DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

A REPORT ON SEMINAR TOPIC

“POWER QUALITY ISSUES”

BY
ALOK PRATIK
USN-1DS07EE009
8th Semester

1
 Department of Electrical and Electronics
DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

Certificate

This is to certify that Seminar Work entitled ”POWER QUALITY

ISSUES” is a bonafide work carried out by ALOK PRATIK bearing USN-
1DS07EE009 in partial fulfillment for the 8th semester of Bachelor of
Engineering in Electrical and Electronics of the Visvesvaraya Technological
University, Belgaum during the year 2010-2011. The Seminar Report has been
approved as it satisfies the academics prescribed for the Bachelor of
Engineering degree.

Internal Guide :

Mr. RAJENDRA REDDY

Head of the Department :

Mr. K. SHANMUKHA SUNDAR

Electrical & Electronics

ABSTRACT
Power quality is essential for smooth functioning of industrial process. As industries expand,
utilities become more interconnected and usage of electrically equipment increases, power
quality is jeopardized. The quality of power in the power system is severely affected by the
presence of harmonics. This harmonics adversely effects the power system performance.
Some of the effects are over heating of metal parts, noise in motors, low efficiency in motors
etc. The effects produced by the harmonics are reduced by adopting some corrective
measures.

Power quality is the set of limits of electrical properties that allows electrical systems to
function in their intended manner without significant loss of performance or life. This term is
used to describe electric power that drives an electrical load and the load's ability to function
properly with that electric power. Without the proper power, an electrical device (or load)
may malfunction, fail prematurely or not operate at all. There are many ways in which
electric power can be of poor quality and many more causes of such poor quality power.

The electric power industry comprises electricity generation (AC power), electric power

transmission and ultimately electricity distribution to an electricity meter located at the
premises of the end user of the electric power. The electricity then moves through the wiring
system of the end user until it reaches the load. The complexity of the system to move electric
energy from the point of production to the point of consumption combined with variations in
weather, generation, demand and other factors provide many opportunities for the quality of
supply to be compromised.

While "power quality" is a convenient term for many, it is the quality of the voltage - rather
than power or electric current - that is actually described by the term. Power is simply the
flow of energy and the current demanded by a load is largely uncontrollable.

CONTENTS :

1. POWER QUALITY: INTRODUCTION

2. VOLTAGE DRIPS
3. VOLTAGE SURGES
4. VOLTAGE FLICKER
5. VOLTAGE INTERUPTIONS
6. UNDERVOLTAGES
7. TRANSIENTS
8. HARMONICS
9. REFERENCES
 POWER QUALITY

Introduction:

The quality of electrical power may be described as a set of values of parameters, such as:

 Continuity of service
 Variation in voltage magnitude
 Transient voltages and currents
 Harmonic content in the waveforms etc.
It is often useful to think of power quality as a compatibility problem: is the equipment
connected to the grid compatible with the events on the grid, and is the power delivered by
the grid, including the events, compatible with the equipment that is connected?
Compatibility problems always have at least two solutions: in this case, either clean up the
power, or make the equipment tougher.

The tolerance of data-processing equipment to voltage variations is often characterized by

the CBEMA curve, which give the duration and magnitude of voltage variations that can be
tolerated. [1]

Ideally, voltage is supplied by a utility as sinusoidal having an amplitude and frequency given

by national standards (in the case of mains) or system specifications (in the case of a power
feed not directly attached to the mains) with an impedance of zero ohms at all frequencies.

No real-life power source is ideal and generally can deviate in at least the following ways:

 Variations in the peak or RMS voltage are both important to different types of

equipment.
 When the RMS voltage exceeds the nominal voltage by 10 to 80% for 0.5 cycle to 1
minute, the event is called a "swell".
 A "dip" (in British English) or a "sag" (in American English - the two terms are
equivalent) is the opposite situation: the RMS voltage is below the nominal voltage by 10
to 90% for 0.5 cycle to 1 minute.
 Random or repetitive variations in the RMS voltage between 90 and 110% of nominal
can produce a phenomenon known as "flicker" in lighting equipment. Flicker is rapid
visible changes of light level. Definition of the characteristics of voltage fluctuations that
produce objectionable light flicker has been the subject of ongoing research.
 Abrupt, very brief increases in voltage, called "spikes", "impulses", or "surges",
generally caused by large inductive loads being turned off, or more severely by lightning.
 "Undervoltage" occurs when the nominal voltage drops below 90% for more than 1
minute. The term "brownout" is an apt description for voltage drops somewhere between
full power (bright lights) and a blackout (no power - no light). It comes from the
noticeable to significant dimming of regular incandescent lights, during system faults or
overloading etc., when insufficient power is available to achieve full brightness in
(usually) domestic lighting. This term is in common usage has no formal definition but is
commonly used to describe a reduction in system voltage by the utility or system operator
to decrease demand or to increase system operating margins.
 "Overvoltage" occurs when the nominal voltage rises above 110% for more than 1
minute.
 Variations in the frequency.
 Variations in the wave shape - usually described as harmonics.
 Nonzero low-frequency impedance (when a load draws more power, the voltage
drops).
 Nonzero high-frequency impedance (when a load demands a large amount of current,
then stops demanding it suddenly, there will be a dipor spike in the voltage due to the
inductances in the power supply line).
Each of these power quality problems has a different cause. Some problems are a result of the
shared infrastructure. For example, a fault on the network may cause a dip that will affect
some customers; the higher the level of the fault, the greater the number affected. A problem
on one customer’s site may cause a transient that affects all other customers on the same
subsystem. Problems, such as harmonics, arise within the customer’s own installation and
may propagate onto the network and affect other customers. Harmonic problems can be dealt
with by a combination of good design practice and well proven reduction equipment.

“ Power Quality and Reliability is the key to successful delivery of quality product and
operation of an industry. It is now even more critical to the industry because of increasing
application of electronic loads and electronic controllers which are sensitive to the quality of
power supplied. These can have serious economic consequences and cost business millions
of rupees each year in revenues loss, process improvements, and scrapped product. There is a
dire need for all concerned to discuss the business of power quality and the latest
technologies for improving power system efficiency and reliability.

Bad power quality can cause malfunctioning of equipment performance. Harmonics, voltage
unbalance, sag and flicker problems, standing waves and resonance – are some of the issues
that adversely affect production and its quality, leading to huge loss in terms of product,
energy and damage to equipment. Thus, it becomes imperative to be aware of quality of
power grid and the deviation of the quality parameters from the norms / standard to avoid
breakdown or equipment damage.
Automation of the industrial processes has lead to effective increase in production and
reduction in cost. Somehow, the controls in automation are so sensitive to power supply that
even trivial variation can create huge negative impact on production and product quality. This
can be sorted out from the source itself, like transformer, switchgear, relays, is necessary.
Latest innovations for askance distribution system design; including – high reliability
distribution systems using high-speed fault detection, rapid fault clearing, fault isolation and
automatic restoration systems – is not a distant dream. The focus on the dynamic
characteristics of the system equipments while facing the abnormal supply should not be lost.

Most of the electrical equipment is an industrial facility requires high – quality electricity,
showing zero tolerance towards power outages, no matter how short-lived it may be.
Research shows that 80 % of all power of all power quality and reliability problems occurs
inside end-user’s facilities. A timely diagnosis of the current status of equipmentcan help
prevent major breakdown, process interruption and reduce monetary loss. Thus, measuring
critical parameters pertaining to the equipment with the right quality instruments is necessary.

Benefits of industrial automation in saving labor cost and enhancing overall efficiency and
product and quality are well-known. Companies in a wide range of business are expected to
increasingly implement automation equipment. However, the increasing level of automation
increases the use of electronic or solid state device, further enhancing the need for the
safeguarding the power quality issues. These, if denied, result in the system unreliability and
loss in efficiency of the equipment. But this cannot be the reason for not implementing
automation, what is required is a proper system while going for automation to take care of the
pollutants in the power system. In today’s advanced technology, automation and power
conservation along with better power quality is not far from reality contributing to savings in
energy, money and minimizing human intervention. Acute power shortage of course has
created an alarming situation in the country. This apart, power quality problems like voltage
fluctuation, frequency variation, generation of spikes, impulses, surges and sags, harmonics,
high earth leakage current, missing cycles, black-outs, brown-outs, etc. are playing havoc on
our assets. Besides downtime and production losses they cause incalculable damage to our
costly capital equipment.

Power line disturbances such as voltage sag/swell, outages, flicker, harmonics, and incur a
heavy loss to electric utility customer due to the wide application of the non-linear and
electronically switched devices n distribution systems. At the same time, modern industrial
equipment are more sensitive to these power quality problems than before and need higher
quality of electrical power. The basic reason is that the minor power disruptions which one
would have noticed only as momentary flickering in the lights, may now interrupt the whole
automated factory assemble lines with sensitive electronic controllers or make all computers
in an office go blank at once.

The generally encountered power quality problems are voltage dips and fluctuation,
momentary interruptions, harmonics, transients, etc. Expect the power outages and transients,
etc. Except the power outages and transients due to lightning, other power quality problems
like sags, swells short term interruptions, harmonics, distortions, etc. occur either due to some
faults in distribution feeders or interference from loads. During short circuits or fault clearing
process in feeder, the neighboring feeders can get affected with sags or swells in the supply
voltages.”

POWER CONDITIONING

Power conditioning is modifying the power to improve its quality.

An uninterruptible power supply can be used to switch off of mains power if there is

a transient (temporary) condition on the line. However, cheaper UPS units create poor-quality
power themselves, akin to imposing a higher-frequency and lower-amplitude square
wave atop the sine wave. High-quality UPS units utilize a double conversion topology which
breaks down incoming AC power into DC, charges the batteries, then remanufactures an AC
sine wave. This remanufactured sine wave is of higher quality than the original AC power
feed. [2]

A surge protector or simple capacitor or varistor can protect against most overvoltage

conditions, while a lightning arrestor protects against severe spikes.

Electronic filters can remove harmonics.

Smart grids and power quality

Modern systems use sensors called Phasor measurement units (PMU) distributed throughout

their network to monitor power quality and in some cases respond automatically to them.
Using such smart grids features of rapid sensing and automated self healing of anomalies in
the network promises to bring higher quality power and less downtime while simultaneously
supporting power from intermittent power sourcesand distributed generation, which would if
unchecked degrade power quality.

VOLTAGE DIPS

Introduction

A voltage dip is a short-term reduction in, or complete loss of, RMS voltage. It is specified
in terms of duration and retained voltage, usually expressed as the percentage of nominal
RMS voltage remaining at the lowest point during the dip. A voltage dip means that the
required energy is not being delivered to the load and this can have serious consequences
depending on the type of load involved.

Voltage sags - longer-term reductions in voltage – are usually caused by a deliberate

reduction of voltage by the supplier to reduce the load at times of maximum demand or by an
unusually weak supply in relation to the load.
Motor drives, including variable speed drives, are particularly susceptible because the load
still requires energy that is no longer available except from the inertia of the drive. In
processes where several drives are involved individual motor control units may sense the loss
of voltage and shut down the drive at a different voltage level from its peers and at a different
rate of deceleration resulting in complete loss of process control. Data processing and control
equipment is also very sensitive to voltage dips and can suffer from data loss and extended
downtime. The cost implications are very serious and are discussed in Section 2.

There are two main causes of voltage dips; starting of large loads either on the affected site or
by a consumer on the same circuit and faults on other branches of the network.

VOLTAGE SURGES

In electrical engineering, a voltage rise that endangers the insulation of electric equipment. A
correct calculation of voltage surges is of great economic and practical importance in the
selection of insulation and of measures for power-supply system protection, particularly for
voltages above 10 kilovolts (kV). There are two types of voltage surges—lightning surges
and system-generated surges.

System-generated voltage surges. System-generated voltage surges are surges that appear in

electric equipment when abrupt changes occur in operating conditions. The principal causes
are switching events such as the connection or disconnection of a current and short-circuiting
to ground. Switching is accompanied by transient processes, after which new operating
conditions are established within the system. Consequently, a distinction is made between
brief, switching surges lasting several microseconds or tens of microseconds and prolonged
surges that occur under steady-state conditions.

Switching surges can be produced by the repeated igniting and extinguishing of electric arcs
in circuits with capacitive susceptance. Such voltage surges are obtained, for example, in
disconnecting unloaded lines or by the grounding through an arc of one of the phases of a
three-phase system with an insulated neutral conductor. In a certain approximation, an
unloaded line can be considered to be a capacitance (Figure 1, a). When such a line is
disconnected, an arc ignited between the contacts of the switch K will be extinguished when
the arc current is passing through its zero value and the source voltage is passing through its
maximum value (Figure 1,b). When the arc is extinguished, the capacitance C is disconnected
from the source and remains charged at the maximum voltage. Should the arc in the switch be
ignited again after half a period, when the source voltage will have changed its polarity, the
capacitance C will be recharged through the inductance of the source Lsource. The arc may be
again extinguished at the moment when the voltage is at its maximum and the recharging
current has the value zero. In this case, the capacitance, disconnected from the source, will be
charged with a voltage three times as great as before. If, after another half-period, the arc is
again ignited, and extinguished, the line voltage will reach the value 5Uρh, where Uph is the
phase voltage of the line. Voltage surges in real lines are limited by good disconnecting
capabilities of switches and by effective losses and do not exceed 3.5UPh. Voltage surges
arising when one phase of a three-phase system is grounded through an arc are of a similar
nature and also involve the accumulation of charges in the conductors of the line.
Figure 1. Formation of voltage surges when an unloaded line is disconnected: (a) equivalent
circuit of an unloaded line, (b) dependence of the instantaneous values of the arc current i and
the line voltage uc on the time t given a sinusoidal source voltage usource; (K) switch, (Lsource)
source inductance, (C) capacitance of the unloaded line

When inductive loads, such as unloaded transformers, induction motors, reactors, and
mercury rectifiers during current breaks, are disconnected, the switching voltage surges that
occur are a consequence of the abrupt reduction of current in the inductance and of the
release of the electromagnetic energy stored in the inductance. Were a truly instantaneous
interruption of current to occur, all of the stored energy would be used to charge the self-
capacitance of the inductive load with respect to the ground (Figure 2,a). For this case, the
amplitude of the voltage surge umax can be determined from the energy conservation equation

In reality, the current in the coil does not disappear instantaneously. The surge attains its
maximum value at the moment when the decrease of current occurs at a maximum rate. The
surge then diminishes to zero in a sequence of damped oscillations (Figure 2,b).

A special case of voltage surges occurs in superconducting solenoids when the winding
material undergoes the transition from the superconducting state to the nonsuperconducting
state and the effective resistance of the solenoid abruptly increases from zero to some finite
magnitude. The initial current in the solenoid cannot decrease abruptly; hence, at the moment
of transition, a potential difference builds up across the terminals of the solenoid. This
difference can be as high as several hundred kV.

Switching surges that occur upon making a connection to a line are associated with the
development of a transient process in the oscillatory circuit formed by the capacitance of the
line and by the inductances of the line, transformers, and generators. Particularly large surges
occur in automatic reconnection. In this case, after a disconnection, for example, after a
single-phase short circuit, the capacitance of the undamaged phases of the line remains
charged. Upon reconnection, the oscillatory circuit (the line) with the previously charged
capacitance is connected to the current source (the generator).
Figure 2. Formation of voltage surges when an inductance is disconnected: (a) equivalent
circuit, (b) dependence of the current i in the inductance and of the voltage u across the
inductance on the time t; (Usource) source voltage, (K) switch, (L) inductive load, (C) intrinsic
capacitance of the load, (umax) maximum value of the voltage u

Voltage surges under steady-state conditions are associated with the capacitance effect in
linear circuits and with resonance at the fundamental frequency or at the higher harmonics.
An example of such a surge is the voltage rise that occurs in non-loaded power lines when the
natural frequency ω0 of the source-line system is close to the frequency of the voltage source
ωsource. If ω0 = ωsource, resonance occurs and a surge is consequently generated. Such surges are
possible in long power lines that operate at voltages of 330 kV or higher. Resonance at the
fundamental frequency can also occur if one of the phases of a three-phase AC line is
interrupted and grounded and a lightly loaded transformer is connected to the end of the line
(Figure 3,a). At higher harmonics, a resonance can occur, for example, if there is a single-
phase or two-phase short circuit to ground in a line fed from a salient-pole generator. During
such short circuits, higher harmonics of the voltage appear at the terminals of the generator.
These harmonics can cause resonance in the circuit that consists of the inductance of the
generator and the capacitance of the undamaged phases of the line. In nonsalientpole
generators and in generators equipped with damper windings, surges of this type do not arise.

Figure 3. Interruption and grounding of one phase of a three-phase line that feeds a lightly
loaded transformer: (a) three-phase circuit, (b) equivalent single-phase circuit; (Uph) phase
voltage, (Tr) transformer, (L) inductance of transformer windings, (C) capacitance of line,
(Umax) maximum value of voltage

System-generated voltage surges usually do not present a danger to the insulation of electric
equipment that is operated at 220 kV or less; lightning surges are a more important factor for
such equipment. For equipment operated at or above 330 kV it becomes necessary to limit
system-generated voltage surges. A lowering of switching surges can be achieved by using
specially designed valve dischargers, by using switches equipped with shunt resistors, and by
controlling the moment of switching. To limit the surges that occur under steady-state
conditions, electric shunt reactors are also used.

Lightning surges. Lightning surges are voltage surges that are associated with lightning
discharges either directly into the current-carrying parts of electric equipment (direct-strike
surges) or into the ground adjacent to the equipment (induced surges). In a direct strike all of
the lightning current passes into the ground through the struck object. The voltage drop
across the resistance of the object also creates a surge that can be as great as several
megavolts. The duration of voltage surge caused by a direct lightning stroke is small—of the
order of several tens of microseconds. It is possible, however, for several lightning discharges
to follow the same path. The insulation of very high voltage electric equipment is not capable
of withstanding a direct lightning stroke. For reliable operation of the equipment it is
necessary to implement a number of protective measures. Induced surges arise in the wires of
power lines as a result of an abrupt change in the electromagnetic field near the ground at the
time of a lightning stroke. The amplitude of the induced surges usually does not exceed 400–
500 kV; such surges present a danger only to equipment with a voltage rating of 35 kV or
less.

VOLTAGE FLICKER/ VOLTAGE DROP

Although there are technical definition differences between voltage flicker and voltage
fluctuation, because both are closely related many people confuse the two.  

Heavy loads can greatly change the load currents in an electrical distribution system. Voltage
flicker occurs when heavy loads are periodically turned on and off in a weak distribution
system. If the distribution system's short circuit capacity is not large enough, voltage
fluctuations will occur. Starting large motors require an inrush of current, which causes a
decrease in voltage. This voltage depression may cause a visible flicker on lighting circuits
connected to the same power system. 

Residential customers near large industrial plants often experience flickering lights. This
voltage flickering can be extremely harmful to sensitive electronic equipment. Computerized
equipment requires stable voltage to perform properly. For this reason, voltage flicker is a
major power quality problem. 

The magnitude of the voltage flicker depends upon the size and type of the electrical load that
is producing the disturbance. 

ΔV = kf  x

A sag in voltage can also cause a voltage flicker. Sudden voltage drops in the electrical
distribution system can generate inrush current which can travel to sensitive equipment. This
can cause equipment malfunction and leads to equipment deterioration. 

Consider an electronic fluorescent lamp. Flickering due to voltage fluctuation is an important

consideration in the lamp's amplifying characteristic, or gain factor. Gain factor is defined
and calculated by measuring relative changes in light levels while inducing controlled voltage
fluctuations. By controlling the magnitude and frequency of voltage fluctuations, the lamp's
flicker response can be determined using a photometer to measure the lamp output. If the
percentage of relative light fluctuation is greater than the percentage of voltage fluctuation,
the lamp is said to have an amplifying effect, or gain factor greater than unity. The gain factor
of a fluorescent lamp can reach a maximum of 3.8.

The lamp gain decreases at higher frequencies because of the small thermal inertia of the
filament. It responds quicker than the voltage. Similarly, when voltage fluctuations change
gradually a different flicker response is observed. As the frequency of modulation increases,
the thermal inertia of the lamp filament begins to mask the sinusoidal signal. This causes a
sudden drop in voltage, which in turn, randomly increases the inrush current to the system.
This harmful inrush may flow toward either the transformer or the load depending on its
magnitude. 

Voltage flicker can also be defined with respect to phase over-lapping. According
to Kirchoff's voltage law, the sum of voltages in a 3 phase system should always be the same
irrespective of the load condition. If the voltage drops in one phase, it has to be shared by
other two phases increasing the nominal voltage values of the other two. This can be
explained with the following case study.
In the above graphs, when the load is turned on it is seen that one phase is totally crushed to
zero level, resulting in the increase of the other two phases to 470 volts. This is called voltage
flicker in industrial terms. This is poor power quality.

This demonstrates that electromagnetic disturbances are also responsible for the voltage

fluctuations and voltage flickers in the electrical distribution system.
 TRANSIENT VOLTAGES

     "Transients", a term we'll use for simplicity here, are actually "Transient Voltages". 
More familiar terms may be "surges" or "spikes".

     Basically, transients are momentary changes in voltage or current that occur over a
short period of time. This interval is usually described as approximately 1/16 (one
sixteenth) of a voltage cycle (in the US, about 1/60th of a second) or about 1  milliseconds
(milli = .0 0 1--one thousandths...In laymen's terms, .0166 seconds......or really darned
quick.).

     Voltage transients normally last only about 50 microseconds (micro = .0 0 0 0 0 1--one
millionth) and current transients last typically 20 microseconds according to the ANSI
C62.41-1991 which is the standard for transients in facilities operating under 600 Volts.

 Here's the technical definition:

(ANSI std. 1100-1992) A subcycle disturbance in the AC waveform that is evidenced by a

sharp brief d iscontinuity of the waveform. Transients may be of either polarity and may
be of additive or subtractive energy to the nominal waveform.

  Transients are divided into two categories which are easy to identify: impulsive and
oscillatory. If the mains signal is removed, the remaining waveform is the pure component
of the transient. The transient is classified in the impulsive category when 77% of the
peak-to-peak voltage of the pure component is of one polarity. Each category of transient
is subdivided into three types related to the frequencies contained. Each type of transient
can be associated with a group of phenomena occurring on the power system. 

    The impulsive low-frequency transient rises in 0.1 ms and lasts more than 1 ms. Its
companion, the oscillatory low-frequency transient, contains frequency components up to
5 kHz. These types are the most common transients recorded on a power system. They are
not only easily propagated but they can also be amplified by a power-system resonance
phenomenon. Measurement of these types of transients should be useful for all classes of
application (benchmarking, legal, trouble shooting and laboratory) 

    The medium-frequency impulsive transient lasting between 50 ns to 1 ms and

oscillatory transients between 5 and 500 kHz are less frequent than the low-frequency
types but have much higher amplitude. These transients may not propagate as easily as the
low-frequency types but may cause arcing faults on the power distribution system which
result in voltage sag on many user power systems. It is most appropriate to measure these
types of transients for trouble shooting and laboratory classes. 

    High-frequency types with high amplitude can be observed only near where the
phenomenon occurs. The high-frequency impulsive transient has duration below 50 ns and
the frequency of the high frequency oscillatory t ype ranges between 0.5 and 5 MHz.
These measurements are useful for laboratory and trouble shooting classes of application.  
 Characteristics of the Transient Voltage Waveform :

     The most common transient, is the "oscillatory transient" .  It is sometimes described as
a "ringing transient". This type of transients is characterized by swings above and below
the normal line voltage.

     The other type (impulse) transient, is more easily explained as a "one-shot" type of
event, and it is characterized by having more than 77% of it being one pulse above the line
voltage.  A lightning strike can be composed of multiple transients of this type.

Even these transients can be broken up into other categories identified by their frequency.

1. Mid-to-Low Frequency Transients, like lightning and utility capacitor switching

propagate (travel) very well on electrical systems.  Higher amplitudes tend to be damped
by the building's distribution system at voltages above 16,000 volts.  There is almost no
damping below 10,000 volts.

2. High Frequency transients, however, are usually only seen near the source.  This means
that surge suppression equipment installed a distance away will never see the effect.  It is
for this reason that multiple suppressors are recommended within the facility.

Where do Transient voltages come from?

     Transients can be generated internally, or the can come into a facility from external
sources. The least common of the two are externally generated transients. They've been
described as "electronic rust".
External sources:

     Lightning is the most well known of the externally generated transients. Most lightning
transients are not actually the result of direct lightning strikes....they are most often "induced"
onto conductors as lightning strikes near the power line. The large electric fields generated
during a discharge can couple into the power system, creating induced transients. A cloud-to-
cloud discharge can generate a 70 Volts per meter electric field. On a 1/2-mile length of
transmission line this is equal to a 56,000-volt transient--and it didn't even touch the line! 

     Other externally generated transients may also be imposed on power lines through normal
utility operations. Switching of facility loads, opening and closing of disconnects on
energized lines, switching of capacitor banks, re-closure operations and tap changing on
transformers can all cause transients.

      Poor or loose connections in the distribution system can also generate transients. They
may be caused by high winds, which can blow one power line into another or blow tree limbs
into the lines causing arcing. You'll probably be able to hear a buzzing sound and see sparks
when the arc occurs, or you may even be able to smell the burnt insulation around the arc.

     Accidents and human error account for some externally generated transients since most
power lines are run above-ground. Ani mals and weather can also produce conditions which
generate transients.

     Another common source, not commonly known, is neighboring businesses. If you share a
transformer with other users, any transient activity generated on his premises will be seen at
your electrical main. Remember, you are both physically connected at the secondary side
(some people call it the "south side") of the transformer.

Internal Sources:

     The vast majority of transients are produced within your own facility. The main culprits
are device switching, static discharge, and arcing. 

     Each time you turn on, turn off, load, or unload an inductive device, you produce a
transient. Inductive devices are those devices that use "magnetic mass" to function. Examples
of inductive loads are motors and transformers. The inductive "kick" from a 5-horsepower
motor turning on can produce a transient in excess of 1,000 volts. A motor with a faulty
winding, commutator, or other insulation faults can produce a continuous stream of transients
exceeding 600 volts! Even transformers can produce a large transient, particularly when
energizing. Interestingly enough, this isn't produced the way many people think (from the
sudden load on the system), but is a result of the collapse of the magnetic field upon
energizing the transformer.

     Static electricity (also called "electrostatic discharge") can generate up to 40,000 volts.
This type of hazard is very dependent upon environmental conditions and areas with lower
humidity have the worst problems.

     Arcing can generate transients from a number of sources. Faulty contacts in breakers,
switches, and contactors can produce an arc when voltage jumps the gap. When this gap is
"jumped" the voltage rises suddenly and the most common effect is an oscillatory-ring-type
transient. Faulty connections and grounds can produce arcing.

What are the effects of transient activity? 

Electronic Equipment: 

Electronic devices may operate erratically. Equipment could lock up or produced garbled
results. These types of disruptions may be difficult to diagnose because improper
specification and installation of transient voltage surge suppression equipment can actually
INCREASE the incidents of failure as described above.

Electronic devices may operate at decreased efficiencies. Damage is not readily seen and can
result in early failure of affected devices. Unusually high frequency of failures in electronic
power supplies are the most common symptom.

Integrated circuits (sometimes called "electronic chips") may fail immediately or fail
prematurely. Most of the time, the failure is attributed to "age of the equipment". Modern
electronic devices provided clean, filtered power should outlast the mechanical devices they
control. 

Motors:  

Motors will run at higher temperatures when transient voltages are present. Transients can
interrupt the normal timing of the motor and result in "micro-jogging". This type of
disruption produces motor vibration, noise, and excessive heat. Motor winding insulation is
degraded and eventually fails. Motors can become degraded by transient activity to the point
that they produce transients continually which accelerates the failure of other equipment that
is commonly connected in the facility's electrical distribution system. Transients produce
hysteresis losses in motors that increase the amount of current necessary to operate the motor.
Transients can cause early failures of electronic motor drives and controls. 

Lighting: 

Transient activity causes early failure of all types of lights. Fluorescent systems suffer early
failure of ballasts, reduced operating efficiencies, and early bulb failures. One of the most
common indicators of transient activity is the premature appearance of black "rings" at the
ends of the tubes. Transients that are of sufficient magnitude will cause a sputtering of the
anodes--when these sputters deposit on the insides of the tube, the result is the black "ends"
commonly seen. Incandescent lights fail because of premature filament failures. The same
hysteresis losses produced in motors are reproduced in transformers. The results of these
losses include hotter operating temperatures, and increased current draws. Do you want to see
a graphic illustration of the results of transient activity on fluorescent tubes? Look at the ends
of your tubes.....see those dark rings? Effective transient suppression will eliminate those
rings and make your bulbs last 4 to 6 times longer.

Electrical Distribution Equipment: 

The facility's electrical distribution system is also affected by transient activity. Transient
degrade the contacting surfaces of switches, disconnects, and circuit breakers. Intense
transient activity can produce "nuisance tripping" of breakers by heating the breaker and
"fooling" it into reacting to a non-existent current demand. Electrical transformers are forced
to operate inefficiently because of the hysteresis losses produced by transients and can run
hotter than normal.

  
HARMONICS

 
   What are harmonics and what cause harmonics?

Harmonics are currents or voltages with frequencies that are integer multiples of the
fundamental power frequency being 50 or 60Hz (50Hz for European power and 60Hz
for American power). For example, if the fundamental power frequency is 60 Hz, then
the 2nd harmonic is 120 Hz, the 3rd is 180 Hz, etc. In modern test equipment today
harmonics can be measured up to the 63rdharmonic. When harmonic frequencies are
prevalent, electrical power panels and transformers become mechanically resonant to the
magnetic fields generated by higher frequency harmonics. When this happens, the power
panel or transformer vibrates and emits a buzzing sound for the different harmonic
frequencies. Harmonic frequencies from the 3rd to the 25th are the most common range of
frequencies measured in electrical distribution systems.

Additionally, harmonics are caused by and are the by-product of modern electronic
equipment such as personal or notebook computers, laser printers, fax machines,
telephone systems, stereos, radios, TVs, adjustable speed drives and variable frequency
drives, battery chargers, UPS, and any other equipment powered by switched-mode
power supply (SMPS) equipment. The above-mentioned electronic SMPS equipment is
also referred to as non-linear loads. This type of non-linear loads or SMPS equipment
generates the very harmonics they’re sensitive to and that originate right within your
building or facility. SMPS equipment typically forms a large portion of the electrical
non-linear load in most electrical distribution systems. There are basically two types of
non-linear loads: single-phase and three-phase. Single-phase non-linear loads are
prevalent in modern office buildings while three-phase non-linear loads are widespread
in factories and industrial plants.

In today’s environment, all computer systems use SMPS that convert utility AC voltage
to regulated low voltage DC for internal electronics. These non-linear power supplies
draw current in high amplitude short pulses. These current pulses create significant
distortion in the electrical current and voltage wave shape. This is referred to as a
harmonic distortion and is measured in Total Harmonic Distortion (THD). The distortion
travels back into the power source and can effect other equipment connected to the same
source.

To give an understanding of this, consider a water piping system. Have you ever taken a
shower when someone turns on the cold water at the sink? You experience the effect of
a pressure drop to the cold water, reducing the flow of cold water. The end result is you
get burned! Now imagine that someone at a sink alternately turns on and off the cold and
hot water. You would effectively be hit with alternating cold and hot water! Therefore,
the performance and function of the shower is reduced by other systems. This
illustration is similar to an electrical distribution system with non-linear loads generating
harmonics. Any SMPS equipment will create continuous distortion of the power source
that stresses the facility’s electrical distribution system and power equipment.

Harmonics are generally not an issue if you do not have any electronic SMPS equipment
or non-linear loads in your building or facility. However, for the remainder of this
discussion, we are assuming that you do..

Why are harmonics unknown or untreated in electrical distribution systems?

First, one must understand that the electrical distribution system of most sites or
facilities was never designed to deal with an abundance of non-linear loads. It’s a
problem that has only recently begun to be recognized in the building industry. Within
the last decade, the widespread use of computers and SMPS equipment is turning
modern office buildings, factories, and industrial plants into high-tech computer
environments. Even older buildings that are renovated are not retrofitted with modern
harmonic treatment or cancellation. The end result is a building or facility unable to
fully support today’s technology and the high-tech problems that it brings along with it.
Obviously, given the problems harmonics can cause, it is imperative that today’s
electrical distribution systems be designed for non-linear electronic loads, not just linear
electrical loads. Unfortunately standard building codes and engineering designs do not
meet the requirements of today’s technology. With the advent of newer SMPS
equipment the harmonic problem will continue to get worse along with inadequate
facility grounding. Grounding which is another subject is mentioned here because it too
is seldom addressed or considered a problem area (See grounding paperunder "Library"
heading).

How can we treat harmonics?

In order to ensure the highest "Power Quality" for your building or facility, it is
necessary to treat harmonics. Harmonic treatment can be performed by two methods:
filtering or cancellation. A harmonic filter consists of a capacitor bank and an induction
coil. The filter is designed or tuned to the predetermined non-linear load and to filter a
predetermined harmonic frequency range. Usually this frequency range only accounts
for one harmonic frequency. This application is mostly used when specified for a UPS
or variable frequency drive motor in a manufacturing plant.

Harmonic cancellation is performed with harmonic canceling transformers also known

as phase-shifting transformers. A harmonic canceling transformer is a relatively new
power quality product for mitigating harmonic problems in electrical distribution
systems. This type of transformer has patented built-in electromagnetics technology
designed to remove high neutral current and the most harmful harmonics from the
3rd through 21st. The technique used in these transformers is call "low zero phase
sequencing and phase shifting". These transformers can be used to treat existing
harmonics in buildings or facilities. This same application can be designed into new
construction to prevent future harmonics problems. 
 REFERENCES

 IEEE JOURNALS

 www.powerqualityanddrives.com/transient_surge_protection

 WIKIPEDIA

 www.apqi.org/file/attachment/2008716/95517

 WEB SEARCH