/
Holmgren/ holmgren. htm)
[3] http:/ / www. wikimapia. org/ #lat=-37. 159308& lon=144. 252001& z=17& l=0& m=a& v=2
[4] Mollison, Bill (1978 September 15–21). "The One-Straw Revolution by Masanobu Fukuoka - book review". Nation Review: p. 18.
[5] Sustainable Agriculture by J. Mason, Landlinks Presss 2003
[6] Plants for a Future - The woodland edge (http:/ / www. pfaf. org/ leaflets/ woodlandedge. php)
[7] broadscale permaculture (http:/ / www. permaculture-magazine. co. uk/ articles/ archive/ article_10a. html)
[8] Broadscale Permaculture at Ragman's Lane Farm(By Matt Dunwell) Article first published in 'Permaculture Magazine' No. 10. (http:/ / web.
archive. org/ web/ 20070221054024/ http:/ / www. permaculture. co. uk/ mag/ Articles/ broadscale. html)
[9] Permaculture - Peak Oil - The Source of Permaculture Vision and Innovation: (http:/ / www. holmgren. com. au)
[10] Permaculture Principles: (http:/ / permacultureprinciples. com)
[11] Permaculture: Weeds or Wild Nature (http:/ / www. holmgren. com. au/ html/ Writings/ weeds. html)
[12] http:/ / www. futuredesigners. com. au/ bill%20mollison%20int. htm
[13] Williams, Greg (2001). "Gaia's Garden: A Guide to Home-Scale Permaculture" (http:/ / www. findarticles. com/ p/ articles/ mi_m0GER/
is_2001_Winter/ ai_81790195). Whole Earth. .
[14] A toolbox, not a tool (http:/ / www. findarticles. com/ p/ articles/ mi_m0GER/ is_2001_Winter/ ai_81790196)

Further reading
• Bell, Graham. The Permaculture Way. 1st edition, Thorsons, (1992), ISBN 0-7225-2568-0, 2nd edition
Permanent Publications (UK) (2004), ISBN 1-85623-028-7.
• Bell, Graham. The Permaculture Garden. Permanent Publications (UK) (2004), ISBN 1-85623-027-9.
• Burnett, Graham. Permaculture: A Beginner's Guide. Spiralseed (http://www.spiralseed.co.uk) (UK).
• Fern, Ken. Plants For A Future. [Permanent Publications] (UK) (1997). ISBN 1-85623-011-2. Google Books
link. (http://books.google.com/books?id=uXDXevCgtV0C&dq="plants+for+a+future"&
printsec=frontcover&source=bl&ots=fo2Ig8wevb&sig=U5hYlhk0ddjQaYyL9jcaThJSJx4&hl=en&
ei=6YYBS6rNAZOxlAeUxoWLCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=8&
ved=0CDEQ6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=&f=false)
• Fukuoka, Masanobu. The One Straw Revolution. Rodale Books (US). Holistic Agriculture Library (http://www.
soilandhealth.org/01aglibrary/01aglibwelcome.html)
• Holmgren, David. Permaculture: Principles and Pathways Beyond Sustainability. Holmgren Design Services
(http://www.holmgren.com.au/) (Australia).
• Holmgren, David. "Update 49: Retrofitting the suburbs for sustainability". CSIRO Sustainability Network (http://
www.bml.csiro.au/SNnewsletters.htm#CSIRO Sustainability Network)
• Hart, Robert. Forest Gardening. Green Books (UK) ISBN 1-900322-02-1.
• Hemenway, Toby. Gaia's Garden. Chelsea Green Books (http://www.chelseagreen.com) (US) (2001). ISBN
1-890132-52-7.
• Jacke, Dave with Eric Toensmeier. Edible Forest Gardens. Volume I: Ecological Vision and Theory for
Temperate-Climate Permaculture, Volume II: Ecological Design and Practice for Temperate-Climate
Permaculture. Edible Forest Gardens (http://www.edibleforestgardens.com) (US) 2005
• King, FH (Franklin Hiram) Farmers of Forty Centuries: Or Permanent Agriculture in China, Korea and Japan
(1911).
• Law, Ben. The Woodland House. [Permanent Publications] (UK) (2005), ISBN 1-85623-031-7.
• Law, Ben. The Woodland Way. [Permanent Publications] (UK), ISBN 1-85623-009-0.
Permaculture 125

• Loofs, Mona. Permaculture, Ecology and Agriculture: An investigation into Permaculture theory and practice
using two case studies in northern New South Wales Honours thesis, Human Ecology Program, Department of
Geography, Australian National University 1993
• Mollison, Bill & David Holmgren Permaculture One. Transworld Publishers (Australia) (1978), ISBN
0-552-98060-9.
• Mollison, Bill. Permaculture: A Designer's Manual. Tagari Press (Australia).
• Mollison, Bill Permaculture Two. Tagari Press (http://www.tagari.com) (Australia) (1979), ISBN
0-908228-00-7.
• Odum, H.T., Jorgensen, S.E. and Brown, M.T. 'Energy hierarchy and transformity in the universe', in Ecological
Modelling, 178, pp. 17–28 (2004).
• Paull, J. "Permanent Agriculture: Precursor to Organic Farming", Journal of Bio-Dynamics Tasmania, no.83,
pp. 19–21, 2006. Organic eprints (http://orgprints.org/10237/).
• Rosemary Morrow, Earth User's Guide to Permaculture ISBN 0-86417-514-0
• Whitefield, Patrick. Permaculture In A Nutshell. Permanent Publications (UK) (1993), ISBN 1-85623-003-1.
• Whitefield, Patrick. The Earth Care Manual. Permanent Publications (UK) (2004), ISBN 1-85623-021-X.
• Woodrow, Linda. The Permaculture Home Garden. Penguin Books (Australia).
• Yeomans, P.A. Water for Every Farm: A practical irrigation plan for every Australian property, K.G. Murray
Publishing Company, Pty, Ltd, Sydney, N.S.W., Australia (1973).
• Various, The Same Planet a different World.. free eBook (http://permaculturefrance.com/resources.htm)
(France).

External links
• The 15 pamphlets based on the 1981 Permaculture Design Course given by Bill Mollison (http://www.
bettertimesinfo.org/pdc_all.pdf) all in 1 pdf-file.
• Introduction to permaculture (http://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/perma.html).
• Permaculture a Beginners Guide (http://www.spiralseed.co.uk/permaculture) - a 'pictorial walkthrough'.
 126

Policy

Agricultural policy
Agricultural policy describes a set of laws relating to domestic agriculture and imports of foreign agricultural
products. Governments usually implement agricultural policies with the goal of achieving a specific outcome in the
domestic agricultural product markets. Outcomes can involve, for example, a guaranteed supply level, price stability,
product quality, product selection, land use or employment.

Agriculture policy concerns

An example of the breadth and types of agriculture policy concerns can be found in the Australian Bureau of
Agricultural and Resource Economics article Agricultural Economies of Australia and New Zealand which says that
the major challenges and issues faced by their industrial agriculture industry are:
• marketing challenges and consumer tastes
• international trading environment (world market conditions, barriers to trade, quarantine and technical barriers,
maintenance of global competitiveness and market image, and management of biosecurity issues affecting
imports and the disease status of exports)
• biosecurity (pests and diseases such as bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), avian influenza, foot and mouth
disease, citrus canker, and sugarcane smut)
• infrastructure (such as transport, ports, telecommunications, energy and irrigation facilities)
• management skills and labor supply (With increasing requirements for business planning, enhanced market
awareness, the use of modern technology such as computers and global positioning systems and better agronomic
management, modern farm managers will need to become increasingly skilled. Examples: training of skilled
workers, the development of labor hire systems that provide continuity of work in industries with strong seasonal
peaks, modern communication tools, investigating market opportunities, researching customer requirements,
business planning including financial management, researching the latest farming techniques, risk management
skills)
• coordination (a more consistent national strategic agenda for agricultural research and development; more active
involvement of research investors in collaboration with research providers developing programs of work; greater
coordination of research activities across industries, research organisations and issues; and investment in human
capital to ensure a skilled pool of research personnel in the future.)
• technology (research, adoption, productivity, genetically modified (GM) crops, investments)
• water (access rights, water trade, providing water for environmental outcomes, assignment of risk in response to
reallocation of water from consumptive to environmental use, accounting for the sourcing and allocation of water)
• resource access issues (management of native vegetation, the protection and enhancement of biodiversity,
sustainability of productive agricultural resources, landholder responsibilities)[1]

Poverty reduction
Agriculture remains the largest single contributor to the livelihoods of the 75% of the world's poor who live in rural
areas. Encouraging agricultural growth is therefore an important aspect of agricultural policy in the developing
world. In addition, a recent Natural Resource Perspective paper by the Overseas Development Institute found that
good infrastructure, education and effective information services in rural areas were necessary to improve the
chances of making agriculture work for the poor.[2]
Agricultural policy 127

Biosecurity
The biosecurity concerns facing industrial agriculture can be illustrated by:
• the threat to poultry and humans from H5N1; possibly caused by use of animal vaccines
• the threat to cattle and humans from bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE); possibly caused by the unnatural
feeding of cattle to cattle to minimize costs
• and the threat to industry profits from diseases like foot-and-mouth disease and citrus canker which increasing
globalization makes harder to contain.

Avian influenza
Use of animal vaccines can create new viruses that kill people and cause flu pandemic threats. H5N1 is an example
of where this might have already occurred. According to the CDC article H5N1 Outbreaks and Enzootic Influenza by
Robert G. Webster et al.:"Transmission of highly pathogenic H5N1 from domestic poultry back to migratory
waterfowl in western China has increased the geographic spread. The spread of H5N1 and its likely reintroduction to
domestic poultry increase the need for good agricultural vaccines. In fact, the root cause of the continuing H5N1
pandemic threat may be the way the pathogenicity of H5N1 viruses is masked by co-circulating influenza viruses or
bad agricultural vaccines."[3] Dr. Robert Webster explains: "If you use a good vaccine you can prevent the
transmission within poultry and to humans. But if they have been using vaccines now [in China] for several years,
why is there so much bird flu? There is bad vaccine that stops the disease in the bird but the bird goes on pooping out
virus and maintaining it and changing it. And I think this is what is going on in China. It has to be. Either there is not
enough vaccine being used or there is substandard vaccine being used. Probably both. It’s not just China. We can’t
blame China for substandard vaccines. I think there are substandard vaccines for influenza in poultry all over the
world."[4]
In response to the same concerns, Reuters reports Hong Kong infectious disease expert Lo Wing-lok indicating that
vaccines have to take top priority. Julie Hall, who is in charge of the WHO's outbreak response in China, claimed
that China's vaccinations might be masking the virus.[5] The BBC reported that Dr Wendy Barclay, a virologist at the
University of Reading, UK said: "The Chinese have made a vaccine based on reverse genetics made with H5N1
antigens, and they have been using it. There has been a lot of criticism of what they have done, because they have
protected their chickens against death from this virus but the chickens still get infected; and then you get drift - the
virus mutates in response to the antibodies - and now we have a situation where we have five or six 'flavours' of
H5N1 out there."[6]

Bovine spongiform encephalopathy

Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), commonly known as "mad cow disease", is a fatal, neurodegenerative
disease of cattle, which infects by a mechanism that surprised biologists upon its discovery in the late 20th century.
In the UK, the country worst affected, 179,000 cattle were infected and 4.4 million killed as a precaution.[7] The
disease can be transmitted to human beings who eat or inhale material from infected carcasses. In humans, it is
known as new variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD or nvCJD), and by June 2007, it had killed 165 people in
Britain, and six elsewhere[8] with the number expected to rise because of the disease's long incubation period.
Between 460,000 and 482,000 BSE-infected animals had entered the human food chain before controls on high-risk
offal were introduced in 1989.[9]
A British inquiry into BSE concluded that the epidemic was caused by feeding cattle, who are normally herbivores,
the remains of other cattle in the form of meat and bone meal (MBM), which caused the infectious agent to
spread.[10] [11] The origin of the disease itself remains unknown. The current scientific view is that infectious
proteins called prions developed through spontaneous mutation, probably in the 1970s, and there is a possibility that
the use of organophosphorus pesticides increased the susceptibility of cattle to the disease.[12] The infectious agent is
distinctive for the high temperatures it is able to survive; this contributed to the spread of the disease in Britain,
Agricultural policy 128

which had reduced the temperatures used during its rendering process.[10] Another contributory factor was the
feeding of infected protein supplements to very young calves instead of milk from their mothers.[10] [13]

Foot-and-mouth disease
Foot-and-mouth disease is a highly contagious and sometimes fatal viral disease of cattle and pigs. It can also infect
deer, goats, sheep, and other bovids with cloven hooves, as well as elephants, rats, and hedgehogs. Humans are
affected only very rarely. FMD occurs throughout much of the world, and while some countries have been free of
FMD for some time, its wide host range and rapid spread represent cause for international concern. In 1996, endemic
areas included Asia, Africa, and parts of South America. North America, Australia, New Zealand and Japan have
been free of FMD for many years. Most European countries have been recognized as free, and countries belonging to
the European Union have stopped FMD vaccination.
Infection with foot-and-mouth disease tends to occur locally, that is, the virus is passed on to susceptible animals
through direct contact with infected animals or with contaminated pens or vehicles used to transport livestock. The
clothes and skin of animal handlers such as farmers, standing water, and uncooked food scraps and feed supplements
containing infected animal products can harbor the virus as well. Cows can also catch FMD from the semen of
infected bulls. Control measures include quarantine and destruction of infected livestock, and export bans for meat
and other animal products to countries not infected with the disease.
Because FMD rarely infects humans but spreads rapidly among animals, it is a much greater threat to the agriculture
industry than to human health. Farmers around the world can lose huge amounts of money during a foot-and-mouth
epidemic, when large numbers of animals are destroyed and revenues from milk and meat production go down. One
of the difficulties in vaccinating against FMD is the huge variation between and even within serotypes. There is no
cross-protection between serotypes (meaning that a vaccine for one serotype won't protect against any others) and in
addition, two strains within a given serotype may have nucleotide sequences that differ by as much as 30% for a
given gene. This means that FMD vaccines must be highly specific to the strain involved. Vaccination only provides
temporary immunity that lasts from months to years.

Citrus canker
Citrus canker is a disease affecting citrus species that is caused by the bacterium Xanthomonas axonopodis. Infection
causes lesions on the leaves, stems, and fruit of citrus trees, including lime, oranges, and grapefruit. While not
harmful to humans, canker significantly affects the vitality of citrus trees, causing leaves and fruit to drop
prematurely; a fruit infected with canker is safe to eat but too unsightly to be sold. The disease, which is believed to
have originated in South East Asia, is extremely persistent when it becomes established in an area, making it
necessary for all citrus orchards to be destroyed for successful eradication of the disease. Australia, Brazil and the
United States are currently suffering from canker outbreaks.
The disease can be detected in orchards and on fruit by the appearance of lesions. Early detection is critical in
quarantine situations. Bacteria are tested for pathogenicity by inoculating multiple citrus species with the bacterium.
Simultaneously, other diagnostic tests (antibody detection, fatty-acid profiling, and genetic procedures using PCR)
are conducted to identify the particular canker strain. Citrus canker outbreaks are prevented and managed in a
number of ways. In countries that do not have canker, the disease is prevented from entering the country by
quarantine measures. In countries with new outbreaks, eradication programs that are started soon after the disease
has been discovered have been successful; such programs rely on destruction of affected orchards. When eradication
has been unsuccessful and the disease has become established, management options include replacing susceptible
citrus cultivars with resistant cultivars, applying preventive sprays of copper-based bactericides, and destroying
infected trees and all surrounding trees within an appropriate radius.
The citrus industry is the largest fresh-fruit exporting industry in Australia.[14] Australia has had three outbreaks of
citrus canker; two were successfully eradicated and one is ongoing. The disease was found twice during the 1900s in
Agricultural policy 129

the Northern Territory and was eradicated each time. During the first outbreak in 1912, every citrus tree north of
latitude 19° south was destroyed, taking 11 years to eradicate the disease.[15] In 2004, Asiatic citrus canker was
detected in an orchard in Emerald, Queensland, and was thought to have occurred from the illegal import of infected
citrus plants. The state and federal governments have ordered that all commercial orchards, all non-commercial
citrus tress, and all native lime trees (C. glauca) in the vicinity of Emerald be destroyed rather than trying to isolate
infected trees.

Policy tools
An agricultural subsidy is a governmental subsidy paid to farmers and agribusinesses to manage the agricultural
industry as one part of the various methods a government uses in a mixed economy. The conditions for payment and
the reasons for the individual specific subsidies varies with farm product, size of farm, nature of ownership, and
country among other factors. Enriching peanut farmers for political purposes, keeping the price of a staple low to
keep the poor from rebelling, stabilizing the production of a crop to avoid famine years, encouraging diversification
and many other purposes have been suggested as the reason for specific subsidies.
Price floors or price ceilings set a minimum or maximum price for a product. Price controls encourage more
production by a price floor or less production by a price ceiling. A government can erect trade barriers to limit the
quantity of goods imported (in the case of a Quota Share) or enact tariffs to raise the domestic price of imported
products. These barriers give preference to domestic producers.

Objectives of market intervention

National security
Some argue that nations have an interest in assuring there is sufficient domestic production capability to meet
domestic needs in the event of a global supply disruption. Significant dependence on foreign food producers makes a
country strategically vulnerable in the event of war, blockade or embargo. Maintaining adequate domestic capability
allows for food self-sufficiency that lessens the risk of supply shocks due to geopolitical events. Agricultural policies
may be used to support domestic producers as they gain domestic and international market share. This may be a
short term way of encouraging an industry until it is large enough to thrive without aid. Or it may be an ongoing
subsidy designed to allow a product to compete with or undercut foreign competition. This may produce a net gain
for a government despite the cost of interventions because it allows a country to build up an export industry or
reduce imports. It also helps to form the nations supply and demand market.

Environmental Protection and Land Management

Farm or undeveloped land composes the majority of land in most countries. Policies may encourage some land uses
rather than others in the interest of protecting the environment. For instance, subsidies may be given for particular
farming methods, forestation, land clearance, or pollution abatement.

Rural poverty and poverty relief

Subsidising farming may encourage people to remain on the land and obtain some income. This might be relevant to
a third world country with many peasant farmers, but it may also be a consideration to more developed countries
such as Poland. They have a very high unemployment rate, much farmland and retain a large rural population
growing food for their own use. Price controls may also be used to assist poor citizens. Many countries have used
this method of welfare support as it delivers cheap food to the poorest without the need to assess people to give them
financial aid.
Agricultural policy 130

Organic farming assistance

Welfare economics theory holds that sometimes private activities can impose social costs upon others. Industrial
agriculture is widely considered to impose social costs through pesticide pollution and nitrate pollution. Further,
agriculture uses large amounts of water, a scarce resource [citation?]. Some economists argue that taxes should be
levied on agriculture, or that organic agriculture, which uses little pesticides and experiences relatively little nitrate
runoff, should be encouraged with subsidies. In the United States, 65% of the approximately $16.5 billion in annual
subsidies went to the top 10% of farmers in 2002 because subsidies are linked to certain commodities.[16] On the
other hand, organic farming received $5 million for help in certification and $15 million for research over a 5-year
time period.

Fair trade
Some advocate Fair Trade rules to ensure that poor farmers in developing nations that produce crops primarily for
export are not exploited or outcompeted - which advocates consider a dangerous "race to the bottom" in agricultural
labor and safety standards. Opponents point out that most agriculture in developed nations is produced by industrial
corporations (agribusiness) which are hardly deserving of sympathy, and that the alternative to exploitation is
poverty.

Arguments against market intervention

Dumping of agricultural surpluses

In international trade parlance, when a company from country A sells a commodity below the cost of production into
country B, this is called "dumping". A number of countries that are signatories to multilateral trade agreements have
provisions that prohibit this practice. When rich countries subsidize domestic production, excess output is often
given to the developing world as foreign aid. This process eliminates the domestic market for agricultural products in
the developing world, because the products can be obtained for free from western aid agencies. In developing nations
where these effects are most severe, small farmers could no longer afford basic inputs and were forced to sell their
land.
"Consider a farmer in Ghana who used to be able to make a living growing rice. Several years ago, Ghana was able
to feed and export their surplus. Now, it imports rice. From where? Developed countries. Why? Because it's cheaper.
Even if it costs the rice producer in the developed world much more to produce the rice, he doesn't have to make a
profit from his crop. The government pays him to grow it, so he can sell it more cheaply to Ghana than the farmer in
Ghana can. And that farmer in Ghana? He can't feed his family anymore."(Lyle Vanclief, Former Canadian Minister
of Agriculture [1997-2003])
According to The Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy, corn, soybeans, cotton, wheat and rice are sold below
the cost of production, or dumped. Dumping rates are approximately forty percent for wheat, between twenty-five
and thirty percent for corn (maize), approximately thirty percent for soybeans, fifty-seven percent for cotton, and
approximately twenty percent for rice. For example, wheat is sold for forty percent below cost.
According to Oxfam, "If developed nations eliminated subsidy programs, the export value of agriculture in lesser
developed nations would increase by 24 %, plus a further 5.5 % from tariff equilibrium. ... exporters can offer US
surpluses for sale at prices around half the cost of production; destroying local agriculture and creating a captive
market in the process." Free trade advocates desire the elimination of all market distorting mechanisms (subsidies,
tariffs, regulations) and argue that, as with free trade in all areas, this will result in aggregate benefit for all. This
position is particularly popular in competitive agricultural exporting nations in both the developed and developing
world, some of whom have banded together in the Cairns Group lobby. Canada's Department of Agriculture
estimates that developing nations would benefit by about $4 billion annually if subsidies in the developed world
were halved.
Agricultural policy 131

Agricultural Independence
Many developing countries do not grow enough food to feed their own populations. These nations must buy food
from other countries. Lower prices and free food save the lives of millions of starving people, despite the drop in
food sales of the local farmers. A developing nation could use new improved farming methods to grow more food,
with the ultimate goal of feeding their nation without outside help. New greenhouse methods, hydroponics,
fertilizers, R/O Water Processors, hybrid crops, fast-growing hybrid trees for quick shade, interior temperature
control, greenhouse or tent insulation, autonomous building gardens, sun lamps, mylar, fans, and other cheap tech
can be used to grow crops on previously unarable land, such as rocky, mountainous, desert, and even Arctic lands.
More food can be grown, reducing dependency on other countries for food.
Replacement crops can also make nations agriculturally independent. Sugar, for example, comes from sugar cane
imported from Polynesia. Instead of buying the sugar from Polynesia, a nation can make sugar from sugar beets,
maple sap, or sweetener from stevia plant, keeping the profits circulating within the nation's economy. Paper and
clothes can be made of hemp instead of trees and cotton. Tropical foods won't grow in many places in Europe, but
they will grow in insulated greenhouses or tents in Europe. Soybean plant cellulose can replace plastic (made from
oil). Ethanol from farm waste or hempseed oil can replace gasoline. Rainforest medicine plants grown locally can
replace many imported medicines. Alternates of cash crops, like sugar and oil replacements, can reduce farmers'
dependency on subsidies in both developed and developing nations.
Market interventions may increase the cost to consumers for agricultural products, either via hidden wealth-transfers
via the government, or increased prices at the consumer level, such as for sugar and peanuts in the US. This has led
to market distortions, such as food processors using high fructose corn syrup as a replacement for sugar. High
fructose corn syrup may be an unhealthy food additive, and, were sugar prices not inflated by government fiat, sugar
might be preferred over high fructose corn syrup in the marketplace.

Developed world cases

Overview: Europe and America

The farmer population is approximately five percent of the total population in the E.U. and 1.7% in the U.S. The
total value of agricultural production in the E.U. amounted to 128 billion euros (1998). About forty-nine percent of
this amount was accounted for by political measures: 37 billion euros due to direct payments and 43 billion euros
from consumers due to the artificially high price. Eighty percent of European farmers receive a direct payment of
5,000 euros or less, while 2.2% receive a direct payment above 50,000 euros, totaling forty percent of all direct
subsidies.
The average U.S. farmer receives $16,000 in annual subsidies. Two-thirds of farmers receive no direct payments. Of
those that do, the average amount amongst the lowest paid eighty percent was $7000 from 1995-2003. (http:/ / www.
ewg. org/ farm/ findings. php) Subsidies are a mix of tax reductions, direct cash payments and below-market prices
on water and other inputs. Some claim that these aggregate figures are misleading because large agribusinesses,
rather than individual farmers, receive a significant share of total subsidy spending. The Federal Agriculture
Improvement and Reform Act of 1996 reduced farm subsidies, providing fixed payments over a period and replacing
price supports and subsidies. The Farm Security and Rural Investment Act of 2002 contains direct and
countercyclical payments designed to limit the effects of low prices and yields.
In the EU, € 54 billion of subsidies are paid every year. An increasing share of the subsidies is being decoupled from
production and lumped into the Single Farm Payment. While this has diminished the distortions created by the
Common Agricultural Policy, many critics argue that a greater focus on the provision of public goods, such as
biodiversity and clean water, is needed.[17] The next major reform is expected for 2014, when a new long-term EU
budget is coming into effect.
Agricultural policy 132

Environmental programs
The U.S. Conservation Reserve Program leases land from producers that take marginal land out of production and
convert it back to a near-natural state by planting native grasses and other plants. See [18] The U.S. Environmental
Quality Incentives Program subsidizes improvements which promote water conservation and other measures. This
program is conducted under a bidding process using a formula where farmers request a certain percentage of cost
share for an improvement such as drip irrigation. Producers that offer the most environmental improvement based on
a point system for the least cost are funded first. The process continues until that year's allocated funds are expended.
See [19].

World Trade Organization Actions

In April 2004 the WTO ruled that 3-billion dollars in US cotton subsidies violate trade agreements and that almost
50% of EU sugar exports are illegal. In 1997-2003, US cotton exports were subsidized by an average of
48%.[20]The World Trade Organization (WTO) has extracted commitments from the Philippines government,
making it lower import barriers to half their present levels over a span of six years, and allowing in drastically
increased competition from the industrialised and heavily subsidised farming systems of North America and Europe.
A recent Oxfam report estimated that average household incomes of maize farmers will be reduced by as much as
30% over the six years as cheap imports from the US drive down prices in the local markets. The report estimates
that in the absence of trade restrictions, US subsidised maize could be marketed at less than half the price of maize
grown on the Philippine island of Mindanao; and that the livelihoods of up to half a million Filipino maize farmers
(out of the total 1.2 million) are under immediate threat.

See also
• Agriculture
• Agricultural economics
• Category:Agriculture by country
• Common Agricultural Policy
• Corn Laws
• Food price crisis
• Land reform
• Mixed economy
• Trade and development
• Trade barriers

References
[1] Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics (http:/ / www. abareconomics. com/ interactive/ ausNZ_ag/ htm/ au_change. htm)
article Agricultural Economies of Australia and New Zealand
[2] "Making agriculture work for the poor" (http:/ / www. odi. org. uk/ nrp/ NRP111. pdf) (PDF). Overseas Development Institute. 2007. .
Retrieved 2007.
[3] ( CDC (http:/ / www. cdc. gov/ ncidod/ EID/ vol12no01/ 05-1024. htm) H5N1 Outbreaks and Enzootic Influenza by Robert G. Webster et al.)
[4] ( MSNBC quoting Reuters quoting Robert G. Webster (http:/ / www. msnbc. msn. com/ id/ 10639567/ ))
[5] ( Reuters (http:/ / www. alertnet. org/ thenews/ newsdesk/ HKG28205. htm))
[6] ( BBC (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ sci/ tech/ 4737276. stm) Bird flu vaccine no silver bullet 22 February 2006)
[7] Brown, David. "The 'recipe for disaster' that killed 80 and left a £5bn bill" (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ news/ main. jhtml?xml=/ news/
2000/ 10/ 27/ nbse527. xml), The Daily Telegraph, June 19, 2001.
[8] "Variant Creutzfeld-Jakob Disease, June 2007" (http:/ / www. cjd. ed. ac. uk/ vcjdworld. htm), The National Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease
Surveillance Unit, Edinburgh University. The number of dead in the UK from Creutzfeld-Jakob Disease had reached 1,206 by June 4, 2007.
[9] "CJD deaths 'may have peaked'" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ health/ 1671737. stm), BBC News, November 13, 2001.
Agricultural policy 133

[10] "BSE: Disease control & eradication - Causes of BSE" (http:/ / www. defra. gov. uk/ animalh/ bse/ controls-eradication/ causes. html),
Department for Environment, Food, and Rural Affairs, March 2007.
[11] "The BSE Inquiry" (http:/ / www. bseinquiry. gov. uk/ ), led by Lord Phillips of Worth Matravers, report published October 2000.
[12] "Volume 1: Findings and Conclusions. Executive Summary of the Report of the Inquiry. 3. The cause of BSE" (http:/ / www. bseinquiry.
gov. uk/ report/ volume1/ execsum4. htm), Phillips Inquiry, October 2000.
[13] Harden, Blaine. "Supplements used in factory farming can spread disease" (http:/ / archives. seattletimes. nwsource. com/ cgi-bin/ texis. cgi/
web/ vortex/ display?slug=madcowdairy28& date=20031228), The Washington Post, December 28, 2003.
[14] Australian Citrus Growers Inc. (http:/ / www. austcitrus. org. au/ )
[15] Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries. Exotic plant pests - citrus canker (http:/ / www. dpi. qld. gov. au/ health/ 4249. html)
[16] The Heritage Foundation (2004) The Heritage Foundation (http:/ / www. heritage. org/ Research/ Budget/ bg1763. cfm)
[17] - www.reformthecap.eu: arguments for fundamental CAP reform and links to relevant studies (http:/ / www. reformthecap. eu)
[18] http:/ / www. ers. usda. gov/ publications/ aer834/
[19] http:/ / www. nrcs. usda. gov/ programs/ eqip/
[20] http:/ / www. iatp. org/ iatp/ library/ admin/ uploadedfiles/ Agriculture_Export_Dumping_Booms_During_WTOs_F. pdf

External links
• www.reformthecap.eu: assessment of agricultural policies and summaries of relevant studies (http://www.
reformthecap.eu)
• IFAP: International Federation of Agricultural Producers (http://www.ifap.org)
• OECD: Food, Agriculture and Fisheries (OECD Department of Trade and Agriculture) (http://www.oecd.org/
department/0,3355,en_2649_33727_1_1_1_1_1,00.html)
• OECD Statistics Portal (http://www.oecd.org/statsportal/0,3352,en_2825_293564_1_1_1_1_1,00.html)
• kickAAS (Kick all agricultural subsidies) (http://kickaas.typepad.com/)
• The Globalist | Global Agriculture -- Getting Tough on ... - November 12, 2003 (http://www.theglobalist.com/
DBWeb/StoryId.aspx?StoryId=3551)
• Ag Observatory (http://www.agobservatory.org/) from the Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy
• Ashish's Niti (Developing countries should take advantage of agricultural subisides) (http://ashish.typepad.com/
ashishs_niti/2004/07/poorer_countrie.html)
• India together (http://www.indiatogether.org/2004/oct/dsh-entitle.htm)
• Larry Elliott, The Guardian, June 15, 2005, "West accused of concealing farm subsidies: Oxfam says EU and US
are exploiting loopholes and using creative accounting to avoid real trade concessions to developing countries"
(http://www.guardian.co.uk/guardianpolitics/story/0,,1506687,00.html)
• Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy (http://www.iatp.org)
• Sophia Murphy, Ben Lilliston and Mary Beth Lake, February 2005, "WTO Agreement on Agriculture: A Decade
of Dumping" (http://www.tradeobservatory.org/library.cfm?refid=48532), Institute for Agriculture and Trade
Policy
• Kym Anderson and Will Martin (2005), "Agriculture Market Access: The Key to Doha Success" (http://
siteresources.worldbank.org/INTRANETTRADE/Resources/Pubs/TradeNote23.pdf), World Bank, June 2005
- over half the gains to developing countries from global agricultural reforms would come from liberalization by
developing countries themselves.
• Food Security and Ag-Biotech News (http://www.merid.org/fs-agbiotech/) — provides balanced global news
on policies related to genetically modified (GM) crops
Article Sources and Contributors 134

Article Sources and Contributors

Agriculture  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=409682356  Contributors: *drew, -Ilhador-, -Majestic-, 0, 0121448, 10metreh, 199.179.162.xxx, 203.37.14.xxx, 216.5.176.xxx,
24.78.101.xxx, 2help, 516, A little insignificant, Aaron Brenneman, Aaronevanz, Abeg92, Abrech, Abu badali, Adam78, AdnanSa, AfricaEditor, AgCam, Agman2010, Agricmarketing,
Agrihouse, Agrofe, Agrotradezone, AgrowKnowledge, Agrónomos, Ahoerstemeier, Ahousley, Aircorn, Aitias, Akira625, Alain08, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Alarics, Albanyhist, Alex.muller,
Alex43223, AlexiusHoratius, Alexwcovington, Alison, All Is One, Alnokta, Ancheta Wis, Andonic, Andre Engels, Andrea105, Andrew Lancaster, Andrew c, Andrewlim1, Andy Johnston, Andy
M. Wang, Andyhoz, Anlace, AnneDELS, Antandrus, Anthere, Anwar saadat, AnyPerson, Anyep, Apalmer9, Apurv1980, Arad, Arakunem, Arakunem (usurped), Ariaconditzione, Arunilango,
As847618, Ashfault9, Asidemes, Astronaut, Atif.t2, Atlantia, Atletiker, Atomicdor, Atrian, Atulsnischal, AuburnPilot, Audiosmurf, Augustz, Aulis Eskola, Autonova, Avery123abc, Avoided,
Badly Bradley, Bagatelle, Banpei, BarretBonden, Bart133, Barticus88, Bcasterline, Bdamokos, Beagel, Beetstra, Beland, Belligero, Ben Ward, Bencherlite, Benea, Benzygs, Bergsten, Berkt,
Berria, Bhadani, Bibliophylax, BigFatBuddha, Bill37212, BillWSmithJr, Billscottbob, Billwhittaker, Binary TSO, Binksternet, Bje2089, Bkonrad, Black Falcon, Black-Velvet, BlazerKnight,
Blizzy55, Blue520, Bluemask, Bluerasberry, Bobblewik, Bobo159, Bobo192, Bookandcoffee, BorgQueen, Borislav, Bornslippy, BoromirFaramir, Boyscout2012, Boyster, BozMo, Bradtcordeiro,
Brekass, Bridgecross, Brisvegas, Brona, Brossow, Bryan Derksen, BulldozerD11, Bus stop, Bücherwürmlein, CLW, CWY2190, CalebNoble, Call me Bubba, Camipco, Can't sleep, clown will eat
me, CannaCollector, Canuck85, CapitalR, Capricorn42, Card, CardinalDan, Cardshark04, Carlaude, CaseInPoint, Casperwy1, Cat4nap, CatherineMunro, Causantin, Cedars, Cenarium, Ceoil,
Cesar Tort, Cgoodwin, Chadjustice, Charschank, Chasze, Cherubino, Chocolateboy, Chris the speller, ChrisLamb, Chrislk02, Christian List, Chriswaterguy, Chuy1530, Cireshoe, Cisco92,
Citymousenow, Civil Engineer III, Ckatz, Clanton2, Closedmouth, CodeWeasel, Cometstyles, CommonsDelinker, Connormah, Conversion script, Cookie90, Coolhawks88, CopperKettle,
Cordell, CountyCalendar, Cowsmoo, Cpl Syx, Cricketgirl, Cropsciencestudent, Cskin, Cyrusc, D-Rock, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DCEdwards1966, DELAWARE, DGG, DSachan, DVD R W,
DaL33T, Dacoutts, Daniel11, DanielDeibler, DanielRigal, Danlaycock, Darkfrog24, Darshi19, Darth Panda, DarthSwim, Datizyou, David D., David Thrale, DavidLevinson, Dawn Bard,
DeadEyeArrow, Debresser, Decltype, Deli nk, DerHexer, Dhollm, Dialectric, Diderot, Diderot's dreams, Discospinster, Dlandeck, Dlbarber, Dlesjack, Doctorevil64, Docu, Dodo bird,
Dogman764, Dogman765, Dori, Doug, DragonofFire, Drdaveng, Dreadstar, Drieakko, Dunnob, Dupz, Dustinthejet67, Dysepsion, E Wing, E rulez, EALacey, Earthdirt, Edison, Edward, Efe,
Egil, Ekoper, El C, Elcajonfarms, Elin Pedersen, Eliz81, Ellmist, Emanuele Saiu, Emilwk, Emperor Genius, Englishspelling, Eoghanacht, Epbr123, Epicstonemason, Epipelagic, Epolk, Erianna,
Eric-Wester, Esb, Esperant, Esprit15d, Ethel Aardvark, Etxrge, EurekaLott, Eve Hall, Everyking, Ewikdjmco, Excirial, Exert, Eyeintheskye, FAOSTAT, FF2010, FJC, Falcon8765,
Familyguy1113, Farminguk, Farosdaughter, Faustnh, Favonian, Feeetee, Femto, Fennec, Ferquar, FerzenR, Ffamember, Fir0002, Fishal, Flanagan123456789, Flatterworld, FlavrSavr,
Floaterfluss, Fluri, Fortdj33, Francisco Valverde, FreplySpang, Freshacconci, Fru1tbat, Fuzheado, Fvw, Fwubanolsovolkacnein, G. Campbell, GB fan, GVnayR, GabrielAPetrie, Gail, Gaius
Cornelius, Galoubet, Gbennell, Gene Nygaard, Geniac, Ghimboueils, Gigemag76, Gilliam, Glenn, Gobonobo, Gogo Dodo, Goldfritha, Gomm, Gonjo, GorillaWarfare, Grafen, Graham87,
GrahamSmithe, Granitethighs, Greb, Greenpeach2000, GregAsche, Gregorof, Gregorydavid, Gresg, Grgam, Grunners, Gscshoyru, Guanaco, Gunfighter, Gurch, Guy Peters,
HAHAHAHATHATS4HAS, HalfShadow, HamburgerRadio, Hardyplants, Harmil, Headbomb, Hephaestos, Heron, Hetar, Heyheyhaha, HistoryStudent113, Hlywdbabe, Hmains, Hmrox, Holder,
Howcheng, Hu, Hu12, Hughdbrown, Hulagutten, Hushus20, Husond, IGeMiNix, Iain99, Iames, Ian Pitchford, IceTi, Ike9898, Imaginenow, Imfscience, Immunize, ImperatorExercitus,
ImperfectlyInformed, Indon, Inferno, Lord of Penguins, Inha, Innovationcreation, Inter16, Ioeth, Irishguy, IronGargoyle, Istrill, Ixfd64, Ixnayonthetimmay, Izzedine, J.delanoy, JDG, JForget,
JLaTondre, JYolkowski, Ja 62, JaGa, Jagged 85, JakeSAFC, Jakeclark99, James086, JamesBWatson, Japheth the Warlock, JayEsJay, JayJasper, Jbergquist, Jbsix1, Jdlambert, Jean.caron, Jeff G.,
Jengod, Jenwren83, Jenzee, Jezhotwells, Jhfortier, Jim Tour, Jimfbleak, Jj137, Jjhake, Joan-of-arc, JoanneB, JoeBlogsDord, Johan Magnus, John, JohnPRussell, Johnpseudo, Johnuniq, Jon58,
Jonathunder, Jose77, Joseph Solis in Australia, Joshua Scott, Jossi, Jrstinkerbell, Jrtayloriv, Jtalledo, Julesd, Jusdafax, Jusjih, KHenriksson, KVDP, Karok, Karthic7@gmail.com, Kat, Kazvorpal,
Keithkml, Kelly Martin, Kenny Michaels, Kgrr, Khoikhoi, Khthelegend, KimDabelsteinPetersen, King of Hearts, Kingpin13, Kipala, Kleinhev, Klenje, Kmoulton2222, Krawi, Kristaga, Kross,
Kslattery, Ksyrie, Ktotam, Kubigula, Kukini, Kumioko, Kundansankhe, Kuru, L Kensington, LOL, LSUniverse, Lacrimosus, Lahiru k, Latingurlargentina, Lawrencekhoo, LeaveSleaves,
Lectonar, Leszek Jańczuk, Leuko, Liftarn, Lightmouse, LilHelpa, Ling.Nut, Linmhall, LittleOldMe, Llull, Llywrch, Loiterton, Lord Eru, Loren.wilton, Lova Falk, Loveuforevers, LowdownDazz,
Lowellian, Lpfanzachisback, Luk, Luna Santin, Luuva, Lxowle, M.hayek, MER-C, MKil, MPF, Mac, MacMed, Madhero88, MaeseLeon, Mailer diablo, Malcolm Farmer, Malcolmxl5, Man vyi,
Mandarax, Marek69, Marj Tiefert, Marjolaine11, MarkusHagenlocher, Markwiki, Marnanel, MartinHarper, Mathewvad, Mathilda37, Matikas 0805, Matilda, Mav, Maziotis, Mbarbier,
Mbomford, McDogm, Mdwyer, Medicuspetrus, Meissmart, Melissae on a quest ..., Mentifisto, Merbabu, Merlion444, Methcub, Michael Hardy, Michalchik, Michele1234, Microbiojen,
MightyWarrior, Mike Rosoft, Mike.lifeguard, Mild Bill Hiccup, Minardi, Minimac's Clone, Minority2005, Misortie, MisterCharlie, Mitchell93lucas, Mjangle, Mjklin, Monteitho, Moonisrahman,
Mor, Mordgier, Moriedak, Mr Adequate, MrChupon, MrFish, MrOllie, Mrmoocow, Mrobson70, Muhammad Mahdi Karim, Mumia-w-18, Myanw, N5iln, NCSU Turf, NHRHS2010, NJGW,
NYCJosh, Nadersebastian, Naus, NawlinWiki, Nehrams2020, NellieBly, Nemoinfinite, Neutrality, Neverquick, NewEnglandYankee, NickBush24, Nickk1954, NigelR, Nikai, Nikki dats me,
Nikolay94, Nirmos, Niteowlneils, Nk, Nn123645, Noble Skuld the Legend Killer, Nopetro, Noq, NorwegianBlue, NotACow, Novastarj, Nscott.odi, Nsorensen, Nubiatech, Nuge, Nukeless,
Numbo3, Nv8200p, Nyttend, Oblivious, Octahedron80, Oda Mari, OffsBlink, Olessi, Oliv0052, OnBeyondZebrax, Onceonthisisland, Onco p53, Ontopic, Opelio, Orangesodakid, Originalwana,
OwenX, Oxymoron83, PDH, PGPirate, Paisano flaco, Panyd, Parfwa, Passionless, Pat604, PatrickFlaherty, Patricknd42, Paul Benjamin Austin, Paul Drye, Paulo24, Pavel Vozenilek, PeepP,
Pekinensis, Pepper, Peregrine981, Persian Poet Gal, Person 1243, Pgk, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Pharos, Pheidias, Philip Trueman, Phillipsacp, Photiusc, Piano non troppo, Pianoplayerontheroof,
Picapica, Piledhigheranddeeper, Pinethicket, Pinus jeffreyi, Piotrus, Plasticup, Pollinator, Pomakis, Primetime, Pritpalkaur, Puffin, Puppybeard, Pureharvest, Pursey, QVanillaQ, Quadell,
Quercusrobur, Quill, Quintote, Qxz, R Lowry, R'n'B, RB972, RJASE1, RJN, Radelet, RadicalBender, Raieban, RainbowOfLight, Rak716, RandomStringOfCharacters, Rasmus Faber, Ratemonth,
Rattus, Raulthomas, Raven4x4x, Rdsmith4, Rebrane, Red58bill, RedLightGreenLight123, Reddi, Redvers, Reinyday, Remi0o, RepublicanJacobite, Retiono Virginian, Retired username,
Rettetast, Rewster, RexNL, ReyBrujo, Reznako, Rhealady, Rhobite, Rich Farmbrough, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Richard New Forest, RichardF, Rimshot, Rjgibb, Rjstott, Rjwilmsi,
Rmhermen, Rmt2m, RobJ1981, Robert Merkel, RobertG, Robina Fox, Rodhullandemu, Rolomagic616, Romanm, RookZERO, Rorshacma, Roy da Vinci, RoyBoy, Royalguard11, Roylee,
Royote, Rpchase, Rrburke, Rruitenberg, Ruddy9hell, RunBoy, Runt2468, RxS, SB Johnny, SEWilco, SYSS Mouse, Salsa Shark, Sam8, SamuelTheGhost, Sandstein, Saravask, SasiSasi,
Savant13, Sbandrews, Sbrools, Schmloof, SchmoeShmucker, Schneelocke, SchuminWeb, Scsc364, Sdohrn, Sdornan, Seaoneil, Sebasanjuan, Seglea, Senzangakhona, Sephiroth BCR, Setu,
Sewings, Sgagnon, Shadowjams, Shattered Gnome, ShawnVW, SheepNotGoats, Shirimasen, Shirulashem, Shoreranger, Shousokutsuu, SilkTork, Silly rabbit, Simesa, Singhalawap, Sinn, Sisson,
Sjakkalle, Sjjupadhyay, Sjoh1013, Skizzik, SlackerMom, Sleenal, Sleptrip, Slightsmile, Sligocki, SlimVirgin, Sluzzelin, Smittenxoxo, Snowolf, Snoyes, Solitude, Some jerk on the Internet,
Someguy1221, SpaceFlight89, Spettro9, Splash, SpookyMulder, Spregula, Startstop123, Starwars10, StaticGull, Ste281, Stemonitis, StephanieM, Stephen G. Brown, Stephenb, Steve Hart, Steven
Walling, Steven Zhang, Stevenmitchell, Stevertigo, Stevey7788, Sunray, SuperHamster, Sw258, SwiftlyTilt, Swimmerboy15, Sylent, Tagrs, Tarr10, Tatterfly, Tchakra, Teiresias84,
Tempodivalse, That Guy, From That Show!, The 888th Avatar, The Baroness of Morden, The Crofter, The High Fin Sperm Whale, The Mystery Man, The Random Editor, The Rationalist, The
Thing That Should Not Be, The Transhumanist, The Transhumanist (AWB), The wub, TheBacheese, TheDJ, TheYellowCabin, Thecheesykid, Theelf29, TheoClarke, Theon, Therentedhat,
Thingg, Thomasmeeks, Tiddly Tom, Tide rolls, TigerShark, Tijfo098, Tim1357, Tiptoety, Tisdalepardi, Tivedshambo, Tjfloyd2010, Tmangray, Tobby72, Tobyc75, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Tokane,
Tom-, Tom8hoes, Tommy2010, Touch Of Light, Tractorboy60, Trakesht, TravisNygard, Trevor MacInnis, Trounce, Troy 07, Trueblood, Tryanocars, Tsavage, Ttwaring, Ttwinkie, Twinxor,
Twistedkombat, Ubergeekguy, Uncle Dick, UnholyTacoLord, Unschool, Unyoyega, VBGFscJUn3, Valentin Zahrnt, Van helsing, Vanderesch, Versus22, Vicenarian, Vicki Rosenzweig, Vijay68,
Vildricianus, Viridae, Vlma111, Volubile25, Vrenator, WAS 4.250, WAvegetarian, WHeimbigner, WIN, Wacklee, WadeSimMiser, Wallet, WarHero153, Washburnmav, Wassupwestcoast,
Wavelength, Wayne Slam, WayneRay, Wdflake, Wee Jimmy, Weetoddid, West wikipedia, Why Not A Duck, Wikididact, Wikieditor06, Wikitanvir, Will Beback, William Avery, Willking1979,
Willow4, Wilmer101, Wimt, Winstonwolfe, Woohookitty, Worksafe, Worrydream, Worthydeadendrant, Wossi, Wrathchild, Wsvlqc, Ww, XJamRastafire, Xdamr, Xeresblue, Xiahou, Xmedh02,
Yak, Yendor72, Yevuard, Yidisheryid, Yintan, Yom, Youssefsan, Ytrottier, Yvwv, ZX81, Zachary crimsonwolf, Zachlipton, Zalgo, Zap Rowsdower, Zerida, Zero Gravity, Zharmad, Zigeo,
Zingi, Zman2000, Zodon, Zoe, Zuzzerack, Zzuuzz, Zzzzz, Δ, ‫لیقع فشاک‬, 康非字典, 达伟, 1742 anonymous edits

History of agriculture  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=409668146  Contributors: Abcrf, Adrian 1111, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, AndrewBuck, Aridd, Aroundaround,
Avoided, Billwhittaker, Blue520, Borgx, Brandon5485, Bstepp99, Bus stop, CSWarren, CanadianLinuxUser, CapitalR, Carl.bunderson, Carmichael95, CommonsDelinker, DARTH SIDIOUS 2,
DVdm, Darkfrog24, Den123456dk, Dialectric, Discospinster, Dneale52, Download, El C, Everyking, FNMF, Fedderm, Friginator, Gilliam, Gobonobo, Grunty Thraveswain, Gurch, Hbent,
Hmains, Hoplon, Iangurteen, ImperfectlyInformed, Ionescuac, J.delanoy, J04n, JDG, JSR, Jagged 85, Jebavy86, Jefffire, John, Johnpseudo, Johnuniq, Jordgette, Julianonions, Kanon6996,
Kaoruchan21, Karma Thief, Katherine, Kelvin Case, Kozuch, Lightmouse, Linmhall, Liujiang, LowdownDazz, Luna Santin, MONGO, Ma8thew, Magnus Manske, Marek69, Master&Expert,
Meredyth, Miguel.mateo, NCurse, Nehrams2020, Neo-Jay, NewEnglandYankee, Nicolae Coman, Noclevername, Ntsimp, OnBeyondZebrax, Paleorthid, PatrickSJ, PericlesofAthens, Pfly,
Phantomsteve, Philip Trueman, Physis, Qwyrxian, RJHall, Ragesoss, Rednblu, Retired user 0001, RexNL, Rios, Rjensen, Rjwilmsi, Robert Rossi, Rosenknospe, RoyBoy, Rsgt8891, Sam Korn,
Satyam E. Jayate, Sebasanjuan, SilkTork, Silver hr, Skapur, SlimVirgin, Smilo Don, Smyden01, Some jerk on the Internet, Spettro9, Sritchienal, Stickee, Techman224, Tobby72,
Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Usni, VBGFscJUn3, Vero.Verite, WAS 4.250, Waitak, Wassupwestcoast, Wavelength, Wikieditor06, Wknight94, Woohookitty, Yvwv, 213 anonymous edits

Neolithic Revolution  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=409666593  Contributors: 14asun, 2D, 5 albert square, A. B., A.Kurtz, Acogscope, Actarus Prince d'Euphor,
AdamSkeen, Adamsan, Adashiel, Aeusoes1, Ahoerstemeier, Al tally, AlainV, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Alex Bakharev, Alexius08, Alfrodull, Allstarecho, Alsocal, Altenmann, Amfoes, An
Siarach, Andrew Lancaster, Angr, AnnaFrance, AnonMoos, Anthon.Eff, Antonio Lopez, Aok6666, Arakunem, Aranel, Archie, ArgentTurquoise, Arges86, Arkuat, Arnon Chaffin, Asfreeas,
Asnla, Atlant, Aviv007, Baileydw@cardiff.ac.uk, Bart133, Bashman71594, Bassbonerocks, Bcameron54, Bcasterline, Bcoopxx, Ben Pirard, Bender235, Bibliomaniac15, Bill37212,
Blahblahwikiwiki, Blathnaid, BluenoseGuy, Bobo192, Bogey97, Bryan Derksen, BryanG, CJLL Wright, CSumit, CWY2190, CWesling, CWii, Caltas, CanadianCaesar, CanadianLinuxUser,
Canjth, Capellan, Capricorn42, Carlon, Catgut, Chetvorno, Choatewh1, Christopher Parham, Clerks, Confession0791, Counterfact, CrazyInSane, Crystallina, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Dang Fool,
Darth Panda, Davepetr, DavidCooke, Db099221, Dbachmann, DeLtA, Debivort, December21st2012Freak, Defication, Denorris, DerHexer, Dialectric, Discospinster, Dougweller, Dwayne,
Dynamicpricing, EPM, Elassint, Eleassar777, Ellenfisher, Eluchil404, Enviroboy, Epbr123, Erdal Ronahi, Eric Wester, Esdraelon, FKmailliW, Fang 23, Faustnh, FinnWiki, Foobar, Francisco
Valverde, Full Shunyata, G716, Gabeth, Gaius Cornelius, Gardar Rurak, Gary D, Gary King, GeeJo, Gfoley4, Ggb667, Gilliam, Ginkgo100, Glane23, Glenn, Goethean, Gow, GraemeMcRae,
Graham87, GreatWhiteNortherner, Grosscha, Grunty Thraveswain, Grw, Gscshoyru, Gtg204y, Guaka, Gurch, Gwern, Hairy Dude, Hattar393, Hede2000, Heitor C. Jorge, Heymid, Hibernian,
Hmains, Hmrox, Hu, IExXoIN, Ibbn, Ifbrocks, Ihutchesson, Ikiroid, Ilikeverin, Indon, Ingolfson, Intesvensk, Into The Fray, Iridescent, Irishguy, Izzedine, J.delanoy, J04n, JForget, JNW, Jackol,
Article Sources and Contributors 135

Jaganath, Jagged 85, Jamesontai, Jclemens, Jimbo Styx, Joey Roe, John D. Croft, JorgeGG, Josh3580, Jreferee, Jwanders, Kalogeropoulos, Kaly99, Karl-Henner, Kemet, Kf4bdy, Kingpin13,
Kwiki, L Kensington, L Seed, La Pianista, Lairor, LarG, Lemccan, Leptictidium, Llywrch, Logologist, LordAmeth, Losecontrol, Lost-theory, Lradrama, MCBastos, ML, MPerel, Magioladitis,
Mahmud II, Mark1999er, Master Scott Hall, MaxEnt, Maziotis, Meredyth, Mididoctors, Midnightblueowl, Mild Bill Hiccup, Missvain, MithrandirAgain, Mja198, Mouldybiscuits, Muntuwandi,
Music+mas, Mygerardromance, Mzmadmike, Nadyes, Nakkisormi, NawlinWiki, Nburden, Nectarflowed, Nehrams2020, Neptune5000, NerdyScienceDude, Neurolysis, Nev1,
NewEnglandYankee, Nicholasnice, Nightscream, Nn123645, Norm mit, Nsaa, Nsalvaterra, Number 57, Nyenyec, Olivierchaussavoine, Ooooooohhhhaaahhhhhh, Oxymoron83, P Carn, Pakaran,
Pat Berry, PatrickFisher, Paul Barlow, Pavel Vozenilek, Penfold, Pfly, Phanerozoic, Pharos, Philip Trueman, Phlebas, Piano non troppo, Piledhigheranddeeper, Pinethicket, Pm215, Polylerus,
Poopylovesyou123, Postgirl, Psm, Qemist, Qwyrxian, Qxz, Rada, Radagast83, Radon210, Ranveig, Raven in Orbit, Rbrenneman, Redfax, Res2216firestar, Revoranii, Rich Farmbrough, Rico402,
Rjwilmsi, Rodrigo braz, Ronhjones, Rosenknospe, Rotcaeroib, Sabate, Sanfranman59, SchfiftyThree, Screensaver, Semeticdruwa, Shambalala, Shashamula, Shoeofdeath, ShoshanaRose, Slb49,
Sleigh, SmokeyTheCat, Snori, Sonofmaths, Spyderqueen, Starnestommy, Stephenchou0722, Steve Masterson, Steve carlson, Steven J. Anderson, Steven Walling, Storm Rider, Struway, Sushi
Tax, Swpb, Symane, TarseeRota, Tcncv, Terence, Tesseran, Thatguyflint, The Anome, The Thing That Should Not Be, The Transhumanist, Thorwald, Titus III, Trulystand700, Tslocum,
Ukexpat, Uncle Dick, Vedexent, Versus22, Voxpuppet, Vvvladut, Webwanderer56, Wetman, WikiFew, Wikitedium, William Avery, WilliamKF, Wimt, Wintran, WittyMan1986, Woohookitty,
Wotnow, Xchbla423, Xnuala, Xook1kai Choa6aur, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yappy2bhere, Zachorious, Zen9400, ZooFari, Zugspitze, Zyqqh, Zzuuzz, 713 anonymous edits

Domestication  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=407228160  Contributors: 0wn4g3 41if3, 13smithwalker, 16@r, 2D, A.Kurtz, Abeyi76, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Allstarecho,
Altenmann, Amaltheus, Andycjp, Animum, Arad, Armyrifle9, Ashenai, Ashyo99, Astirmays, AstroBlue, Atulsnischal, Az29, Azcolvin429, Ba dust, Barnaby dawson, Barticus88, Basawala,
Bcasterline, Belovedfreak, Bitbut, Blaxthos, BlueLint, Bobo192, Bobsteel09, Boccobrock, Bridgecross, Brunnock, Bryan Derksen, Bstoopack, Burnedthru, CanOfWorms, CanisRufus, Capitalist
Shrugged, Cdc, Cgoodwin, Clairegray019, Clayoquot, Coreylook, Cremepuff222, Cubs Fan, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Da Joe, Damian Yerrick, Dan East, Darklilac, Deirdre, Denisa, DerHexer,
Derumi, Dfrg.msc, Dims, Dirac66, Discospinster, Dispenser, Dkabban-GMU, Doofsmack, Drawn Some, Dronarron, Dyanega, Ed Fitzgerald, Edward, Eeekster, Eequor, Eiyuu Kou, Elano, Elf,
Ellywa, Epbr123, Ericoides, Eteklema-GMU, Etienne4, Evice, Ex nihil, EyOne, Faustnh, Flamebroil, Foobar, Fowler&fowler, Frazzydee, Friginator, Furrykef, FvdP, G Rose, GabrielAPetrie,
Gaterion, GeorgeLyras, Ghakko, Gliderman, Gmosoti, GorillaWarfare, Gragox, GreatWhiteNortherner, GregAsche, Gtg204y, Gurch, Gwernol, Gyre, Hallenrm, Hdt83, Heironymous Rowe,
Herbee, Hmains, Hmrox, Hottentot, Hurricane111, Hydrogen Iodide, IAmHeron, IGeMiNix, IceUnshattered, Ike9898, Ikusawa, Ilya, Ingolfson, InsaneSonikkuFan, Insist, Iridescent, Isaster,
Isilanes, Ixfd64, J.delanoy, JEB90, JForget, JNW, Jackfork, Jagged 85, Japanese Searobin, Jauhienij, Jawamachines, Jbenhill, Jdcooper, Jeekc, Jeepday, Jeffmcneill, Jeltz, Jerrch, Jerzy,
Jgayoso-GMU, Jgchao, Jguk, Jim Tour, Jimfbleak, Jjhake, Joe Chill, Joe Chill 2, John D. Croft, Jonathunder, JoshuaZ, Jrono, Jóna Þórunn, Kaimiddleton, Kayaker, Keilana, Kessler, Kevin
Murray, Khoikhoi, Kindredcharles, KingTT, Kingdon, Kjoonlee, Koavf, Krukouski, Kuyabribri, L Seed, Lacrimosus, Latka, Leptictidium, Linmhall, Liontooth, Lord of the Pit, Lycurgus, MC
Scared of Bees, MJ94, MJD86, Madhero88, Mark Dingemanse, MarkSutton, Marknesbitt, Martijn faassen, MartinHarper, Matt.zellman, Mav, Mayooranathan, McDogm, Mdw0, Meehawl,
Menchi, Meno25, Metanoid, Michael Devore, Michael2, Michaelkvance, Michaelritchie200, Michal Nebyla, Mike Rosoft, Milowent, Miquonranger03, Miss Madeline, Mitsukai, Mongol,
Montrealais, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Muntuwandi, Mweites, N8cantor, Naj-GMU, Nave.notnilc, NeoJustin, Neurolysis, Nilfanion, Niteowlneils, Nk, Not home, NrDg,
OS2Warp, Ocram, OldakQuill, Oldsingerman20, Oli Filth, Olympic god, Orgone, OwenBlacker, PDH, PDL, Pat Berry, Patrick, PervyPirate, Pit, Plumpurple, Pm215, Postdlf, Proofreader77,
Protonk, Pseudoanonymous, Quincunxcats, Quintote, RDBrown, RJHall, Rabo3, Rattus, Rdsmith4, RedWolf, RedWordSmith, Riana, Richard D. LeCour, Richi, Rjwilmsi, Rmhermen, Roerlepel,
Roger D Spencer, Rookkey, Rosenknospe, RoyBoy, SchfiftyThree, Scorpios, Scotsworth, Seeleschneider, Shatterdaymorn, Shattered Gnome, Shirulashem, SimonP, Skywolf, Sladen,
Slrubenstein, Sluzzelin, Snowmanradio, Soizya, Sonjaaa, Spencer, Steevm, Steven Walling, Stevertigo, Sting au, Stwalkerster, Swingline 2005, Swithrow2546, Synchronism, Taka76, Takowl,
Tassedethe, Ted Clayton, Template namespace initialisation script, Templatehater, Tempodivalse, The Rambling Man, The Thing That Should Not Be, TheMindsEye, Theon, Tide rolls,
Timetuner, Timir2, Tintin Montreal, Toastydeath, Tommy2010, Topbanana, Torchwoodwho, Trilobitealive, Trimp, TwoOneTwo, Tyrol5, Ubermonkey, Ukexpat, UtherSRG, VMS Mosaic, Vald,
Vector Potential, Versus22, Vinsfan368, Vishnava, Voksen, Weganwock, Wetman, Willtron, Woohookitty, WookieInHeat, WriterHound, Ww, Xanzzibar, Xavier86, Xdamr, Yarilo2, Yerpo,
Z10x, Zap Rowsdower, Zappernapper, Zeimusu, Zidane tribal, Zigger, Ziiv, Zoicon5, ‫نامه‬, 585 anonymous edits

British Agricultural Revolution  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=407056334  Contributors: 5 albert square, A-rock, Adamsan, AdjustShift, Agendum, Alan Liefting,
Alansohn, Alkashi, Alpha Quadrant, Antandrus, Anthere, Ass20, Babij, Betacommand, Biddleybong, Bjmoon, BlarghHgralb, BluePhildog, Bookgrrl, Brunnock, Bryan Derksen, Buchraeumer,
Butros, Capricorn42, Chris j wood, CommonsDelinker, Conscious, Cubs197, Dacoutts, Dan198792, Davewild, DeadEyeArrow, DerHexer, Dialectric, Djramone, Dobermanji, Doughboy,
Dposte46, DryaUnda, Dumbo1, Eastlaw, Electric counterpoint, Elkman, Emersoni, Enauspeaker, Ephebi, Equilibrium007, Eric-Wester, Escape Orbit, Ettrig, Evenmadderjon, Evercat, Everyking,
Fireaxe888, Fnorp, Gaius Cornelius, Galaxydog2000, Gareth E Kegg, Gdr, Gidonb, Gilliam, Golfandme, GraemeMcRae, GreatWhiteNortherner, Gurch, HMS Vanguard, Hadal, Hubert97,
Icairns, Iridescent, J.delanoy, JForget, JanSöderback, John254, Juliancolton, Jusdafax, Katafray, Kbdank71, King of Hearts (old account 2), Kmccoy, LakeHMM, Lame Name, Lightmouse,
LindsayH, Lobsterthermidor, Logan, MacGuyver, Madmagic, Maury Markowitz, Mboverload, Melsaran, MeltBanana, MichaelTucker, MightyWarrior, Mild Bill Hiccup, Mjpotter,
MorganaFiolett, MuZemike, Nascar1996, Nate1481, NativeForeigner, Nick C, NielsenGW, Noclevername, Noisy, Nommonomanac, OHFM, Omicron18, Oreo Priest, Orioneight, Page Up,
Pedgi, Peter Erwin, Peterlewis, Philip Trueman, Ponyo, RaCha'ar, RafaelG, Ral315, Ramckay, Rangoon11, RegentsPark, RexNL, Rhopkins8, Richard Keatinge, RickK, Rlowesforwiki,
Robb010101, Rohanmahtani, RomanSpa, Rrburke, Scipius, Signalhead, Silverxxx, Sintaku, Slocombe, Snigbrook, So God created Manchester, Sticky Parkin, Szczerbiec01, T0talM0r0n, THEN
WHO WAS PHONE?, Tcncv, The Thing That Should Not Be, Thinking of England, Tide rolls, Tommy2010, Tomunist, Tothebarricades.tk, Tresiden, Trisw, Tsavage, Utsanomiko, Vary,
Versus22, Viriditas, Vrenator, WAS 4.250, Waggers, Wassermann, Wavelength, Westermark-Ost, Wikieditor06, Wkrocek, Woohookitty, Wtmitchell, Xezbeth, Xhancock, Yamaguchi先生,
Yamamoto Ichiro, Zak.l, ZenerV, 459 anonymous edits

Selective breeding  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=408652353  Contributors: 03141119, Adhib, Aesopos, Afru, Ahoerstemeier, Aitias, Alansohn, Alpha 4615, Alphachimp,
Andrewa, Angela, Arbitrarily0, Arthena, Atulsnischal, Avono, Baa, Beanerfan, Belovedfreak, Bgalex, Biglll123456789, BillWSmithJr, BirgitteSB, Bistohy, Blanchardb, Blueboy1408,
Bobby33bobby33, Bobet, Bobo192, Boccobrock, Bonadea, Brainyiscool, Buickid, Bushbaby99, Bushcarrot, Buzzgt, CameoAppearance, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanadianLinuxUser,
Capricorn42, Cats rule, Cgoodwin, Chrchr02, Chuddy32, Civil Engineer III, ClamDip, Clarince63, ClockworkSoul, Connor3000, Connormah, Cpl Syx, Crabula, Cyrus Grisham, DARTH
SIDIOUS 2, DVD R W, Da monster under your bed, Dabomb87, DanielCD, DanielDeibler, Davodd, DeadEyeArrow, DerHexer, Dialectric, Docboat, Dyamantese, Elf, Eliyak, Emersoni,
Epbr123, Eventer, Everyking, Explicit, Eyu100, Falcon8765, FastLizard4, Favonian, Ferns8710, FisherQueen, FlamingSilmaril, Flewis, Floridan, Frankie0607, Freedomlinux, G716, Galloping
Moses, Galoubet, Gilliam, Gloriamarie, Gnowor, GorillaWarfare, Graham87, Grumpyyoungman01, Gurch, Gurchzilla, Gwernol, Haakon, Habj, Hadal, Hadrian89, Hardyplants, HenkvD,
Husond, Hydrogen Iodide, Immunize, ImperfectlyInformed, Infrangible, IvanLanin, J.delanoy, JaGa, Jaydica, Jeff G., Jeffrey Mall, Jeffthejiff, JimmyMcJim, Jjhake, Jleedev, Jmlk17, Jmundo,
JoanneB, Jovianeye, Jsorr, Jusdafax, Jwissick, Kaiwhakahaere, Kbdank71, Keilana, Kigconker1, Kingpin13, Kmccoy, Knobdeleter, KnowledgeOfSelf, Kurykh, Lachatdelarue, Laudaka,
LeaveSleaves, LietKynes, Loren.wilton, Lpangelrob, LucyLocket1, M.thoriyan, MER-C, MJ94, Malcolm Morley, Marasmusine, Maria202, Mav, Max the cat, Melmann, Mendaliv,
MightyWarrior, Miyagawa, Molotron, MonoAV, Montanabw, Montchav, Mygerardromance, N5iln, Naddy, Nakon, NawlinWiki, Ncmvocalist, Nehrams2020, Neptune5000, Noah Salzman,
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Phil2511, Philip Trueman, Phoenix-wiki, Picapica, Pinethicket, Pollinator, Prashanthns, Pschemp, Quill, Radiant!, Raven4x4x, Rebecca, RexNL, Richard New Forest, RichardF, Rjd0060,
Robl33, Rocky909, Ronabop, Ronhjones, Rror, S1000, Saintrain, Salmar, Samw, Sciurinæ, ScottJ, Seb az86556, Sesu Prime, ShakingSpirit, Sherwanus, Skellious, Slamorte, SlayerK, Smalljim,
Snowolf, Snoyes, Sonett72, Sonicology, Starnestommy, Steven Walling, Sting au, Styrofoam1994, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, TShilo12, Tamarkot, Tarcieri, Tarret, Tekana, The Rambling
Man, The Thing That Should Not Be, Tiffers100, Tim1357, Timoteo132stga7, Tommytanksfast, Tomnealeman, Ttwaring, TypicalPrototype, VasilievVV, Versus22, Wavelength, West Brom
4ever, Whatiguana, Whereizben, WikHead, Woohookitty, ‫موثلك نب ورمع‬, 651 anonymous edits

Green Revolution  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=409354033  Contributors: A3RO, ANHL, APB-CMX, Academic Challenger, Adambro, Adbarnhart, Addedlaugh,
AdjustShift, Adriaan, After Midnight, Agrofe, Ahoerstemeier, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Aliquidparadigm, Alloquep, Alyahyai, Amorymeltzer, Andrew c, AndySimpson, AniRaptor2001,
Antandrus, Anthere, Anupamsr, Apothecia, Arne Heise, Arthena, Atulsnischal, Axeman89, Baller92, Bathosrex, Belligero, BenKovitz, Bendy298, Berkut, Blainster, Bletch, Bmwm5lover,
Bobblewik, Bobet, Bobo159, Bobsquash94, BostonMA, Brandon, Brian0918, Brimba, Bubbukuf, CQ, Caiaffa, Callie.hoon, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Capricorn42, CarTick, Cerejota,
Cgingold, Chat krish, Chinju, Closedmouth, Coffee, Cometstyles, Cornellrockey, Crater Creator, Curps, Cxz111, Cydperez, Cyrius, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DaGizza, Dan100, DanKeshet,
Danohuiginn, Darklilac, Darthveda, Ddcampayo, Dendodge, Dialectric, Dive94, Do it!, Downey16, Drkpitt4, Dv82matt, Dzof, Earle Martin, Eastlaw, EconoPhysicist, Editorandrevisor,
Ekabhishek, El C, Eliezg, Enigmatical, Enrico Dirac, Esrogs, Extransit, F-402, FreplySpang, Fumitol, Fæ, G-vaderdude, GTBacchus, Gabriel Kielland, Gaius Cornelius, Galoubet, Gary King,
Garylhewitt, Germen, Gfanslow, Gobonobo, Goh wz, Goltz20707, Goustien, Gozar, Graft, Greenbough, Greenuprising, Guinnessmonkey, Gurney601, Gwernol, Gzkn, Hadal, Hajor, Harel
Newman, Helvetius, Heqs, Hinagot, Holme215, Horses In The Sky, Hu12, Hut 8.5, Ignirtoq, Iknowyourider, IlyaHaykinson, Immunize, InShaneee, Infrogmation, Insanity Incarnate,
Intelligentflower, Intgr, Ixfd64, J.delanoy, JCDenton2052, JForget, JaGa, Jabowery, Jacobolivia123, Jafeluv, Jagged 85, Janus01, Jehughes, Jfeldman, Jj137, Joan-of-arc, Jonathan.s.kt,
Joostvandeputte, Joseph Solis in Australia, Josh Parris, Jpmyren, Juan M. Gonzalez, Jugger90, Ka Faraq Gatri, Karl.brown, Katach, Katieh5584, Kcordina, Kelly Martin, Kembangraps, Khatru2,
Kill3rdeath, KnowledgeHegemony, Kstailey, L Kensington, La goutte de pluie, Lee J Haywood, Lentower, Lexi Marie, Linmhall, LittleOldMe old, Logical Premise, Luna Santin, MC
MasterChef, Magidin, MarcoTolo, Marcus Qwertyus, Mark7-2, Maury Markowitz, Max rspct, Mboverload, Meeples, Menswear, Metahacker, MiG, Michael Hardy, MichaelW, Mimzy1990,
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Unyoyega, Urod, Useight, Vejvančický, Verne Equinox, Veron, Vert et Noir, Viriditas, Vrenator, Waterchan, Wavelength, Wcrosbie, Westermark-Ost, Wiki alf, WikiEdit, Willking1979, Wing
Article Sources and Contributors 136

Nut, Wolfnix, Woohookitty, Wtmitchell, Xezbeth, Ychastnik APL, Yoenit, Yuvsore2, Zachomis, Zachorious, Zenyu, Zwirello, రవిచంద్ర, 831 anonymous edits

Livestock  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=409710139  Contributors: $tatic, 21655, 4twenty42o, A vivid dreamer, A-giau, Acdx, Agradman, Akalden, Alansohn, Alex
Usoltsev, Alex.tan, Alphachimp, Andrewrp, ApolloCreed, Ares0524, Art LaPella, Arundel77, Asho101, Atulsnischal, Avenue, Avianwing, Avs5221, B. Nuhanen, BHC, Barbara Shack, Barnaby
dawson, Beaver, Ben Ben, Benc, Bendono, Biruitorul, Blurble, Bobblewik, Bodnotbod, Borgx, Caltas, Cgoodwin, ChrisGriswold, Christian75, Christina Scott, Clconway, Clovis Sangrail,
Conthedx, Courcelles, Cutler, Da monster under your bed, Daharja, Dale Arnett, Dark hyena, Darwinek, David Vasquez, Davodd, Deanbatch, DerHexer, Diberri, Donama, Donarreiskoffer, Doug,
Dr.frog, Drat, Dreamyshade, Dreiche2, Drunkenmonkey, Dschwen, Dureo, EarthSage14, EastNile, Elcajonfarms, Elf, Eloquence, Emperorbma, Epbr123, Eric-Wester, Everyking, Ewulp,
Falcon8765, Faradayplank, Farosdaughter, Fir0002, Firebird2090, Flyer22, Forschungszentren, Friviere, Fvw, Gadfium, Gaia Octavia Agrippa, Galoubet, Gbaor, Gene Nygaard, Gentgeen,
Gigemag76, GlassFET, GorillaWarfare, Grutness, Gscshoyru, H2O, HJ Mitchell, HMS Warspite, Hadal, Hamamelis, Harriv, He Who Walks in Cloud With Bear, Health animal, Hottentot, Hut
8.5, Hyperflux, IRP, Iksel, Imc, Improv, Iridescent, J.delanoy, JD79, JaGa, Jaimedv, JamieS93, Jared Preston, Jeronimo, Jiang, JohnCD, Johncapistrano, Johnleemk, Johntex, Jordan246, Joseph
Solis in Australia, Junior Sherritt, Jusdafax, Jwestbrook, KJS77, Kanofkeith, Kar.ma, Karanchowdhary, Karanne, Katalaveno, Key45, KimDabelsteinPetersen, Kingturtle, Kjkolb, Kotuku33,
Kubigula, Lars T., Lawman, LdyDragonfly, LeeHunter, Leszek Jańczuk, Ling.Nut, Linmhall, LittleHow, Livestocknature, Logan, Lovesexytaylor, Lumos3, Luna Santin, MPF, MSTCrow, Mac
Davis, Mandarax, Maritsa Hotel, Markmark12, Mathteacher1729, Mattermanrocks, Mb99, McDogm, Meco, Michael Hardy, Mink Butler Davenport, Monae08, Moo35506, Mr. Sparkle,
Mrtrey99, Muchness, Myanw, Mygerardromance, Mzmadmike, N419BH, NawlinWiki, Neverquick, Nick C, Nopetro, Norm, Ohnoitsjamie, OldakQuill, Olivier, OnBeyondZebrax, Onco p53,
Onorem, Oxymoron83, PGWG, PTSE, Paris 16, Pedant, Peregrine981, Peter, Pharos, Phenylalanine, PhilBennetts, PhilHibbs, Pinethicket, Poindexter Propellerhead, Poor Yorick, Prewitt81,
R'n'B, Raul654, Realist2, Realson, Responsible?, RetiredUser2, Rjwilmsi, Rmhermen, Roastytoast, Rosenknospe, Rossumcapek, Rumpelstilzchen, Sayeth, Sbharris, Selphie, Sentience,
Shadowjams, Shanes, SirIsaacBrock, Skyezx, Slambo, SlimVirgin, Smily, Smooth O, Snozzer, Sopoforic, Sparklex, Spellcast, Stephan Schulz, Stephen G. Brown, Stereotek, Sterry2607, Steve
Checkoway, Steven Walling, Steven Weston, Stinton, Sunborn, Taxman, Teapotgeorge, Telsa, Th1rt3en, The Anome, The Librarian, The Rambling Man, The Rationalist, The Thing That Should
Not Be, The Tom, Thehelpfulone, This deserves inclusion, Thomjakobsen, Thunderbolt16, Tide rolls, Timwi, Tiny Friends, Tom-, Tom8hoes, TomCerul, Tooto, Treisijs, Tres2002, Tryptofish,
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374 anonymous edits

Breed  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=396611142  Contributors: Afru, Andrewa, Andycjp, Bashyr, Bensaccount, Bkonrad, Bob f it, Brick Thrower, Bridgerp, Brya,
Businessman332211, Chrishepner, D6, Dallas94, Darth Panda, Davidlittle9, Discospinster, Eleassar, Elf, Eliyak, Ellywa, Eras-mus, Eyrian, Feedmecereal, FilipeS, Gately, Glane23, Gogo Dodo,
Grafen, Hafwyn, Hardyplants, Ingii, Jeff G., Jjron, Joanjoc, Joseph Solis in Australia, Karlo918, Kayau, Kembangraps, Killa link, Lord of the Isles, MJBurrage, Mayan king, Metroscub, Mika1h,
Montanabw, Mrzaius, Nakon, NattyGarlough, Necessary Evil, Nick UA, Notjake13, Pdcook, PierreAbbat, Pro bug catcher, RN1970, RadManCF, Rjwilmsi, Rror, Sincecc, Snek01, Stemonitis,
Steven Walling, Sting au, Sugaar, Surachit, Tassedethe, Thingg, Torben Schink, Tygrrr, Ufim, WereSpielChequers, Wik, WordyGirl90, Zetawoof, 65 anonymous edits

Crop  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=407690023  Contributors: 16@r, 21655, AC+79 3888, Alan Liefting, Ale jrb, Ali K, AnmaFinotera, Anna Lincoln, Atif.t2, Bggoldie,
BoH, Capt. James T. Kirk, Crazyollie, Daniel Christensen, Danny-w, Deor, Discospinster, Dreadstar, Epbr123, Gallaiis, Gene Nygaard, Gogog4554dygh, Grafen, Green caterpillar, Gromlakh,
Halladba, I.M.S., Isnow, JMS Old Al, Jennavecia, JureLc, Jusdafax, Keeper76, Kembangraps, Khalid Mahmood, Kjkolb, Lejman, Lil'grul1234, Lradrama, Michael Hardy, Mlewan, Mrzaius,
Nick0012, Noozgroop, Onco p53, Philip Trueman, Pietersz, Pinky sl, Pkravchenko, Prari, Pruxo, Quantpole, Rjgibb, Robert Weemeyer, Sarrus, Shoeofdeath, Sky Attacker, Snigbrook, Spellcast,
SunnyPlate49, Takowl, Tatpong, Tide rolls, Tommy2010, Useight, Utcursch, Wavelength, West.andrew.g, Yidisheryid, Ykhwong, Yonatan, అహ్మద్ నిసార్, 121 anonymous edits

Cultivar  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=406988202  Contributors: Administration log, Aiken drum, Alai, Alan Liefting, Amaltheus, Andre Engels, Andres, Andrewa, Attys,
B00P, B33R, BD2412, Barticus88, Bejnar, BorgQueen, Brya, CanisRufus, Cdromkid, CommonsDelinker, Como, CubicFeet, Dekisugi, Dina, Dinesh smita, Dmd, DocWatson42, DragonHawk,
ENeville, Eb.eric, Eliyak, Etrosen, Flying Freddy, Galoubet, Georgethorne, GerardM, Giantsshoulders, Gilliam, Granitethighs, Hardyplants, Haukurth, Hippophaë, Huangdi, Imc, Improv, JAn
Dudík, JJ Harrison, Jackhynes, Jdvelasc, Jeffq, Jjron, Kembangraps, Knuckles, Kristof vt, Lesterama, Lotje, Lou Sander, MER-C, MPF, Majorclanger, Marj Tiefert, Matt Gies, Melburnian,
Mellum, Middayexpress, Minnecologies, Mintleaf, MrDarwin, Nasa-verve, Nick UA, Noodle snacks, Perfectblue97, PhilHibbs, Postdlf, PrimeHunter, Proton donor, Qyd, RSStockdale, Remi14,
Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Rjwilmsi, Rkitko, Roger D Spencer, Rosenzweig, SB Johnny, SS452, SiGarb, SilkTork, Snek01, Station1, Surena, Taragui, TimBentley, Uncloudedvision,
UtherSRG, Victor M. Vicente Selvas, Vmenkov, Waggers, Wavelength, Wetman, Wmahan, Zoicon5, 115 anonymous edits

Plant breeding  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=409072788  Contributors: *drew, A reluctant badger, Access Denied, Alansohn, Almightycaz, Alro, Alvin Seville,
Amaltheus, Amareshchandel, Anthere, ArielGold, Arvana, Barnabymiln, Blackshark eng, Bobby33bobby33, Cacycle, Campoftheamericas, CanisRufus, Canley, Capricorn42, Chong zi,
Clicketyclack, Cmdrjameson, Cohesion, Crusio, Cryptographic hash, Cyrus Grisham, DabMachine, Dancter, Daniel11, Davecrosby uk, Deagle AP, Deon, DerHexer, Dhollm, Dibowen5,
Dneyder, Drooling Sheep, Dzhim, EWhitted, Edcolins, Eliyak, Emanuele Mastrangelo, EncycloPetey, Ettrig, Eutomato, FayssalF, Gisela Genius, Gr1st, Granitethighs, Gurch, Guru-45, Habj,
Hardyplants, Hauganm, Hooperbloob, Ifpri, ImperfectlyInformed, Isilanes, J.delanoy, Jander10, January, Jimmy Pitt, Josheganwyer, Joshfinnie, Jrbouldin, KimvdLinde, KnowledgeOfSelf,
Landroo, Lantonov, LauraPa, Leannet3, Leuko, LibLord, Linmhall, Lisagosselin, Lord.lucan, Lova Falk, Me6620, MeltBanana, Mm40, MonoApe, Neelix, Neonblak, NewEnglandYankee,
Newsandpolitics, Nicholas Cimini, Nick, Nono64, PDH, Palmpilot900, Pdcook, Pelargonium, Philip Trueman, Pollinator, PseudoOne, Rabid Lemur, Redwoodseed, Refinnejann, Rich
Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Rolf Schlegel, Rosyaraur, Rror, Rsrikanth05, SCEhardt, Sachesh, Sandhi, Savanter, Sceptre, Scm83x, Seaphoto, Shambalala, Shoessss, Sintaku, Smartse, Somanypeople,
Spondoolicks, Suntag, Teapotgeorge, Techhead7890, TimBentley, Togilvie, Tree Biting Conspiracy, Trilobitealive, Tsavage, Ttguy, Valfontis, Vclaw, Veritas Liberum, Viberg.bjorn, Vrenator,
Wigie, Wikiproject1400, Woohookitty, Xezbeth, Xmort, Zackp, Zaxem, 154 anonymous edits

Intensive farming  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=408768153  Contributors: A Spotty Spot, ACupOfCoffee, AK Auto, Aidanbt, Aitias, Alan Liefting, Aleksa Lukic, Ams80,
AndrewJD, Anthere, Apothecia, Atob-loser555, Audiobahn, Az1568, Belligero, Bensderbest, Bogdangiusca, Bryan Derksen, Canaen, Ceranthor, Cgingold, Cit helper, Closedmouth, Cometstyles,
Compact105, Coredesat, Crazycomputers, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Deadbloomers, Dev920, Dialectric, Discospinster, Doradus, EagleFan, Ectofait5, Efe, Elbbom, Emijrp, Emmanovi, Epbr123,
Erpbridge, Escape Orbit, Espoo, Eyebeeuk, FNMF, Flewis, Floul1, Freestylerob, GILDog, GRAHAMUK, Grunty Thraveswain, Guanaco, Guitaralex, HamburgerRadio, Harvest day fool,
Henryisamazingyeh, Idleguy, Imgay777, ImperatorExercitus, ImperfectlyInformed, J.delanoy, JHFTC, JRR Trollkien, Jabjab77, JasonGodesky, Jdlambert, Jefgodesky, Jrtayloriv, Kbfan,
Kembangraps, Kent Wang, Kevin, Ksyrie, Kwagoner, Lanny34, Linmhall, Luna Santin, Luokehao, Malerin, Malo, Master of the Oríchalcos, Materialscientist, Mild Bill Hiccup,
Misodoctakleidist, NathanLee, Nesbit, Neurolysis, Nightscream, Ninio, Noclevername, Onopearls, Oxymoron83, Pamphilon, Paste, Pearle, PeregrineAY, Philip Trueman, Piano non troppo,
Pinethicket, Qwitchibo, RWyn, Radon210, Railcgun, Rdelre, Read2007, Remi0o, RexNL, Rhrad, Richard001, Rrburke, Rumpuscat, SWAdair, Schwyz, Search4Lancer, Sheady 16, SlimVirgin,
Snigbrook, Spartan-James, Spellcast, Stephenb, Stochata, Suicidalhamster, Thanandyr, Theoneintraining, Tide rolls, Tomatoes123, Travelbird, Trueblood, VMS Mosaic, Vhesh, Victor M.
Vicente Selvas, Vrenator, Vriullop, WAS 4.250, WJBscribe, Wackymacs, Wavelength, WereSpielChequers, Ycatsui2010, Yupik, ZayZayEM, 325 anonymous edits

Sustainable agriculture  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=409321108  Contributors: AbsolutDan, Acroterion, Agrofe, Aion, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Alexolly, Alloquep,
Alyss 22, Amalthea, Angusparker, Anlace, Anthere, Asparagusjuice, Ayanoa, B1atv, Baguio, Baryonic Being, Basicdesign, Bathurst to, Bearcat, Beetstra, Behun, Berkt, Betamod, BigFatBuddha,
Bobo192, Bongwarrior, BozMo, BrendelSignature, CALR, Cacuija, Caesarcow, Calliopejen1, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanisRufus, CarolGray, Chophe, Chris the speller, Cmdrjameson,
Covalent, Curtbeckmann, D-Rock, D6, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DMacks, DabMachine, Dagwar, DanBri, Dave1g, Davepetr, Dawn Bard, Debivort, Dehaan, Desmanthus4food,
Disagreeableneutrino, Dlesjack, Drewster1829, Driftwoodzebulin, Drjiceman, Easyodeh, Ebbatten, Ecoconservant, Ed Poor, Edward, Elassint, Elgolferisto, Ellenmc, Engineman, Epbr123,
Erauch, EurekaLott, Excirial, Favonian, Feelgoodnutrition, Femto, FinalRapture, Fonion, Ford Denison, Fryed-peach, GILDog, Gabriel Kielland, Gaius Cornelius, GeoMor, Geojacob,
Gingermint, Gobonobo, Gold heart, Grantrowe, Greenbling07, Greenopedia, Gromlakh, Guanaco, H2O, Haber, Hakuin, Hassellhoffmc, Hazard-SJ, Holly Ashley IIED, Hu, Idleguy, Immunize,
ImperfectlyInformed, Imroy, Irishguy, Ismail87, J.delanoy, J04n, JRR Trollkien, Jamiejoseph, Jdach, Jdwheeler42, Je12, JeevinS, Jessmoon, Jguk, JonathanBentz, Jonnysonthespot, Jorfer, Jose
Icaza, Joshfinnie, Juansidious, JumpingBull, Jwanders, Katalyst2, Kishalew, Kkibumba, Kozuch, Kuru, Landcarevic, Landroo, Langetwins, Lazytiger, Lichtfouse, Lontjr, Look2See1, Luna
Santin, Luxdormiens, Mac, Malcolmxl5, Manuel Anastácio, Mark83, MarkFlemish, MartinHarper, MasterOfHisOwnDomain, Maxbeck, Mboverload, Mdwyer, Mercurywoodrose,
Midnightcomm, Mild Bill Hiccup, Mindmatrix, Mlecin, Monsieurpiggy, Morgis, MrOllie, Msschroe, Mtl1969, NMChico24, NeilN, Nigelt, Nscott.odi, Nurg, Omicronpersei8, Onco p53,
Open2universe, PGPirate, Paleorthid, Pamoja, Paul foord, Phenylalanine, PhilKnight, Philip Trueman, Philip W Bush, Philipkeil, PhyllisWeintraub, Placesense, Pollinator, PrestonH, Psemmusa,
RJBurkhart, RayAYang, RedHouse18, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), RichardF, Rick DeLong, Rjholmer, Rlsheehan, Rmhermen, Roastytoast, Ronald King, RussTTU, Salix alba, Sam Hocevar,
Santryl, SchuminWeb, Scott Roy Atwood, Seraphimblade, Shoefly, Sholto Maud, SiobhanHansa, Skier Dude, Skysmith, Slightsmile, SlimVirgin, Smalljim, Smsarmad, Solid State Survivor,
SpuriousQ, Sritchienal, SteinbDJ, Sting au, Storm Rider, Stumptown503, Sunray, Superborsuk, Tamaratrouts, Tcaldron, Tcazes, The Thing That Should Not Be, TheRingess, Tide rolls, Tinton5,
Tom harrison, Tomcrisp7, Tommy2010, Topbanana, Traveliter, Traylerphi, Triwbe, Tsavage, Tussock, V.B., Vejvančický, Verde22, Vineetcoolguy, Vj stokes, Voigfdsa, WAS 4.250, Wacko39,
Wallet, Wavelength, Wgors, Wikepermie, Wikistyler, William Pietri, Wisdawn, Woohookitty, Wotnow, Ziel, Zodon, Zoe Stanyon, Zoicon5, கலை, 314 anonymous edits

Permaculture  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=409637974  Contributors: 4492tues12, APB-CMX, Adam Chlipala, Aesopos, Agerry, Ajkoen, Alan Liefting, Allthingsgreen,
Altenmann, Amberckerr, Angusscown, Anna Frodesiak, Anthere, Apothecia, Appraiser, AprilSKelly, Aquaponics, Archimerged, Arthur Rubin, Augustart, Ayanoa, Bdpermie, Behun,
Belovedfreak, BigFatBuddha, Blathnaid, Blaxthos, Bluemoose, Bluenijin, Bodhi.peace, BoundaryRider, Brambleshire, Brian Boyd, Bridgetsgirl, Brimba, BryceHarrington, Burschik, CQ,
Cacuija, Cbuddenhagen, Charlesjustice, Chendy, Chopchopwhitey, Chris j wood, Chris the speller, Chriswaterguy, Chrlaney, Ciclotan, Cjstanonis, Ckatz, ClaireofKLARITY, Cmdrjameson,
Colonies Chris, Corpuscollosium, Cyclotronwiki, Cyde, Cymon Fjell, DanTheSeeker, Daniel, Daniel J. Leivick, Danny Beaudoin, Darkohead, Davenbelle, David Woodward, DennisDaniels,
DerHexer, DerekG99, Diliff, Djcmackay, Dlesjack, Dmd, Dogposter, Dominoconsultant, DoubleBlue, Dyl, Eadmund, Eclipsenow.org, Ecoescuela, Ecureuil espagnol, Edward321, Elefectoborde,
Element deck, Elmmapleoakpine, Elvey, Enloop, Epbr123, Erauch, Favonian, Fishnut, Flauto Dolce, FrancisTyers, Freddy011, Freddydesouza, Gadfium, Gardenlily, Gelatinouscube42,
Geoffspear, Ghewgill, Ghost accounty, Gilliam, Gioto, Giraffedata, Golbez, GomerMcFlarp, Gracoo2, Granitethighs, Grayson wyatt, Greenman2011, Grifen2, Gurdjieff, H4stings, Hank chapot,
Hauntu2, HisSpaceResearch, Homohabilis, Hunchenfest, Ice Cold Beer, Ilyushka88, Infrogmation, Ingolfson, Inwind, Iridescent, Irishguy, IronChris, Isaebellaspuppetshow, Isotelesis,
Article Sources and Contributors 137

Itsmejudith, J.delanoy, J04n, JRR Trollkien, Jackovacs, Jan Permaculture, Jeff3000, Jeffmcneill, Jkh.gr, Johnmc, Johnwhol, Joli Rouge, Jon513, JonasRH, Jonkerz, Jorfer, Jose Icaza, Jose Ramos,
Josh64, Joshfinnie, Jrtayloriv, Jtneill, Julia Rossi, Jwanders, Jwitch, KVDP, Kathar, Katsteele, Keithkml, Kevin Hayes, Kiaparowits, Kirstendirksen, Koleszar, Kozuch, Krishvanth, LMFernandes,
Lfstevens, Libertyblues, Lightmouse, Linmhall, Logan, Logical Cowboy, Look2See1, Lord Matt, LuYiSi, Luminaia, Lvec-jayson, Mac, Macropneuma, Madbishop, Marj Tiefert, MatheoDJ,
Matthewmayer, Mboverload, Mcalison, Mdd, Mdwyer, Meegs, Meika, Mexeno1, Michael Hardy, Mignon, Mikal42, MikeJ9919, Mindmatrix, Minuoh, Mkbnett, Monkofthetrueschool, Mooreds,
MrOllie, Mynameisnotpj, NathanHurst, NathanielGallion, Nattydreader, Naught101, Nehrams2020, Neo139, Nickptar, Nihilo 01, NinetyNineFennelSeeds, Nirvana2013, Nld.rnsm, Nom
DeGuerre, Omair00, OrionK, PMDrive1061, Paleorthid, Papipaul, Pat604, Paul Millsom, Pearle, Pentref, Permacultura, Permaculture institute, PermaculturePlanet, Permapower, Peter Campbell,
PeterBirkett, Pgan002, Phil Sandifer, Philip Trueman, PierreAbbat, Pigman, Pinethicket, Pinqpanther, PleaseStand, Polyparadigm, Poppafuze, Populus, Pseudomonas, Quercusrobur,
Questionthedominantparadigm, RHaworth, Raines, Red58bill, Rich Farmbrough, RichardF, Richardtelford, Richhoncho, Rickproser, River road permasite, Rjholmer, Rjwilmsi, Rkmlai,
Rmhermen, Roidroid, RookZERO, Rr.nz, RyanGerbil10, Rzelnik, SP-KP, Salix alba, Salvor, Sanman nor, Sceloporus, Schlüggell, Schmiteye, SchuminWeb, Scott Roy Atwood, Scottlondon,
Seidos, Sequoia D, Shafaki, Shell Kinney, Sheridan, Sholto Maud, SilkTork, Skier Dude, Skipsievert, Skyeriquelme, Skysmith, SlackerMom, Smithfarm, Sociotard, Southofsouth,
Steve@sector39.co.uk, Stillnotelf, Struthious Bandersnatch, Sunray, Suvicaya, SweetAspect, Tahirs, Talkie tim, Tanthalas39, Tarquin, TastyCakes, TaylorAshton, Te24409nsp, Teatimetrvaelller,
Ted11, Tenzicut, Teratornis, Terriemiller, Tevildo, That Guy, From That Show!, The Thing That Should Not Be, TheMoot, Themfromspace, Thesloth, Thumperward, Tiago Penedo, Tide rolls,
Tomintaz, Tony Sidaway, Trevyn, Trueblood, Tutor65, Tzartzam, Unclejedd, UrthBound, Uthbrian, Valfontis, Vespristiano, Viellashipley, VirtualDelight, Vmenkov, Vortexrealm, Vsmith,
Waitak, Wavelength, WaynaQhapaq, Wayne Slam, Wengero, Wikepermie, WikiDan61, Willow4, Wiooiw, Wisdawn, Woodlandcreek, Woodsguy, Ww, Xavexgoem, Yogi tom, Zaricki811, Zfr,
Ziggurat, Zodon, 574 anonymous edits

Agricultural policy  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=408446772  Contributors: Ahoerstemeier, Aircorn, Alan Liefting, Alba, Alfio, Andycjp, Anthere, Antony-22, Bazonka,
Beland, Benjamin Gatti, Blobglob, Bobblewik, Bryan Derksen, Burschik, Casito, Cmdrjameson, Daniel, Dispenser, Edward, Edward321, FLetch, Farmjustice2010, Feco, Fenice, FirefoxRocks,
GenkiNeko, Geonarva, Grick, Guanaco, H2O, Hadal, Henrygb, Hu, Iatpiatp, Ibdbgr, Ike9898, ImperfectlyInformed, Iridescent, JRR Trollkien, Jenrees, Jeremyb, Jerryseinfeld, John Quiggin,
Johnpseudo, Joolz, Joy, Jules.lt, Kat, Kbdank71, Kingpin13, Kurieeto, Lankiveil, Linmhall, MJR, MSTCrow, Maurreen, Mightypile, Mrg3105, Mrmuk, Muijzo, Neuron, Nscott.odi, Nsorensen,
OnBeyondZebrax, OneWorld22, Orzetto, P L Logan, PDH, PandaName, Pearle, PedroPerez, Pekinensis, Porqin, Raul654, Raulthomas, Rd232, Remi0o, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Roadrunner,
Ronz, Roundtheworld, Sandpiper, Shoujun, SpNeo, Stewacide, TestPilot, Thorwald, Toytoy, Twested, Uthbrian, Valentin Zahrnt, Vgranucci, Viajero, WAS 4.250, Wallet, ZimZalaBim, Zoicon5,
º¡º, 101 anonymous edits
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 138

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

File:Clark's Sector Model.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Clark's_Sector_Model.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Grafite, Lies Van Rompaey,
Nickcampbell18, Wikiwide, 1 anonymous edits
File:ClaySumerianSickle.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ClaySumerianSickle.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: Maksim, Phirosiberia,
Wst, 1 anonymous edits
File:Pieter Bruegel the Elder- The Corn Harvest (August).JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder-_The_Corn_Harvest_(August).JPG  License:
Public Domain  Contributors: Alexandrin, Alfonso", Andreagrossmann, Gryffindor, Lewenstein, Rocket000, Szilas, Xenophon
File:Agriculture (Plowing) CNE-v1-p58-H.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Agriculture_(Plowing)_CNE-v1-p58-H.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
Ewing Galloway
File:Precision Farming in Minnesota - Natural Colour.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Precision_Farming_in_Minnesota_-_Natural_Colour.jpg  License: Public
Domain  Contributors: NASA Earth Observatory, Jesse Allen
File:Precision Farming in Minnesota - False Colour.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Precision_Farming_in_Minnesota_-_False_Colour.jpg  License: Public Domain
 Contributors: NASA Earth Observatory, Jesse Allen
File:FarmersIndia.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:FarmersIndia.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Emperor Genius (talk). Original
uploader was Emperor Genius at en.wikipedia
File:KerbauJawa.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:KerbauJawa.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: User:Merbabu
File:Mt Uluguru and Sisal plantations.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mt_Uluguru_and_Sisal_plantations.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Apalsola,
Berrucomons, Jean-Frédéric, Maedin, Muhammad Mahdi Karim, Verne Equinox, Yuriy75
File:Ueberladewagen (jha).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ueberladewagen_(jha).jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors:
User:Hinrich
File:2005gdpAgricultural.PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:2005gdpAgricultural.PNG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Anwar saadat at en.wikipedia
File:Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_People's_Republic_of_China.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
User:Denelson83, User:SKopp, User:Shizhao, User:Zscout370
File:Flag of Europe.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Europe.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:-xfi-, User:Dbenbenn, User:Funakoshi,
User:Jeltz, User:Nightstallion, User:Paddu, User:Verdy p, User:Zscout370
File:Flag of India.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_India.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:SKopp
File:Flag of the United States.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Dbenbenn,
User:Indolences, User:Jacobolus, User:Technion, User:Zscout370
File:Flag of Brazil.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Brazil.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Brazilian Government
File:Flag of Japan.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Japan.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Various
File:Flag of Russia.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Russia.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Zscout370
File:Flag of Spain.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Spain.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Pedro A. Gracia Fajardo, escudo de Manual de Imagen
Institucional de la Administración General del Estado
File:Flag of France.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_France.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:SKopp, User:SKopp, User:SKopp, User:SKopp,
User:SKopp, User:SKopp
File:Flag of Australia.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Australia.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ian Fieggen
File:Flag of Italy.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Italy.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: see below
File:Coffee Plantation.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Coffee_Plantation.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Breeze, FCRebelo, Jonkerz,
Thuresson, Wst, 4 anonymous edits
Image:ClaySumerianSickle.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ClaySumerianSickle.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: Maksim,
Phirosiberia, Wst, 1 anonymous edits
Image:Tomb of Nakht (2).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tomb_of_Nakht_(2).jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Norman de Garis Davies, Nina Davies
(2-dimensional 1 to 1 Copy of an 15th century BC Picture)
Image:Agriculture (Plowing) CNE-v1-p58-H.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Agriculture_(Plowing)_CNE-v1-p58-H.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
Ewing Galloway
Image:Centres of origin and spread of agriculture.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Centres_of_origin_and_spread_of_agriculture.svg  License: GNU Free
Documentation License  Contributors: User:Joey Roe
Image:Knapp of Howar 2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Knapp_of_Howar_2.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Cyr, Drewcorser,
JeremyA, Kurpfalzbilder.de, Man vyi, Petrusbarbygere
Image:Molino neolítico de vaivén.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Molino_neolítico_de_vaivén.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5
 Contributors: User:Locutus Borg
Image:Menare.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Menare.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Anthere
Image:Egyptian Domesticated Animals.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Egyptian_Domesticated_Animals.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: G.dallorto, Ies,
Ingolfson, JMCC1, Wst, Xenophon, 1 anonymous edits
Image:Llama, peru, machu picchu.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Llama,_peru,_machu_picchu.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Unununium272
Image:Backing sheep at sheepdog competition.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Backing_sheep_at_sheepdog_competition.jpg  License: Creative Commons
Attribution 2.0  Contributors: Peter Shanks from Lithgow, Australia
Image:Cows in green field - nullamunjie olive grove03.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cows_in_green_field_-_nullamunjie_olive_grove03.jpg  License: unknown
 Contributors: User:Fir0002
File:Donkeys by car.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Donkeys_by_car.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Joe Chill 2
Image:Luddite.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Luddite.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Unknown. 195 years since publication, copyright extinguished
Image:Tractionengine.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tractionengine.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original uploader was
Strider52 at en.wikipedia (Original text : Paul Smith )
File:Sectio caesarea.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sectio_caesarea.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original uploader was
Barbarossa at nl.wikipedia
Image:Carrots of many colors.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Carrots_of_many_colors.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Stephen Ausmus
Image:Sheep and cow in South Africa.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sheep_and_cow_in_South_Africa.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0
 Contributors: Lollie-Pop from Cape Town, South Africa
Image:CH cow 2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CH_cow_2.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: User:Dschwen
Image:Goat family.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Goat_family.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Fir0002, Ranveig, 1 anonymous edits
Image:Cattle sale 1.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cattle_sale_1.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: User:Cgoodwin
File:Sheep and herder India.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sheep_and_herder_India.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors:
Alex Gaylon from USA
File:New World Domesticated plants.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:New_World_Domesticated_plants.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike
2.5  Contributors: User:A111111, User:Atilin
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 139

File:Drying Crop in rural Punjabi home.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Drying_Crop_in_rural_Punjabi_home.JPG  License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Khalid Mahmood
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