Math Student Guide For Operations Training

OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM
MATHEMATICS
STUDENT TEXT
NOTICE: If you plan to use this material in a classroom

setting, then please purchase the exam bank and answer
key from the Scribd store for $4.99 or visit
marathonjohnb at Scribd. The exam is given at the end
of the course and has specific questions for each chapter.
Rev. 0
Table of Contents:
NOTICE: If you plan to use this material in a classroom setting, then please purchase the
exam bank and answer key from the Scribd store for $4.99 or visit marathonjohnb at Scribd.
The exam is given at the end of the course and has specific questions for each chapter.............i
1 WHOLE NUMBERS...................................................................................................................1
Addition of Whole Numbers............................................................................................................... ..1
Subtraction of Whole Numbers................................................................................... ........................3
Multiplication of Whole Numbers................................................................................... ....................4
Division of Whole Numbers ..................................................................................... ...........................5
Long Division of Whole Numbers................................................................................................. .......6
Hierarchy of Mathematical Operations......................................................................... .....................6
Averages......................................................................................................................................... ........8
Chapter 1 Summary..................................................................................................... ........................9
2 FRACTIONS.............................................................................................................................10
Introduction............................................................................................................ ............................10
Types of Fractions.................................................................................................................. .............10
Fundamental Property of Fractions......................................................................... .........................11
Finding The Prime Factors of a Number..................................................................... .....................12
Reducing Fractions................................................................................................................ .............12
Adding and Subtracting Like Fractions................................................................................. ...........13
Adding and Subtracting Unlike Fractions............................................................... .........................15
Finding a Common Denominator..................................................................................... ................16
Finding the Lowest Common Denominator.............................................................................. ........17
Adding and Subtracting Unlike Fractions Using LCDs..................................................... ..............18
Multiplication of Fractions............................................................................................................. ....20
Division of Fractions................................................................................................................ ...........21
Chapter 2 Summary.................................................................................................. .........................24
3 DECIMALS...............................................................................................................................25
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Addition and Subtraction of Decimals............................................................................................... 25

Multiplying Decimals..................................................................................................................... .....26
Dividing Decimals............................................................................................................. ..................28
Rounding Off..................................................................................................................................... ..30
Chapter 3 Summary.................................................................................................. .........................31
4 DECIMAL CONVERSIONS AND PERCENTAGES..............................................................32
Decimal to Fraction Conversion................................................................................... .....................32
Fraction to Decimal Conversion................................................................................... .....................33
Percents................................................................................................................... ............................34
Changing Decimals to Percent......................................................................................... ..................34
Changing a Percent to a Decimal............................................................................................... ........35
Changing Common Fractions and Whole Numbers to Percent............................. .........................36
Chapter 4 Summary.................................................................................................. .........................38
5 SIGNED NUMBERS................................................................................................................39
Addition of Signed Numbers............................................................................................. .................39
Subtraction of Signed Numbers.............................................................................................. ...........40
Multiplication of Signed Numbers............................................................................................... ......41
Division of Signed Numbers................................................................................................. ..............43
Chapter 5 Summary.................................................................................................. .........................45
6 BASIC CONCEPTS OF SHAPES AND FIGURES...........................................................46
Triangles......................................................................................................................... .....................46
Quadrilaterals................................................................................................................... ..................49
Circles................................................................................................................................. .................51
Combined Figures....................................................................................................................... ........52
Chapter 6 Summary.................................................................................................. .........................54
7 VOLUME OF SOLID OBJECTS..........................................................................................55
Rectangular Solids............................................................................................................. .................55
Cube----............................................................................................................................................. ...56
Right Circular Cylinder............................................................................................. ........................56
Combined Solids.......................................................................................................... .......................57
Chapter 7 Summary.................................................................................................. .........................58
8 EXPONENTS............................................................................................................................59
Exponents.......................................................................................................................... ..................59
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Basic Rules for Exponents....................................................................................................... ...........59

Chapter 8 Summary.................................................................................................. .........................64
9 SCIENTIFIC NOTATION........................................................................................................65
Writing Numbers in Scientific Notation................................................................................... .........65
Converting Scientific Notation to Integer or Decimal Form........................................................ ....67
Addition with Scientific Notation.................................................................................................. .....68
Subtraction with Scientific Notation...................................................................... ...........................69
Multiplication with Scientific Notation....................................................................... ......................69
Division with Scientific Notation...................................................................................................... ..70
Chapter 9 Summary.................................................................................................. .........................72
10 UNITS AND CONVERSIONS................................................................................................73
Systems of Units.................................................................................................................. ................73
Conversion Factors................................................................................................................ .............74
Converting Units...................................................................................................................... ...........75
Steps for Unit Conversion........................................................................................... .......................77
SI (metric) Prefixes and Powers of 10.................................................................... ...........................78
Chapter 10 Summary:...................................................................................................... ..................81
11 ALGEBRAIC LAWS AND EQUATIONS...............................................................................82
Algebraic Expressions.................................................................................................................... .....82
Algebraic Laws.............................................................................................................................. ......82
Types of Algebraic Equations....................................................................................................... ......83
Solving Linear Equations.................................................................................................. .................84
Solving Fractional Equations.................................................................................................. ...........87
Ratios --- ......................................................................................................................... ....................88
Ratio and Proportion................................................................................................................ ..........89
Chapter 11 Summary...................................................................................................................... ....92
12 ALGEBRAIC WORD PROBLEMS........................................................................................93
Word Statements ......................................................................................................................... .......93
Equations..................................................................................................................................... ........94
Basic Approach to Solving Algebraic Word Problems.................................................. ...................95
Problems Involving Motion....................................................................................................... .........98
Chapter 12 Summary............................................................................................ ...........................105
13 GRAPHS................................................................................................................................107
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Introduction...................................................................................................................................... .107
The Cartesian Coordinate System................................................................................... ................108
Cartesian Coordinate Graphs....................................................................................... .................112
Logarithmic Graphs.............................................................................................. ...........................115
List of Figures:
Figure 1- 1 Addition Using Number Lines....................................................................................1
Figure 2- 2 Adding Fractions......................................................................................................14
Figure 2- 3 Subtracting Fractions...............................................................................................14
Figure 2- 4 Adding Without Common Denominators................................................................15
Figure 2- 5 Using Common Denominators To Add....................................................................16
Figure 5- 6 Adding (-2) and (+3) Using Number Line...............................................................39
Figure 5- 7 Adding Three Numbers Using Number Line..........................................................40
Figure 6- 8 An Equilateral Triangle............................................................................................46
Figure 6- 9 An Isosceles Triangle................................................................................................46
Figure 6- 10 A Scalene Triangle...................................................................................................47
Figure 6- 11 A Right Triangle.......................................................................................................47
Figure 6- 12 An Acute Triangle...................................................................................................47
Figure 6- 13 An Obtuse Triangle.................................................................................................47
Figure 6- 14 A Typical Triangle...................................................................................................48
Figure 6- 15 The Rectangle.........................................................................................................49
Figure 6- 16 The Square..............................................................................................................50
Figure 6- 17 The Circle................................................................................................................51
Figure 7- 18 Rectangular Solids...................................................................................................55
Figure 7- 19 The Cube.................................................................................................................56
Figure 7- 20 The Right Circular Cylinder..................................................................................56
Figure 9- 21 Converting Decimal to Scientific Notation............................................................66
Figure 11-22 Balancing Scales...................................................................................................84
Figure 12- 23 Tank Capacities.....................................................................................................97
Figure 12- 24 Two Airplanes in Motion .....................................................................................99
Figure 12- 25 Car and Airplane Motion ...................................................................................101
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Figure 12- 26 Two Trains Motion Word Problem Sketch.........................................................103

Figure 12- 27 Car Distance........................................................................................................105
Figure 13- 28 Cartesian Coordinate System..............................................................................108
Figure 13- 29 Points Plotted on X and Y Axis...........................................................................110
Figure 13- 30 The Cartesian System.........................................................................................112
Figure 13- 31 Graph of Temperature vs. Time (Quadrant I)...................................................114
Figure 13- 32 Plot of Radioactive Decay of Strontium 90........................................................115
Figure 13- 33 Semi-log Plot of Radioactive Decay pf Stromtium 90.......................................116
Figure 13- 34 Semi-log Graph with Large Values.....................................................................117
Figure 13- 35 Semi-log Graph with Small Values.....................................................................117
List of Tables:
Table 9- 1 Powers of 10................................................................................................................65

Table 10- 2 Fundamental Dimensions in SI and English Units................................................73
Table 10- 3 Typical Conversion Table..........................................................................................74
4.....................................................................................................................................................76
5.....................................................................................................................................................76
6.....................................................................................................................................................77
7.....................................................................................................................................................77
8.....................................................................................................................................................78
9.....................................................................................................................................................78
10...................................................................................................................................................79
11...................................................................................................................................................79
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List of Terminal Objectives:

TO 1.0Given a basic arithmetic problem, SOLVE for the answer
TO 2.0APPLY the laws of geometry to solve mathematical problems.
TO 3.0Given basic mathematical problems involving exponents, scientific notation, ratios, and
proportions, SOLVE for the answer
TO 4.0Given an applicable unit conversion chart, CONVERT from one unit of measurement
to another.
TO 5.0APPLY the laws of algebra to solve for unknown values
TO 6.0Plot data on and INTERPRET graphs.
References:
Arithmetic: Student Text, TTFGMAPA.H0102, rev. 2 / Westinghouse Savannah River Company, Aiken, SC
Mathematics: Student Text, TTFGMA1A.H0104, rev. 4 / Westinghouse Savannah River Company, Aiken, SC
Academic Program For Nuclear Power Plant Personnel, Volume 1 / Columbia, MD: General Physics
Corporation, 1982.
Advanced Mathematics: A Pre-calculus Course / Brown, Richard G., and Robbins, David P., Atlanta: Houghton-
Mifflin, 1984.
Algebra Structure and Method Book 1, Dolciani, Mary P., et al., Atlanta: Houghton-Mifflin, 1979.
Naval Education and Training Command, Mathematics, Vol: 1, NAVEDTRA 10069-D1, Washington, D.C.: Naval
Education and Training Program Development Center, 1985.
Basic Mathematics Simplified, Olivio, C. Thomas and Olivio, Thomas P , Albany, NY: Delmar, 1977.
Science and Fundamental Engineering, Windsor, CT: Combustion Engineering, Inc., 1985.
Mathematics Made Simple, Fifth Edition, Sperling, Abraham, Ph.D., and Stuart, Monroe, , Doubleday, 1991
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Student Guide: Mathematics Chapter 1: Whole Numbers
1 WHOLE NUMBERS
This chapter presents basic mathematical operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division
of whole numbers; and averages
TO 1.0 Given a basic arithmetic problem, SOLVE for the answer

EO 1.1 APPLY the arithmetic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division using whole numbers.
EO 1.2 Given a set of numbers, CALCULATE the average value.
Addition of Whole Numbers
Addition is the process of finding the sum of two or more numbers. The numbers that are added are
called addends. The operation of addition is indicated by the plus sign (+).
Example: Add 2+3
Solution: 2+3=5
We can show this operation graphically on a number line in Figure 1-1.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
2 3
Figure 1-1 Addition Using Number Lines
Using this very basic approach we can see that 2 + 3 = 5.
You should also note that the order of the numbers could be reversed and we would obtain the same
answer. If, starting at zero, we move three places to the right to the number 3, then moved an additional
two spaces, we would still find our result to be 5. Thus 3 + 2 also equals 5. This demonstrates that
numbers can be added in any order and the sum will be exactly the same.
This property of addition is formally known as the Commutative Law of Addition. In equation form:
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a+b=b+a
The Commutative Law of Addition tells us that we can add two numbers in any order and still
have the same sum.
The numbers added on either side of the equals sign are exactly the same. The only difference is the order
the numbers are added.
Example: Does 5 + 3 = 3 + 5 ?
Solution: If we apply the Commutative Law of Addition, we see that 5 + 3 equals 3 + 5.

The only difference between the expressions is the order of the numbers being added.
5 + 3 = 3 + 5
8 = 8
When three or more numbers are added, two of them are usually added first. Parentheses can be used to
group together numbers that are added together first. In the following example, add 3 and 5 first.
Example: Add (3 + 5) + 7
Solution: (3 + 5) + 7
= 8 + 7
= 15
Note what happens if we add 3 + (5 + 7).
3 + (5 + 7)
= 3 + 12
= 15
The answer is still 15.
This fact illustrates the Associative Law of Addition. In equation form:
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
The Associative Law of Addition tells us that the way numbers are grouped does not affect the
sum.
One of the reasons the Associative Law of Addition is very useful in arithmetic is because it allows us to
add large whole numbers easily.

Subtraction of Whole Numbers
Subtraction is the process of finding the difference between two numbers. This is the same as finding out
how much must be added to one number, called the subtrahend, to equal another number, called the
minuend. The minus sign (−) is used to indicate subtraction.
Minuend
- Subtrahend
Difference
Unlike addition, the subtraction process is neither associative nor commutative. The Commutative Law of
Addition permitted reversing the order of the addends without changing the sum. In subtraction, the
subtrahend and minuend cannot be reversed.
a−b ≠ b−a
Example: The difference of 5 − 3 is not the same as 3 − 5.
The Associative Law of Addition permitted combining addends in any order. In subtraction, this is not
allowed.
(a−b) − c ≠ a − (b−c)
Example: (10 − 5) − 1 ≠ 10 − (5 − 1)
4 ≠ 6
When we are subtracting two numbers, we stack the two numbers to make the computation easier. We place
the subtrahend under the minuend and carefully align the digits with the same place values. We then subtract
the numbers in each column individually.
For example, when we subtract 34 from 86, the difference is 52. The difference, 52, plus the subtrahend, 34,
will equal the minuend, 86. For this reason, addition is a good way to check the results of a subtraction.
Example: Subtract 32 from 54.
Solution: 54
−32
22
Whenever the digit in the subtrahend is larger than the digit in the minuend in the same column, we must use
the borrowing method. One place value is borrowed from the next digit to the left in the minuend. Refer to
the following example.
Example: Subtract 78 from 136.
Solution: 2 16
1 3 6
− 7 8

5 8
Multiplication of Whole Numbers
Multiplication is a short method of adding a number to itself a given number of times. It can be
considered to be a short form of addition. Instead of having to add the number 4 three times, 4 + 4 + 4,
we can use multiplication; 4 multiplied by 3.
When numbers are multiplied, the result is called the product. The numbers multiplied are called factors.
The given factor is called the multiplicand. The factor representing the number of times the number is to
be added is called the multiplier. The multiplication sign (x) indicates multiplication. The multiplication
sign is read as "times." The answer is called the product.
Multiplicand
x Multiplier
Product
Note: Multiplication can also indicated by a raised dot (•), an asterisk (*), or by both factors
enclosed in parentheses (#A)(#B).
When multiplying two numbers, the Commutative Law can be applied to multiplication as well as
addition.
The Commutative Law of Multiplication states that numbers can be multiplied in any order, and the result is
the same product. In equation form:
a×b=b×a
This law can be further illustrated by our description of multiplication as a short form of addition.
We stated earlier that 3 x 4 is the same as adding 4 three times. Since this is true, the product of 3 × 4 should
equal the sum of 4 + 4 + 4, as shown below:
Example:
3 × 4 = 12
4 + 4 + 4 = 12
The Commutative Law of Multiplication tells us that the product of 3 x 4 will equal the
product of 4 x 3. Our description of multiplication states that the product of 4 x 3 should
equal the sum of 3 + 3 + 3 + 3.

The Associative Law of Multiplication states that factors can be associated in any order, and the product
will remain the same. In equation form:
a × (b × c) = (a × b) × c
Example: Multiply 2 × 3 × 5
Solution: (2 × 3) × 5 =
6 × 5 = 30
We multiplied 2 × 3 first to get 6, then multiplied 6 × 5 to equal 30.
Note what happens when we group the numbers differently:
2 × (3 × 5) =
2 × 15 = 30
In both cases the product is 30.
Division of Whole Numbers
Division is the process of determining how many times one number, called the divisor, goes into another
number, called the dividend. The answer is called the quotient. When a divisor does not divide into a
dividend an exact number of times, the number left over is called the remainder.
Division can also be described as the reverse of multiplication. This is true because in division, you undo
the operations performed in multiplication. For instance, since 15 x 4 = 60, the dividend 60 divided by
the divisor 4 produces the quotient 15. We write this as:
60 ÷ 4 = 15
Because of the relationship between division and multiplication, division problem answers are often checked
using multiplication. You multiply the divisor by the quotient and add the remainder. If your answer is
correct, you will end up with the original dividend.
Even though they are related, division, unlike multiplication, is neither associative nor commutative. The
Commutative Law of Multiplication permitted reversing the order of the factors without changing the
product. In division the dividend and divisor cannot be reversed.
a÷b b÷a

Long Division of Whole Numbers
Long division is normally performed when dividing large numbers. When performing long division, the
divisor and dividend are lined up horizontally with the divisor to the left and the dividend under the
division sign ( ).
Division starts from the left of the dividend, the quotient is written on a line above the dividend, and the
remainder is found at the bottom of the problem. Refer to the following:
Example: Divide 347 by 5.
69
5 347
− 30
Solution: 47
− 45
2
Remainder ↑
Hierarchy of Mathematical Operations
In mathematical problems that contain more than one of the mathematical operations, addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division, the operations must be performed in a certain order or sequence.
This sequence is referred to as the hierarchy or order of operations. The general rules of the hierarchy are
listed below:
Rule 1: Mathematical operations are generally performed from left to right within an equation
and within a set of parentheses.
Rule 2: Perform all math operations within the sets of parentheses first. If there are multiple sets
of parentheses and brackets in a problem, perform the innermost operations first.
Rule 3: Perform math operations in the following order, as applicable:

• Powers, (exponents and roots), are performed first.
• Then multiplication and division are performed.
• Finally addition and subtraction if inside parentheses or if no parentheses are present.
The hierarchy of operations is demonstrated in the following examples:

Example: Perform the following mathematical operations to solve for the correct answer:
6 + 2
( 2 + 3) + ( 2 × 4) +  
2 
Solution: Mathematical operations are typically performed going from left to right within
an equation and within sets of parentheses.
Perform all math operations within the sets of parentheses first.
6 + 2
( 2 + 3) + ( 2 × 4) +  
2 
8
( 5) + ( 8) +  
2
( 5) + ( 8) + ( 4)
Perform all math operations outside of the parentheses from left to right.
5 + 8 + 4 = 17
Example: Solve the following equation:
[2 ⋅ (3 + 5) − 5 + 2] x 3
Solution: Perform operations in the innermost set of parentheses.
[2 ⋅ (3 + 5) − 5 + 2] x 3
[2 ⋅ (8) − 5 + 2] x 3
Within the brackets, perform multiplication prior to addition and subtraction.
[2(8) − 5 + 2] x 3
[16 − 5 + 2] x 3
[11 + 2] x 3
[13] x 3
13 x 3
39

Averages
Averages are useful tools when summarizing or generalizing a condition resulting from different
conditions. For example, if an operator wishes to analyze the operation of a lube oil system, it may be
useful to determine the average measured lube oil storage tank level for the previous day.
Average calculations involve the following three steps:
Step 1: After making sure that the individual quantities to be averaged have the same units, add
the individual numbers or quantities to be averaged.
Step 2: Count the number of quantities to be averaged.
Step 3: Divide the sum found in Step 1 by the number counted in Step 2.
Example: Given the following price list of cars on a used car lot, find the average cost of a
car.
$10,200; $11,300; $9,900; $12,000; $18,000; $7,600
Solution:
Step 1: After making sure that the individual quantities to be averaged have the same
units, add the individual numbers or quantities to be averaged.
Add the individual numbers or quantities to be averaged.
0200 + 11300 + 9900 + 12000 + 18000 + 7600 = 69000
Step 2: Count the number of quantities to be averaged.
Total number of prices is 6
69000 ÷ 6 = 11500
Thus, the average price of the six cars is $11,500.

Chapter 1 Summary
This chapter reviewed the use of whole numbers to perform the operations of:
Addition
Subtraction
Multiplication
Division
The general rules of hierarchy or order of operations are summarized below:
Rule 1: Mathematical operations are generally performed from left to right within an
equation and within a set of parentheses.
Rule 2: Perform all math operations within the sets of parentheses first. If there are
multiple sets of parentheses and brackets in a problem, perform the innermost operations
first.
Rule 3: Perform math operations in the following order, as applicable:
- Powers, (exponents), are performed first (exponents covered in Chp 8).
- Then multiplication and division are performed.
- Finally addition and subtraction if inside parentheses or if no parentheses are present.
Calculating the average of a set of numbers requires three steps:
Step 1: After making sure that the individual quantities to be averaged have the same
units, add the individual numbers or quantities to be averaged.
Step 2: Count the number of numbers or quantities to be averaged.

Student Guide: Mathematics Chapter 2: Fractions
2 FRACTIONS
This chapter covers the basic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of
fractions.

division using fractions.
Introduction
Though the product of any two whole numbers is always another whole number, the quotient of two numbers
may or may not be a whole number. For instance, 2 • 3 = 6, and 6 ÷ 2 = 3, but 2 ÷ 3 does not equal a whole
number. This sort of quotient is called a fractional number or a fraction.
More precisely, a fraction is an expression where the dividend, called the fraction's numerator, is written over
the divisor, called the fraction's denominator, with a slanting or horizontal line between them to indicate the
intended division. Thus, in common fraction form:
2
2÷3 =
3
2 is the numerator and 3 is the denominator.
Types of Fractions
Fractions can be categorized in several ways. The following is the list of fractions we will use.
A proper fraction has a numerator less than its denominator, and therefore, has a value less than 1.
Examples are 2/3, 1/4, and 3/5.
An improper fraction has a numerator larger than or equal to its denominator, and therefore, has a
value greater than 1. Examples: 3/2, 4/4, 31/9.
A mixed number consists of a whole number and a fraction written together and are to be added to
1 1 2 2
one another. Examples are 1 which means 1 + , and 2 means 2 +.
8 8 3 3
Every number may be expressed as a fraction. A whole number is a fraction whose denominator is 1. Any
fraction with the same numerator and denominator is equal to one.

Fundamental Property of Fractions
Fundamental Property of Fractions states "when the numerator and denominator of a fraction are both
multiplied by the same number, the value of the fraction remains the same."
If A/B is a fraction, and C is a number not equal to 0, then:
A A• C
=
B B• C
A AC
The two fractions, and , are referred to as equivalent fractions because they are equal.
B BC
A fraction can be changed into an equivalent fraction by multiplying or dividing the numerator and
denominator by the same number.
2 4 6
Example: = =
3 6 9
2 4 2 • 2 4
is equivalent to because =
3 6 3 • 2 6
2 6 2 • 3 6
is equivalent to because =
3 9 3 • 3 9
Example: Find two fractions equivalent to 1/2.
Solution: Multiply both the numerator and the denominator by any number to get an
equivalent fraction.
1 1• 2 2 2 • 3 6
= = = =
2 2 • 2 4 4 • 3 12
The fractions are equal. We multiplied the fraction by both 2/2 and 3/3. Any number
divided by itself equals 1, and any number multiplied by 1 is equal to the same number.
n
= 1 , and
n
n • 1 = n
where n is any number (including a fraction).
A fraction written with the smallest possible whole numbers in both its numerator and denominator is
called a fraction in its lowest terms.

Finding The Prime Factors of a Number
Factors are numbers that are multiplied together to form a product. Every number is the product of two or
more prime numbers. A prime number is a number whose only divisors are 1 and itself. By definition, 1
is not a prime number.
The smallest prime number is 2. No other even numbers are prime numbers because they are all
multiples of 2.
The following is a listing of all the prime numbers less than 100:
2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97.
To find the prime factors of a number:
• First, divide the number by the lowest prime number that will produce a whole number.
• Next, divide the quotient by the smallest prime number that will produce another whole number.
• Continue this process until a division results in a prime number quotient.
Example: Find the prime factors of 42.
Solution:
Divide 42 by 2.
42 ÷ 2 = 21
Divide 21 by 3.
21 ÷ 3 = 7
Seven is a prime number.
The prime factors of 42 are 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 7
Reducing Fractions
To change a fraction to its lowest terms is a process called reducing. We divide its numerator and its
denominator by all the numbers which are common factors. This means we divide by 2 or 3 or 4 or 5, etc,
until we can no longer find a number which divides evenly into both the numerator and denominator. The
largest whole number which will divide both exactly is called the greatest common divisor (GCD).

6
Example: Reduce the fraction 8
to lowest terms.
Solution: Divide both numerator and denominator by 2:
6÷2=3
8÷2=4
No other number will divide evenly into both 3 and 4.
Therefore, the lowest terms are:
6
 
6 2 3
= =
8 8 4
 
2
12
Example: Reduce the fraction 30
to its lowest terms.
Solution: Find the prime factors of 12 and 30.
12 = 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 3 The factors common to both 12 and 30 are 2 and 3.
30 = 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 5
Divide both the numerator, 12, and the denominator, 30, by 6 (the product of the common
factors 2 and 3).
12 ÷ 6 2
=
30 ÷ 6 5
Adding and Subtracting Like Fractions
When two or more fractions have the same denominator, they are said to have a common denominator
and are referred to as like fractions. To add or subtract like fractions, the numerators are either added or
subtracted, while the denominator remains the same. To illustrate the addition of two like fractions,
consider the following example:
3 1
+ =
8 8
3 1
The fraction 3/8 means there are three 1/8 segments; that is, = 3 • . The fraction 1/8 represents
8 8
one 1/8 segment. The example asks us to add the three 1/8 segments to the single 1/8 segment as shown
in Figure 2-1 on the following page.

Figure 2-2 Adding Fractions
Figure 2-1 shows that three 1/8 segments plus one 1/8 segment equals four 1/8 segments.
Again, addition of like fractions simply adds the numerators and expresses your answer as the
sum of the numerators over the common denominator.
Subtraction of like fractions is very similar to the addition of like fractions.
Figure 2-2 illustrates subtraction of 1/4 from 3/4.
Figure 2-3 Subtracting Fractions
Figure 2-2 shows that 3/4 − 1/4 = 2/4.
To subtract like fractions, simply subtract the numerators and express your answer as the
difference of the numerators over the common denominator.

Example: Subtract 3/9 from 8/9.
8 3 8 − 3 5
Solution: − = =
9 9 9 9
The same rules hold when the problem involves both addition and subtraction of like fractions.
3 7 5
Example: Solve the following: + − =
12 12 12
3 7 5 3+ 7 − 5 5
Solution: + − = =
12 12 12 12 12
Adding and Subtracting Unlike Fractions
Adding and subtracting fractions becomes more complicated when the fractions do not have a common
denominator. These fractions are called unlike fractions. For example, see Figure 2-3 and consider the
following problem:
1 1
+ =
2 3
Figure 2-4 Adding Without Common Denominators
Just as we cannot add or subtract a number of feet from a number of inches until we convert both
measurements to a common unit, we cannot add or subtract unlike fractions until we convert them to a
common denominator.
To add or subtract unlike fractions, we must first convert them to like fractions. We accomplish this
by changing them to equivalent fractions with the same denominator. Once they have the same
denominator, we simply add and/or subtract the numerators and express our answer as previously
described.

Let's refer back to our last example and demonstrate.
1 1
+ =
2 3
1/2 and 1/3 must be expressed with the same denominator to be added.
Without developing a general method, we know that 1/2 is equal to 3/6.
1• 3 3
=
2 • 3 6
We can also see that 1/3 is equivalent to 2/6.
1• 2 2
=
3 • 2 6
With both fractions converted to equivalent fractions with the same denominator, they can be easily
added. See Figure 2-4.
Figure 2-5 Using Common Denominators To Add
Finding a Common Denominator
The simplest method of finding a common denominator for two unlike fractions is simply to multiply
their denominators. This can be accomplished if both the numerator and denominator, top and bottom of
each fraction, are multiplied by the denominator of the other fraction. This gives two equivalent fractions
with the same denominator. See the following example:

1 1
Example: + =
3 4
1  4 1  3 4 3 7
Solution:  +  = + =
3  4  4  3  12 12 12
When more than two fractions are to be added or subtracted, each fraction is multiplied top and bottom by
each of the other denominators. This method works for simple or small fractions, but if the denominators
are large or many fractions are to be added, this method can be cumbersome.
105 15 1
Example: + + =
64 32 6
Solution: Using the method of denominator multiplication would yield:
64 ⋅ 32 ⋅ 6 = 12,288
A common denominator of 12,288 would be very inconvenient to use.
For cases when simply multiplying the denominators of unlike fractions to find a common denominator is not
appropriate, we find the lowest common denominator (LCD) instead.
The lowest common denominator is the smallest possible denominator common to all the fractions being
added or subtracted.
Finding the Lowest Common Denominator
The lowest common denominator of several fractions can be found using four simple steps:
Step 1: Express each of the denominators as a product of prime factors.
Step 2: Determine which prime numbers are used in each of the denominators.
Step 3: For each of the prime numbers identified in Step 2, determine the greatest number of
times it occurs in any denominator.
Step 4: Multiply together each of the prime numbers found in Step 2, using each prime number
as many times as the greatest occurrence identified in Step 3.
Example: Find the lowest common denominator of the following three fractions:

1 1 1
, ,
3 6 8
Solution:
Step 1: Express each of the denominators as a product of prime factors.
3 = 3 ⋅ 1 (3 is already a prime number)

6=2⋅3
8=2⋅2⋅2
Step 2: Determine which prime numbers are used in each of the denominators.
2 and 3
Step 3: Identify the greatest number of times each prime number occurs.
1
2 is used three times as a factor of 8 in the fraction
8
1
3 is used once as a factor of 3 in the fraction
3
Step 4: Multiply the prime numbers found in Step 2, using each prime numbers as a
factor as many times as the greatest occurrence for each identified in Step 3.
LCD = 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 3 = 24
Adding and Subtracting Unlike Fractions Using LCDs
As mentioned earlier, only like fractions (those having the same denominator) can be directly added or
subtracted. To add or subtract unlike fractions, we must first convert them to fractions having the same
denominator. This can be accomplished by following these steps:
Step 1: Determine the lowest common denominator.
Step 2: Rewrite the fractions as equivalent fractions using the lowest common denominator
Step 3: Add or subtract the numerators. Keep the same denominator.
Step 4: If it is an improper fraction, convert it into a mixed number.
Step 5: Reduce all answers to lowest terms.
1 7
Example: Add and
15 10

Solution:
Step 1: Determine the lowest common denominator by finding the prime numbers.
15 = 5 ⋅ 3 Therefore, the LCD = 5 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 = 30
10 = 5 ⋅ 2
Step 2: Rewrite with lowest common denominators.
1 1 30 2
= • =
15 15 30 30
7 7 30 21
= • =
10 10 30 30
Step 3: Add the new fractions.
2 21 23
+ =
30 30 30
Step 4: The answer is already in lowest terms.
1 7
Example: Subtract from
15 10
Solution:
Step 1: Determine the LCD.

Find primes of each denominator.
15 = 5⋅3
10 = 5⋅2
Find the LCD using the primes.
LCD = 5 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 = 30
Step 2: Rewrite with LCD.
1 1 30 2
= • =
15 15 30 30

7 7 30 21
= • =
10 10 30 30
Step 3: Subtract the new fractions.
21 2 19
− =
30 30 30
Step 4: The answer is already in its simplest form.
Multiplication of Fractions
Multiplication of fractions is much simpler than addition or subtraction. Multiplication is performed on

both the numerator and the denominator, and there is no need to convert unlike fractions to like fractions.
Multiplication of fractions is performed using the following steps:
Step 1: Multiply the numerators.
Step 2: Multiply the denominators.
Step 3: Reduce the fraction to lowest terms.
2 1 2 • 1 2 1
Example: • = = =
3 4 3 • 4 12 6
5 7 35
Example: • =
8 16 128
4 3 12 6 3
Example: • = = =
7 16 112 56 28
Remember, a whole number can be written as a fraction (itself over 1) Therefore, to multiply a fraction
by a whole number, multiplying the numerator of the fraction by the whole number
1 1 3 3
Example: • 3 = • =
7 7 1 7
We multiply mixed numbers by changing the mixed number to an improper fraction and multiplying the
numerators and denominators.
1 3 3 3 9
Example: 1 • = • =
2 5 2 5 10

2 4 11 4 44 17
Example: 3 • = • = = 1
3 9 3 9 27 27
2 1 11 81 891 297 9
Example: 3 • 5 = • = = = 18
3 16 3 16 48 16 16
Division of Fractions
Division of fractions is performed using the concept of "invert and multiply."
1
The inverse of a number is .
the number
1
Example: The inverse of 2 is .
2
2 3
Example: The inverse of is .
3 2
3 7 4
Example: The inverse of 1 (rewritten as ) is .
4 4 7
Division of fractions is performed using the following steps:
Step 1: Multiply both fractions by the inverse of the divisor. "Invert and multiply."
Step 2: The divisor of the equivalent fraction will now equal 1 Now multiply with the dividend
being multiplied by the inverse of the divisor.
Step 5: Reduce the resulting fraction to lowest terms.

4
 
5
Example: =?
2
 
9
Solution:
Step 1: Multiply both fractions by the inverse of the divisor.
2 9
The divisor is , and the inverse is .
9 2
 4 9 4•9  4•9

       
 5 •  2 =  5• 2 =  5• 2 = 4•9 =
 2 9 2•9  18  5•2
       
9 2 9•2  18 
2 9
Step 2: Looking at the two divisor fractions we saw that • = 1. We dropped the
9 2
divisor of 1 and set up the problem as a multiplication problem.
Step 3: Multiply numerators and denominators.
4 • 9 36
=
5 • 2 10
36 18 3
= = 3
10 5 5
4
 
5 4 9
Notice that the problem we started with was and was converted to • .
2 5 2
 
9
We simply inverted the divisor and multiplied the two fractions.
This is how all division of fractions problems are solved.
You may have noticed a trend in both previous examples. The fractions in the divisor always equaled 1
after being multiplied by the inverse of the divisor. The problems then became a multiplication of the
dividend times the inverse of the divisor.
This will always be true.

Because of that, we can take a short cut when dividing fractions.

When dividing one fraction by another, simply multiply the dividend by the inverse of the divisor to obtain
the answer.
4 2
Example: Divide by .
5 9
4
 
5
Solution: This becomes .
 2
 
9 
2 9
Invert the divisor fraction to .
9 2
4 9
Multiply the dividend, , by the inverted divisor .
5 2
4 9 36
• =
5 2 10
Reduce the fraction to lowest terms.
36 18 3
= = 3
10 5 5
We divide mixed numbers by changing the mixed number into an improper fraction, inverting the divisor,
and proceeding as in multiplication.
Invert the divisor and then follow the rule for multiplication.
2 3
Example: Divide 1 by .
3 7
5 3 5 7 35 8
Solution: ÷ = • = = 3
3 7 3 3 9 9
3
Example: Divide 5 by 2 .
4
23 2 23 1 23 7
Solution: ÷ = • = = 2
4 1 4 2 8 8
1 1
Example: Divide 3 by 2 .
2 4
7 9 7 4 28 14 5
Solution: ÷ = • = = = 1
8 4 2 9 18 9 9

Chapter 2 Summary
Adding or Subtracting Fractions:

Step 1: Express denominators in prime factors.
Step 2: Determine the lowest common denominator by using all of the prime numbers from the largest
denominator, and then include each prime number from the other denominators so that each denominator
can be calculated from the list of primes contained in the LCD.
Step 3: Rewrite using the lowest common denominator.
Step 4: Add or subtract the numerators of the fractions to give the numerator of the answer, keeping the LCD as
the denominator
Step 5: Reduce the answer if it is an improper fraction.
Multiplying fractions
Step 1: Change any mixed numbers to improper fractions.
Dividing fractions
Step 1: Change any mixed number to improper fractions.
Step 2: Invert the second fraction.

Student Guide: Mathematics Chapter 3: Decimals
3 DECIMALS
This chapter covers the processes of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of numbers in
decimal form.

division using decimals.
Addition and Subtraction of Decimals
When adding or subtracting decimals, the numbers will be placed in a column with all the decimal points
aligned above each other. In doing this, the digits associated with various decimal places to the right and
the left of the decimal point are also aligned with each other. For example, all the digits in the tenths
place will be aligned one above the other. When necessary, zeros are added after decimals and are used as
place holders so that each number to be added or subtracted has the same number of digits as the
remaining numbers. The arithmetic is then performed on each decimal place, starting with the decimal
place furthest to the right.
Example: Add the following:
0.423 + 1.562 + 0.0736 + 0.2 =
The number with the most digits (0.0736) has 4 decimals places. Therefore, zeros are placed
after the other numbers, so that each number has 4 decimal places.
Align decimal points, and add.
0.4230
+1.5620
+ 0.0736
+ 0.2000
2.2586
Example: Subtract the following:
0.832 - 0.0357 =

Align decimal points, add trailing zeros for place holders, and subtract.
0. 8320
- 0. 0357
0. 7963
Multiplying Decimals
Decimals are multiplied the same as whole numbers with one important difference. Special care is
required to ensure that the decimal point is properly placed in the product. To position the decimal point,
count the total number of digits to the right of all the numbers being multiplied. The product will have
the same number of digits to the right of the decimal point as the total of the numbers being multiplied.
The step-by-step process is listed below:
Step 1: Multiply numbers without inserting a decimal in the product.
Step 2: Add up the number of digits to the right of the decimal point in all of the numbers
being multiplied.
Step 3: Position the decimal point in the product so the number of digits to the right of the
decimal point in the product equals the total number of digits to the right of the
decimal point in the numbers being multiplied.
This process can be better illustrated by the following examples:
Example: Multiply 14.1 by 1.09.
Solution: First, notice that this is approximately 14 • 1.1 ≈ 15.
So we expect the answer to be ≈15.
14.1 (One digit to the right of the decimal point)

x 1.09 (Two digits to the right of the decimal point)
1269
000
141
15369
15.369 (Count from the right three digits then place the decimal point)
This answer also agrees with our estimate, so we are confidant the answer is correct.

Example: Multiply 0.056 by 0.032.
Solution: The estimate of this answer is performed by multiplying 0.06 by 0.03.
0.06 (Two digits to the right of the decimal point)

x 0.03 (Two digits to the right of the decimal point)
0.0018 (Four digits to the right of the decimal point)
The actual calculation follows.
0.056 (Three digits to the right of the decimal point)

x 0.032 (Three digits to the right of the decimal point)
112
168
000
000___
001792
0.001792 (Count from the right six digits then place the decimal point)
0.056 has three digits to the right of the decimal point and 0.032 has three digits to the right of the
decimal point. This makes a total of 6 digits to the right of the decimal point. Therefore, the
product will also have a total of six digits to the right of the decimal point. In this example, zeros
were inserted to the left of the digits to bring the total to 6.
To multiply a decimal by 10, move the decimal point one position to the right. See the following example
for clarification:
Example: 0.45 • 10 = 4.5
Similarly, when multiplying a decimal by 100, 1000, or 10,000, move the decimal point to the right the
same number of zeros that are in the multiplier.
Example: 0.45 • 100 = 45

0.45 • 1000 = 450
0.45 • 10,000 = 4,500
23 • 100 = 2,300
6.875 • 1,000 = 6,875
9.2538 • 100 = 925.38
The reverse is true when multiplying by fractions of 10. Multiplying by a fraction of 10 means dividing
by ten. Therefore move the decimal point one position to the left for each zero in the divisor.

Dividing Decimals
3
Recall that a fraction is just an indicated division. That is, means "divide 3 by 4." In the same way, a
4
division problem can be represented by a fraction.
42 . 75
If we are asked to divide 42.75 by 3.8, we can write this as 3. 8 42 . 75 or as .
3.8
Writing this problem as a fraction allows us to use the concept introduced in the Decimal to Fraction
section. That is, "Any quantity can be multiplied by one without changing its value." To divide
decimals, the divisor must be converted to an integer without changing the value of the answer. For this
example, that means 3.8 must be converted to an integer, without changing the value of the answer. This
is done by multiplying both numbers of the problem by the same amount.
42 . 75 42 . 75 10 427.5
= • = This can also be written as 3. 8 42 . 75 .
3.8 3.8 10 38
The method for correctly placing the decimal point in long division has three simple steps:
Step 1. Write out the division problem.
Step 2. Move the decimal point in the divisor all the way to the right to get a whole number.
Step 3. Move the decimal point in the dividend the same number of places you moved it in
the divisor. Add zeros after the decimal point for place keeping in the dividend if
necessary.
Step 4. Place the decimal point in the quotient (answer) directly above the decimal point in
the dividend.
Step 5. Divide the numbers.
Example: Divide 3.00 by 0.06.

.
Solution:
0. 06 3. 00
.
Move the decimal point in the divisor to get a whole number.
0. 06 3. 00
. 
Move the decimal point in the dividend and in the quotient the same
0. 06 3. 00
number of places.

.
006 300.
Divide. 50.
006 300.
−30
00
Example: Divide 38.8 by 3.6.

.
Solution:
3. 6 38. 8
.
Move the decimal point in the divisor to get an integer (whole number).
3. 6 38. 8
. 
Move the decimal point in the dividend and in the quotient the same
3. 6 38. 8
number of places.
.
36 388.
10.777...
36 388.000
− 36
28
Divide. − 00
280
− 252
280
− 252
280
− 252
28

Rounding Off
When there is a remainder in decimal division, the remainder may be written as a fraction or rounded off.
When rounding off, the following rules should be applied:
Step 1: Observe the digit to the right of the digit being rounded off.
Step 2: If it is less than 5, drop the digit.

If the digit is 5 or higher, add 1 to the digit being rounded off.
Step 3: Write the new rounded number.
Refer to the following examples for clarification:
Example: Round off 3.473 to two decimal places.
Solution: 3 is the number to the right of the 2nd decimal place.
3 is less than 5, so drop the digit.
3.47 is the number rounded to two decimal places.
Example: Round off 6.2385 to three decimal places.
Solution: 5 is the number to the right of the 3rd decimal place.
5 is equal to 5, so drop the 5 and add one to the number in the third decimal place
(8 + 1 = 9).
6.239 is the number rounded to three decimal places.

Chapter 3 Summary
Adding or subtracting decimals
Align numbers in a column with the decimal points directly above or below each other. Perform addition
or subtraction on each decimal place, starting with the decimal place furthest to the right.
Multiplying decimals
Step 1: Multiply numbers without inserting the decimal point in the products.
Step 2: Sum the number of digits to the right of the decimal point in all of the numbers being multiplied.
Step 3: Position the decimal point in the product so the number of digits to the right of the decimal point
in the product equals the total number of digits to the right of the decimal point in the numbers being
multiplied.
Dividing decimals
Step 1: Write out the division problem.

Step 2: Move the decimal point in the divisor all the way to the right to get a whole number.
Step 3: Move the decimal point in the dividend the same number of places to the right that you moved it
in the divisor. In the dividend, add zeros after the decimal point for place keeping, if necessary.
Step 4: Place the decimal point in the quotient (answer) directly above the decimal point in the dividend.
Step 5: Divide the numbers.
Rounding off
Observe the digit to the right of the digit being rounded off.
If it is less than 5, drop the digit.
If the digit is 5 or higher, add 1 to the digit being rounded off.
Write the new rounded number.

Student Guide: Mathematics Chapter 4: Decimal Conversions and Percentages
4 DECIMAL CONVERSIONS AND PERCENTAGES
This chapter covers the mathematical concepts of converting between percents, decimals, and fractions.
EO 1.5 CONVERT between percents, decimals, and fractions.
Decimal to Fraction Conversion
Converting a decimal to a fraction involves a fundamental property of mathematics: "Any quantity can be
multiplied by one without changing its value." "One" can be in any form.
The following are all equal to one:
1 2 3 4
, , , ,...
1 2 3 4
10 20 30 40
, , , ,...
10 20 30 40
100 1,000 10,000

, , ,...
100 1,000 10,000
Multiplying a decimal by a fraction equal to one converts the decimal to a proper fraction. However, the
fraction may not be in lowest terms. The following examples demonstrate how to multiply a decimal by
one and reduce it to lowest terms.
Example: Convert 0.65 to a fraction.
Solution: Notice that 0.65 can be converted to the integer 65 by multiplying it by 100.
Multiply 0.65 by an appropriate fraction equal to one:
100 65
0. 65 = 0. 65 • =
100 100
The resulting proper fraction may now be reduced to lowest terms by factoring the
numerator and denominator into prime factors. Canceling all the factors common to the
numerator and denominator reduces the fraction to lowest terms.

65 5 • 13 5 • 13 13 13
= = = =
100 5 • 20 5 • 5 • 4 5 • 4 20
Notice that it wasn't really necessary to completely factor the denominator. Since 13 and
20 have no common factors, there is nothing to be gained by factoring 20.
Example: Convert 1.73 to a fraction.

100 73 73
Solution: 1.73 = 1 + .73 = 1 + . 73 • = 1+ = 1
100 100 100
73 = 73 • 1
100 = 2 • 2 • 5 • 5
There are no common factors between 73 and 100, so the fraction cannot be reduced.
73
Therefore, 1.73 = 1
100
Fraction to Decimal Conversion
Recall that a fraction represents a division. To convert a fraction to a decimal, simply divide.
3
Example: Convert to a decimal.
4
3
Solution: The fraction represents 3 divided by 4. To convert to decimal form, divide 3
4
by 4. Add a decimal point and zeros to the dividend to carry out the division.
0. 75
4 3. 00
−2 8
20
20
0
3
Therefore, = 0.75.
4

1
Example: Convert to a decimal.
3
Solution:
0. 333...
3 1. 000
−9
10
−9
10
−9
1
In this example, no matter how many zeros we add, there will always be a remainder of 1. This is
called a repeating decimal." A repeating decimal is indicated by 3 periods “...” to the right of the
number. Therefore, the answer is written as “0.333...”.
Percents
Percent is made up of two words,
“per”, which means of each

and
“cent”, which means one hundred.
Therefore, percent, or “%”, is the number of parts for each one hundred.
A percent is a fraction. It is a fraction which is obtained by dividing 1 into 100 parts.
1
Therefore, it can be written as: %=
100
Percents are normally ≤ 100%, but they can be used to show values greater than 100%.
Percents may be added, subtracted, multiplied, or divided just like other fractions.
Changing Decimals to Percent
To convert a decimal to a percent, we use the fact that any fraction may be multiplied by 1 without
changing its value.
100 1 100
We simply multiply the decimal by the fraction • which is the same as • %.
1 100 1

Any number written as a decimal may be written as a percent.
To write a decimal as a percent, multiply the decimal by 100%.
{Decimal} • 100% = Percent
One hundred percent is equal to one (100% =1).
Any number multiplied by one (1) remains itself.
Therefore any number multiplied by 100% remains equal to it self.
Example: Convert 0.25 to a percent.
0.25 = 0.25 • 100% = 25%
Therefore, to convert from decimal to percent, simply move the decimal two places to the right, and add
“%” sign.
Example: Express 0.87 as a percent.
0.87 = 0.87 • 100% = 87%
Example: Express 1.26 as a percent.
1.26 = 1.26 • 100% = 126%
Example: Convert 52.975 to a percent.
52.975 = 52.975 • 100% = 5,297.5%
Changing a Percent to a Decimal
Any number written as a percent may be written as a decimal.
To change a percent to a decimal, we again employ the principle that a fraction may be multiplied by 1
without changing its value.
1 1
This time we multiply by . Remember that % = .
100% 100

 
 1   100 
Therefore,   =  =1
 100 1   100 
 100 
Therefore, to convert from percent to decimal: simply move the decimal two places to the left, and
remove the “%” sign.
Example: Express 33.5% in decimal form.
1
33.5% = 33.5% • = 0. 335
100%
Notice that the number 33.5 is divided by 100, and the "units" of % cancel.
Example: Express 1200% in decimal form.
1
1200% = 1200% • = 12
100%
Changing Common Fractions and Whole Numbers to Percent
When changing common fractions to percent:

100%
convert the fraction to a decimal, and multiply by .
1
1  1 
Remember that % = . Therefore, 100% = 100   =1
100  100 
Step 1: Convert the fraction to a decimal.
Step 2: Move the decimal places 2 places to the right, and add “%” sign.
3
Example: Change to a percent.
5
Step 1: Convert the fraction to a decimal.
3
= 0. 6
5

Step 2: Move the decimal places 2 places to the right, and add “%” sign.
100%
0.6 • = 60%
1
When changing a whole number to a percent, multiply by 100%.
This is the same as moving the decimal places 2 places to the right, and add “%” sign.
Remember, 100% = 1.
Therefore, any number greater than 1, is also greater than 100%.
Example: Change 10 to percent.
100%
10 = 10 • = 1,000%
1
Example: Express 1,000 as a percent.
100%
1,000 = 1,000 • = 100 ,000%
1

Chapter 4 Summary
1
Remember, % =
100
Remember, 100% = 1
Any number greater than 1, is also greater than 100%.
• Change decimals to fractions by first, multiplying by an appropriate fraction equal to one, and reduce to
lowest terms. The appropriate fraction will contain as many zeros as there are decimal places.
• Change fractions to decimals by using long division to divide the denominator into the numerator,.
• Change decimals to percents by first, move the decimal 2 places to the right (multiplying by 100) and, adding
the percent symbol.
• Change percents to decimals by first, move the decimal 2 places to the left (dividing by 100) and, removing
the percent symbol.
• Change fractions to percents by first, changing the fraction into a decimal and then, by changing the decimal
to a percent, as described above.

Student Guide: Mathematics Chapter 5: Signed Numbers
5 SIGNED NUMBERS
This chapter covers the processes of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of signed
numbers.

division using signed numbers.
Addition of Signed Numbers
To add numbers with like signs, add the numbers as in arithmetic, and give the result the common sign.
Example: Add +4 and +3.
+4 + (+3) = +7
Add − 7 and − 2.
− 7 + (−2) = − 9
To add numbers with unlike signs, combine all positive and negative quantities, subtract the smaller from
the larger, and give the result the sign of the larger quantity.
Example: Add − 2 and + 3.
−2+ 3=1
The solution for this example may also be shown graphically on a number line. See Figure 5-1.
Figure 5-6 Adding (-2) and (+3) Using Number Line

Begin with −2 and count 3 whole numbers to the right. The sum of − 2 + 3 can be seen
to be 1.
Example: Add − 2, + 3, and + 4.
(− 2) + 3 + 4 =
Solution: Combine negatives and positives
(− 2) + 3 + 4 Subtract the smaller quantity from the larger quantity and give the
answer the sign of the larger quantity
(− 2) + 7
Figure 5-2 shows this solution on a number line.
Figure 5-7 Adding Three Numbers Using Number Line
Subtraction of Signed Numbers
Subtracting means finding the difference between two numbers. If we are asked to subtract −4° F from
+5° F the answer is 9° F. We can do this mentally. How do we arrive at the answer? We see that +5° F is
on one side of 0° F, and −4° F is on the other side. So the difference is 9° F.
The difference, then, is somehow similar to the sum. We added numbers of unlike sign with the rule that
a + ( − b) = a − b (Adding numbers with unlike signs)
By simply turning this around, we obtain
a − b = a + ( − b) (Subtracting signed numbers)
In the current example, we want to subtract − 4°F from + 5°F. The rule we just obtained says,

5° F − (− 4°F) = 5°F + ( + 4°F) = 9° F

Example: Subtract + 5 from − 3.
− 3 − ( + 5) = − 3 + ( − 5) = − 8
That is, − 3 − 5 = − 8; − 8 is 5 less than − 3
Example: Find the difference between 18 and −10. Find the difference always means
subtract the small number from the large number. The small number is the one to the left on the
number line.
18 − (− 10) = 18 + (+ 10) = 28
There is no need to put a + in front of a positive number. If there is no sign, it is

understood that the number is positive.
Example: Find the difference between − 4 and − 1.

The smaller number (– 4) is to the left of (– 1) on the number line.
− 1 − (− 4) = − 1 + 4 = 3
Multiplication of Signed Numbers
Multiplication of signed numbers is performed just like the multiplication of positive numbers, with the
exception of giving a sign to the product. The signs of the numbers are assigned to the products using the
following rules:
Rule 1: The product of any two numbers with like signs is positive:
(+) • (+) = (+)
(−) • (−) = (+)
Example: What is the product of + 3 and + 3? product means multiply.
(+ 3) • (+ 3) = + 9
Example: What is the product of +4 and +5?

When the “+” sign indicates the sign of the number, we can drop it.
4 • 5 = 20

Example: Find the product of 18 and 3.
If the statement doesn't give a sign to a number, it is positive.
18 • 3 = 54
Notice that we can drop the parentheses ( ) with no confusion. We can also drop the “+” when it
indicates the sign of a number. We must continue to use it to indicate addition. We must always
use the “−” sign to show negative numbers and subtraction.
Rule 2: The product of any two numbers with unlike signs is negative:
(+) • (−) = (−)
(−) • (+) = (−)
Example: What is the product of − 2 and 4?
(− 2) • (+ 4) = − 8
Example: What is the product of 4 and − 8?
4 • − 8 = − 32
Example: Find the product of 12 and − 3.
12 • − 3 = − 36
Rule3: The product is always negative if there is an odd number of negative numbers.
The product is always positive if there is an even number of negative numbers.
(+) • (−)• (−)• (−) = (−)
(+) • (−)• (−)• (−)• (−) = (+)
Example: Find the product of − 1, − 2, 1, and − 2.
−1 • −2 • 1 • −2 = −4
Example: What is the product of − 2, 3, 5, and − 4?
− 2 • 3 • 5 • − 4 = 120

Rule 4: Multiplying by −1 is equivalent to changing the sign.
Example: 5 • 3 = 15; and −1 • 5 • 3 = −15
Example: − 2 • − 3 • − 4 = − 24; and − 1 • − 2 • − 3 • − 4 = 24
Division of Signed Numbers
Division of signed numbers is also performed in the same manner as positive numbers, with the exception
of giving a sign to the quotient. The rules for assigning the quotient signs are identical to the rules for
multiplying signs:
Rule 1: The quotient of any two numbers with like signs is positive:
(+) ÷ (+) = (+)
(-) ÷ (-) = (+)
−3
Example: = +3
−1
+3
Example: = +3
+1
Rule 2: The quotient of any two numbers with unlike signs is negative:
(–) ÷ (+) = (–)
(+) ÷ (–) = (–)
−4
Example: =−2
+2
+4
Example: = −2
−2
Rule 3: Zero divided by any number is always zero.

0
= 0 , where n ≠ 0
n
0
Example: = 0
−5
0
Example: = 0
+5000
Rule 4: Any number divided by zero is undefined.
m
= undefined, where m is any number, including 0
0
0
Example: = undefined
0
7
Example: = undefined
0

Chapter 5 Summary
Rules for arithmetic operations of signed numbers:
Addition of signed numbers may be performed in any order.
Adding numbers with like signs may be accomplished by combining all numbers, whether all positive or all
negative, and then adding. The original sign of the set is maintained.
Adding numbers with unlike signs may be accomplished by combining all positive numbers, then all negative
numbers, and then subtracting. The resulting sign is obtained from the larger of the two quantities.
Subtraction of signed numbers may be regarded as the addition of numbers of the opposite signs. To subtract
signed numbers, reverse the sign of the subtrahend (the second number) and add.
Multiplication of signed numbers is performed just like the multiplication of positive numbers, with the exception
of giving a sign to the product. The signs of the numbers are assigned to the products using the following rules:
Rule 1: The product of any two numbers with like signs is positive:
Rule 2: The product of any two numbers with unlike signs is negative:
Rule3: The product is always negative if there is an odd number of negative numbers. The product is
always positive if there is an even number of negative numbers.
Rule 4: Multiplying by (-1) is equivalent to changing the sign.
Division of signed numbers is also performed in the same manner as positive numbers, with the exception of
giving a sign to the quotient. The rules for assigning the quotient signs are identical to the rules for multiplying
signs:
Rule 1: The quotient of any two numbers with like signs is positive:
Rule 2: The quotient of any two numbers with unlike signs is negative:
Rule 3: Zero divided by any number is always zero.
Rule 4: Any number divided by zero is undefined.

Student Guide: Mathematics Chapter 6: Basic Concepts of Shapes and Figures
6 BASIC CONCEPTS OF SHAPES AND FIGURES
This chapter covers the basic language and terminology of plane geometry and the calculation of the
area and perimeter of selected plane figures.
TO 2.0 APPLY the laws of geometry to solve mathematical problems.
EO 2.1 Given the formulas, CALCULATE the perimeter and the area of each of the
following basic shapes:
A. Triangle
B. Rectangle
C. Square
D. Circle
EO 2.2 Given more than one figure and the appropriate dimensions in a word problem,
CALCULATE the combined area of the figures.
Triangles
Triangles are classified by the length of their sides and the size of their angles. Triangles classified by the
length of their sides include: equilateral, isosceles, and scalene. Triangles classified by the size of their
angles include: right, acute, and obtuse
There are six basic types of triangles:
1. An equilateral triangle is one in which all three sides

(and, therefore, all three angles) are equal. Figure 6-1 is
an example of an equilateral triangle. 8 8
Figure 6-8 An Equilateral Triangle
2. An isosceles triangle has two equal sides (and two equal

angles). Figure 6-2 is an example of an isosceles triangle.
Page 46 of 115 8 8 Rev. 0
6
Figure 6-9 An Isosceles Triangle
3. The triangle in Figure 6-3 is called a scalene triangle

because each side is a different length.
15
8
11
Figure 6-10 A Scalene Triangle
4. A right triangle has one of its angles equal to 90°. The

square symbol represents a 90° angle or right angle. Figure
6-4 is an example of a right triangle. 5
3
4
Figure 6-11 A Right Triangle
5. An acute triangle has each of its angles less than 90°.

Figure 6-5 is an example of an acute triangle.
8 7
5
Figure 6-12 An Acute Triangle
6. The triangle in Figure 6-6 is considered an obtuse triangle

since it has one angle greater than 90°.
8
6
3
Figure 6-13 An Obtuse Triangle
A triangle may have more than one of these attributes. For example, Figure 6-4 is a right triangle, but it is
also scalene, because all the sides are of different length. Figure 6-2 is an isosceles triangle, but it is also an
acute triangle, because all angles are less than 90º. Figures 6-3 and 6-6 are both obtuse scalene triangles.
Any triangle, regardless of its attributes, is a figure formed by using straight line segments to connect three
points that are not in a straight line. The straight line segments are called sides of the triangle. The sum of
the interior angles in a triangle is always 180°.
The perimeter (P) of any triangle, regardless of its type (see Figure 6-7), is the sum of the lengths of all
three sides: It is calculated using the formula:
S3 H
S1
P = S1 + S2 + S3
S2
B
Figure 6-14 A Typical Triangle
The perimeter of a triangle is always expressed in the linear units. This is because the lengths are added
together. (Example: inches + inches + inches = inches).
The area (A) of a triangle, regardless of its type, (see Figure 6-7) is calculated using the formula:
A = (1/2)(base) × (height) or A = (1/2)BH
The area of a triangle is always expressed in squared units. This is because the units of the base are
multiplied by the units of the height. (Example: inches x inches = squared inches.)

Example: Calculate the area and perimeter of a right triangle with a 9.0" base and sides
measuring 12.0" and 15.0". Be sure to include the units in your answer.
Solution: P = s1 + s2 + s3b
P = 9.0 in + 12.0 in + 15.0 in
P = 36.0 inches
A = 1/2 bh
A = 0.5(9.0 in) (12.0 in)
A = 0.5(108.0 in2)
A = 54.0 in2
Quadrilaterals
A quadrilateral is any four-sided geometric figure. Quadrilateral simply means "four sides". We will
discuss only two types of quadrilaterals, rectangles and squares.
L
A rectangle is a quadrilateral with four right angles and the
opposite sides parallel to each other, as shown in Figure 6-8.
90º W Typically, for a rectangle, the base is called the length (L) and
the height is called the width (W).
Figure 6-15 The Rectangle
The perimeter (P) of a rectangle is calculated using the following

formula:
P = 2 (length) + 2 (width) = 2L + 2W
The perimeter of a rectangle is always expressed in the original units.

The area (A) of a rectangle is calculated using the following formula:
A = (length) × (width) = L × W
The area of a rectangle is always expressed in square units such as:
feet × feet or ft2

Example: Calculate the area and perimeter of a rectangle with l = 5.0 ft and w = 6.0 ft. Be
sure to include units in your answer.
Solution: P = 2L + 2W
P = 2(5.0 ft) + 2(6.0 ft)
P = 10.0 ft + 12.0 ft
P = 22.0 feet
A=LxW
A = (5.0 ft)(6.0 ft)
A = 30.0 square feet = 30.0 ft2
S
A square is a rectangle having four equal sides, as shown in Figure
6-9.
The perimeter (P) of a square is calculated using the following S S

formula:
90º
P=4S
The perimeter of a square is always expressed in linear units.

S
The area (A) of a square is calculated using the following formula: Figure 6-16 The Square
A=S2
The area of a square is always expressed in square units,
Example: Calculate the area and perimeter of a square with a = 5 ft. Be sure to include
units in your answer.
Solution: P = 4S
P = 4 (5.0 ft)
P = 20.0 feet
A = S2
A = (5.0 ft)2
A = (5.0 ft) (5.0 ft)
A = 25.0 square feet

Circles
A circle is a plane curve which is equidistant from the center, as shown in Figure 6-10. The
perimeter of a circle is called the circumference (C). The diameter (D) of a circle is a line segment
connecting two points on the circumference of the circle through the center. The radius (r) of a circle is a
line segment that joins the center of a circle with any point on its perimeter.
Pi (π ) represents the ratio of the circumference to the diameter, and is approximately equal to 22/7 or
3.141592654. The scientific calculator makes this easy by designating a key for determining π.
The circumference of a circle is calculated using the following formula:
C = 2 πr
The perimeter or circumference of a circle is always expressed in

linear units.
Figure 6-17 The Circle
The area (A) of a circle is calculated using the following formula:
A = πr2
The area of a circle is always expressed in square units.
Example: Calculate the area and circumference of a circle with a 3.0" radius. Be sure to
include units in your answer.
Solution: C = 2 πr
C = (2) π(3.0 in)
C = π(6.0 in)
C = 18.8 inches
A = πr2
A = π(3.0 in)2
A = π(3.0 in) (3.0 in)
A = π(9.0 in2)
A = 28.3 square inches

Combined Figures
To solve the problems where multiple plane figures are involved, first solve the value for the first shape.
Then solve the value for the second shape. Then combine the values of the two shapes as necessary.
Example: Calculate the area that must be painted on the side of a building if the height of
the building is 10.0 feet and the length of the building is 12.0 feet. The side of the building has a
door 4.0 feet wide by 8.0 feet high that is not to be painted.
Solution: Area of the building side, 10.0 feet x 12.0 feet, represents a rectangle.
A = L×W
A = 12.0 ft × 10.0 ft
A = 120 ft2
Area of the door, 8.0 feet × 4.0 feet, represents a rectangle.
A = L×W
A = 8.0 ft × 4.0 ft
A = 32.0 ft2
Area to be painted = Area of the building side – Area of the door

Area of building side = 120 ft2
Area of the door = 32.0 ft2
Area to be painted = 120 ft2 – 32.0 ft2
Area to be painted = 88.0 ft2
Example: Calculate the total surface area of two evaporating pools. One pool is a square
having one side of 25.0 feet. The other pool is circular with a diameter of 25.0 feet.
Solution: The area of the square is calculated using the equation Area = the length times
length.
A = l2
A = (25.0 feet)2
A = 625 feet2
The area of the circle is calculated using the equation Area = πr2. However, we must first
determine the length of the radius.
r = D/2 D = 25.0 ft
r = 25.0 ft / 2 = 12.5 ft. The Total Area = Area of the
A = πr2 square pool plus the area of the
A = π (12.5 ft)2 circular pool
A = π 156.25 ft2
A = 490.874 feet squared Total Area = 625 ft2 + 491 ft2
A = 491 feet squared Total Area = 1116 ft2


Chapter 6 Summary
A triangle is a figure formed by using straight line segments to connect three points that are not in a straight line.
The straight line segments are called sides of the triangle. The sum of the interior angles in a triangle is always
180°.
Area of a triangle: A = (1/2)(base) × (height) = 1/2 bh

Perimeter of a triangle: P = side1 + side2 + side3 = S1 + S2 + S3
A quadrilateral is any four-sided geometric figure. Quadrilateral simply means "four sides"
A rectangle is a quadrilateral with four right angles and the opposite sides are equal and parallel to each other.
Typically, for a rectangle, the base is called the length (L) and the height is called the width (W).
Area of a rectangle: A = (length) × (width) = L × W

Perimeter of a rectangle: P = 2(length) + 2(width) = 2L + 2W
A square is a rectangle having four equal sides.
Area of a square: A = (side) × (side) or (side)2 = S2

Perimeter of a square P = 4 × (side) = 4S
A circle is a plane curve which is equidistant from the center. The perimeter of a circle is called the circumference
(C). The diameter (D) of a circle is a line segment connecting two points on the circumference of the circle
through the center. The radius (r) of a circle is a line segment that joins the center of a circle with any point on its
perimeter.
Area of a circle A = πr2 (where π = 3.14)

Circumference of a circle C = 2πr or C = πD
(Note: Diameter = 2 radius, D= 2 r)
To solve the problems where multiple plane figures are involved, first solve the value for the first shape. Then
solve the value for the second shape. Then combine the values of the two shapes as necessary.

Student Guide: Mathematics Chapter 7: Volume of Solid Objects
7 VOLUME OF SOLID OBJECTS
This chapter covers the calculation of the volume of selected solid figures.
EO 2.3 Given the formulas, CALCULATE the volume of the following figures:
A. Rectangular solid
B. Cube
C. Right circular cylinder
EO 2.4 Given more than one solid and the appropriate dimensions in a word problem,
CALCULATE the combined volume of the objects.
Rectangular Solids
A rectangular solid is a six-sided solid figure

with faces that are rectangles, as shown in
Figure 7-1. ‘
L’ is the length of the solid, ‘W’ is the width of

the solid, and ‘H’ is the height of the solid.
The volume of a rectangular solid, ‘V’, is

calculated using the following formula:
V = L• W • H
Figure 7-18 Rectangular Solids
The volume of a rectangular solid is expressed in cubic units.
Example: Calculate the volume and surface area of a rectangular solid with L = 3.0”, W =
4.0” and H = 5.0”. Be sure to include units in your answer.
Solution: V=LxWxH
V = (3.0 in.)(5.0 in.)(4.0 in.)
V = (15.0 in2)(4.0 in.)
V = 60.0 cubic inches
V = 60 in.3
Cube----
A cube is a six-sided object whose faces are equal and at right angles to each other, as shown in Figure 7-2.
The volume of a cube is calculated using the following formula:
V = LWH or V=S3
The volume of a cube is expressed in cubic units.
Figure 7-19 The Cube
Example: Calculate the volume of a cube with L = 3.0". Be sure to include units in your
answer.
Solution: V = LWH or V = S 3
V = (3.0 in)(3.0 in)(3.0 in)
V = 27 cubic inches
Right Circular Cylinder
A right circular cylinder is an object whose base is r

perpendicular to its sides. See Figure 7-3. Facility
equipment, such as waste storage tanks and chemical
storage tanks, is often of this type. In this figure, ‘r’ is
the line segment that joins the center of the circle with
any point on its perimeter (or circumference). Also, ‘h’ h
is the height of the object.
The volume of a right circular cylinder is calculated

using the following formula:
V = πr2h
Figure 7-20 The Right Circular Cylinder
Remember that PI (π ) represents the ratio of the circumference to the diameter and is approximately
equal to 3.141592654.
The volume of a cylinder is expressed in cubic units.

Example: Calculate the volume of a right circular cylinder with r = 3.0" and
h = 4.0". Be sure to include units in your answer.
Solution: V = πr2h
V = (3.14)(3.0 in)2(4.0 in)
V = (3.14)(3.0 in)(3.0 in)(4.0 in)
V = 113.1 cubic inches
Combined Solids
To solve volumetric problems where multiple solids are involved, first solve the volume value for the first
shape. Then solve the volume value for the second shape. Then combine the values of the two shapes as
necessary for the overall total volume. The total combined volume for multiple solids can be calculated using
the following formula:
Volume total = Volume solid 1 + Volume solid 2 + Volume solid n

Chapter 7 Summary
Volume of a Rectangular Solid is the product of its length multiplied by it width multiplied by its height.
V = LWH
Volume of a Cube is the product of its length multiplied by it width multiplied by its height. Because the Cube
has all of its faces equally sized, its volume can also be expressed as cube of the length of any one side of the
solid.: lwh
V = LWH or V=S3
Volume of a Right Circular Cylinder is the product of the square of the radius of the cylinder multiplied by the
height of the cylinder πr2h
V = πr2h
Volume of combined solids is the sum of the volumes of each solid.
Volume total = Volume solid 1 + Volume solid 2 + Volume solid n

Student Guide: Mathematics Chapter8: Exponents
8 EXPONENTS
This chapter covers the addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of numbers with
exponents
TO 3.0 Given basic mathematical problems involving exponents, scientific notation, ratios,
and proportions, SOLVE for the answer
EO 3.1 APPLY the arithmetic operations using exponents.
Exponents
To square a number is to use that number as a factor twice, such as a • a = a2. This is also called raising a
number to the second power. Using a factor three times is called raising it to the third power. This is
written as a3. The product of a • a • a • a is written as a4, and is read "a to the fourth power."
A power of a number is the product obtained by multiplying itself by itself as many times as the power
3
indicated. Thus, 5 = 5 • 5 • 5 = 125. The small 3 used in writing 53 is called an exponent, while the
number 5 is called the base. Exponents apply only to the base immediately to the left and below them.
For example, in the expression, 4 + (−2)3, the exponent, 3, applies only to the base (−2).
Any power of 1 is equal to one. This is because 1 multiplied by 1 any number of times is still 1. Any
number written without an exponent is considered to be the first power of itself. That means a = a1. Any
number raised to the zero power, such a 50, is equal to 1. The reason for this will be explained later.
Basic Rules for Exponents
The following rules are applied to exponents.
Rule 1: The Product Rule: To multiply numbers with the same base, add the exponents and keep
the base the same.
x2 x3 = x5
Example: (23)(24) =
Solution: 23 = (2 • 2 • 2)
24 = (2 • 2 • 2• 2)
(23)(24) = (2 • 2• 2)(2 • 2 • 2• 2)
(23)(24) = (2 • 2 • 2 • 2 • 2• 2• 2) or 27,
therefore, (23)(24) = 23+4 = 27
Rule 2: The Power Rule: When raising a power of a number to a power, multiply the exponents
and keep the base the same.
(x2)3 = x6
Example: (a3)4 =
Solution: (a3)4 = (a3)(a3)(a3) (a3)
and a3 = (a • a • a)
so (a3)4 = (a • a • a)(a • a • a) a • a • a)( a • a • a) = a12,
therefore, (a3)4 = a3 • 4 = a12
Rule 3: The Associative Rule for Multiplication: To raise a product to a power, raise each
factor to that power.
(x y)2 = x2 y2
This arises from the Commutative law for multiplication, that is, order of
multiplication does not change or affect the product.
Example: (ab)2 = (a • b)2 = (a • b)(a • b) =
Solution: a • a • b • b = a2 • b2,
therefore, (ab)2 = a2b2
Example: (2a)2 = (2 • a)2 = (2 • a)(2 • a) =
Solution: 2 • 2 • a • a = 22a2,
therefore, (2a)2 = 22a2
Rule 4: The Associative Rule for Division: To raise a quotient to a power, raise both the
numerator and denominator to that power.
2
 x  x2
  = 2
 y y
Example:
3
 a  a a a a • a • a a3
= • • = = 3
 b b b b b • b • b b
a 3 a3
therefore,   = 3
 b b
Example:
4
 3  3 3 3 3 3 • 3 • 3 • 3 34
= • • • = = 4
 5 5 5 5 5 5 • 5 • 5 • 5 5
3 4 34
therefore,   = 4
 5 5
Rule 5: The Quotient Rule: When dividing two exponential numbers with the same base,
subtract the exponents and keep the base the same.
5
x = 5−3 = 2
3 x x
x
Example:
34
=
(3 • 3 • 3 • 3)
=  3/  •  3/  • (3 • 3) = 2
3
32 (3 • 3)  3/   3/ 
34
therefore, = 34 − 2 = 32
32
Rule 6: Zero Exponents: Any number to the zero power equals one.
x 0 = 1, when x is not equal to 0
Using the rule for exponents (Rule 5) to evaluate
Example:
x5
5
= x 5− 5 = x 0 = 1
x
Therefore, (anything) 0 = 1
but, X(anything) 0 = X • (1) = X
Consider the following two exponent applications:
Example:
( 3x) 0 = 1
while
3 x 0 = 3(1) = 3
From the Fundamental Law of Fractions, any quantity divided by itself is always equal to
one.
a3 (a • a • a) (a/ • a/ • a)
/
= = = 1 • 1 • 1 = 1
Example: a 3 (a • a • a) (a/ • a/ • a)
/
Rule 7 Negative Exponents: A quantity with a negative exponent may be written as the
reciprocal with a positive exponent.
Consider the following expression: [“Cross the line – Change the sign”].
An exponent in the numerator can be

moved to the denominator position if the sign of the exponent is changed. The same can be done
when moving an exponent from the denominator position to the numerator position.
Example:
−2 1 1
x = or x2 =
x 2
x− 2
a5
We saw earlier from Rule 5 that: 2
= a 5− 2 = a 3
a
However, if the exponent in the denominator is greater than the exponent in the
numerator, then, the result will be a negative exponent
Example:
a4
7
= a 4 − 7 = a −3
a
1
Example: 5−3 =
53
Example:
1
−2 −2
 3  3 2 1 42 42
= = 3 = 2 • = 2
 4 4 −2 1 3 1 3
2
4
Chapter 8 Summary
Rule 1: To multiply two exponential numbers with the same base, add the exponents and keep the base the same.
x2 x3 = x5
Rule 2: When raising a power of a number to a power, multiply the exponents and keep the base the same.
(x2)3 = x6
Rule 3: To raise a product to a power, raise each factor to that power.

(x y)2 = x2 y2
Rule 4: To raise a quotient to a power, raise both the numerator and denominator to that power
2
 x  x2
  = 2
 y y
Rule 5: When dividing two exponential numbers with the same base, subtract the exponents and keep the base the
same.
5
x 3
=x
5 −3
=x
2
x
Rule 6: Any number to the zero power equals one.
x0 = 1
Rule 7: Negative exponents:
−2 1 or 1
x = x2 =
x2 x− 2
Student Guide: Mathematics Chapter 9: Scientific Notationt
9 SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
This chapter covers the addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of numbers in scientific
notation
EO 3.2 CONVERT between decimal numbers and scientific notation.

EO 3.3 APPLY the arithmetic operation of addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division using scientific notation
Writing Numbers in Scientific Notation
Scientists, engineers, operators, and technicians use scientific notation when working with very large and
very small numbers. The speed of light is 29,900,000,000 centimeters per second; the mass of an electron
is 0.000549 atomic mass units. It is easier to express these numbers in a shorter way called scientific
notation, thus avoiding the writing of many zeros and calculation errors.
Example:
29,900,000,000 = 2.99 × 1010

0.000549 = 5.49 × 10−4
To convert numbers from decimal form to scientific notation, it is necessary to remember the laws of
exponents in order to make calculations. Positive exponents indicate large numbers; and negative
exponents indicate small numbers (less than 1).
The following whole numbers and decimals can be expressed as powers of 10:
Whole Number to power of 10 Decimal to power of 10
1 = 100 0.1 = 1/10 = 10−1

10 = 101 0.01 = 1/100 = 10−2
100 = 102 0.001 = 1/1000 = 10−3
1000 = 103 0.0001 = 1/10000 = 10−4
10,000 =104
Table 9-1 Powers of 10
A number N is in scientific notation when it is expressed as the product of a decimal between 1 and 10 and
some power of 10.
N = a × 10n where a is between 1 and 9; and N is a whole number.

The steps for converting from decimal to scientific notation are as follows:
Step 1: Place the decimal between the first two digits of number
Step 2: Count the number of digits between the old and new decimal point.
Step 3: If the decimal points is shifted to the left (a large number), the exponent is
positive. If the decimal point is shifted to the right, ( a small number) then the
exponent is negative.
Example: The number 3750 will not be changed if it is multiplied by 1000 and divided by 1000
(the net effect is to multiply it by one). Then,
3750
× 1000 = 3.750 × 1000 = 3.750 × 103
1000
There is a division by 10 for each space the decimal point is moved to the left. Similarly, for a number such
as 0.0037, we multiply the number by 10 for each space the decimal point is moved to the right. Thus, the
number must be divided by 10 for each space. See Figure 9.1.
Figure 9-21 Converting Decimal to Scientific Notation
Example: A certain open basin can hold 1,300,000 gallons of fluid.

Express this number in scientific notation.
Solution:
Step 1: Place the decimal between the first two digits.
1,300,000 becomes 1.300000
Step 2: Count the number of digits between the old and new decimal point.
Step 3: If the decimal points is shifted to the left, the exponent is positive.
If the decimal point is shifted to the right, the exponent is negative.
1,300,000 becomes 1.3 × 106
n = +6 because the decimal point is shifted six places to the left.
1,300,000 = 1.3 × 106
Example: Express 0.0000247 in scientific notation.
Solution:
n = −5 because the decimal point is shifted five places to the right.
0.0000247 = 2.47 x 10−5
Converting Scientific Notation to Integer or Decimal Form
Often, numbers in scientific notation need to be put in integer or decimal form. To convert scientific
notation to integer or decimal form:
Step 1: Write decimal number portion of the number in scientific notation.
Step 2: Move the decimal point the number of places specified by the power of ten: to the right if
positive, to the left if negative. Add zeros if necessary.
Step 3: Rewrite the number in integer form.

Example: Convert 4.4 × 103 to integer form.
Addition with Scientific Notation
In order to add two or more numbers using scientific notation, the following three steps must be used:
Step 1: Change all addends to have the same power of ten by moving the decimal point
(that is, change all lower powers of ten to the highest power).
Step 2: Add the numbers of the addends and keep the common power of ten.
Step 3: If necessary, rewrite the decimal with a single number to the left of the decimal
point.
Example: Add (3.5 x 103) + (5 x 102)
Solution:
Step 1: Change all addends to have the same power of ten by moving the decimal point (that is,
change all lower powers of ten to the highest power).
3.5 x 103 = 3.5 x 103
5 x 102 = 0.5 x 103
Step 2: Add the numbers of the addends and keep the common power of ten.
3.5 x 103
+0.5 x 103
4.0 x 103
Step 3: If necessary, rewrite the decimal with a single number to the left of the decimal point.
Example: Add (9.24 × 104) + (8.3 × 103)
Solution:
Step 1: 9.24 × 104 = 9.24 × 104

8.3 × 103= 0.83 × 104
Step 2: 9.24 × 104

+0.83 × 104
Step 3: 10.07 × 104 = 1.007 × 105
Subtraction with Scientific Notation
In order to subtract two numbers in scientific notation, the steps listed below must be followed:
Step 1: As in addition, change all numbers to have the same power of ten by moving the
decimal point.
Step 2: Subtract one digit from the other and keep the common power of ten.
Step 3: If necessary, rewrite the decimal with a single number to the left of the decimal
point.
Example: Subtract (3.27 x 104) − (2 x 103)
Solution:
Step 1: As in addition, change all numbers to have the same power of ten by moving the decimal
point.
3.27 x 104 = 3.27 x 104

2.00 x 103 = 0.20 x 104
Step 2: Subtract one digit from the other and keep the common power of ten.
3.27 x 104
−0.20 x 104
Step 3: If necessary, rewrite the decimal with a single number to the left of the decimal point.
3.07 x 104
Multiplication with Scientific Notation
When multiplying two or more numbers in scientific notation, the following steps must be used:
Step 1: Multiply the numbers and obtain the product.
Step 2: Multiply the powers of ten together by adding the exponents.
Step 3: Put the product in single-digit scientific notation.
Step 4: If necessary, rewrite decimal with a single number to the left of the decimal
point.
Example: Multiply (3 × 103)(5 × 10−2)
Solution:
Step 1: Multiply the numbers and obtain the product.
3 ⋅ 5 = 15
Step 2: Multiply the powers of ten together by adding the exponents.
103 × 10−2 = 103 + −2 =101
Step 3: Put the product in single-digit scientific notation.
The product is: 15 × 101
Step 4: If necessary, rewrite decimal with a single number to the left of the decimal point.
= 1.5 × 102
Division with Scientific Notation
Follow the steps listed below when dividing numbers in scientific notation:
Step 1: Divide one decimal into the other.
Step 2: Divide one power of ten into the other by subtracting the exponents.
Step 3: Put product in single-digit scientific notation.
Step 4: If necessary, rewrite decimal with a single number to the left of the decimal
point.
Example: (1 x 106) ÷ (5 x 104) =
Solution:
Step 1: Divide one decimal into the other.

(1 x 106) ÷ (5 x 104)
Step 2: Divide one power of ten into the other by subtracting the exponents.
= 10(6−4) = 102
Step 3: Put product in single-digit scientific notation.
0.2 x 102
Step 4: If necessary, rewrite decimal with a single number to the left of the decimal point.
2.0 x 101
Chapter 9 Summary
When changing from decimal form to scientific notation:
If the decimal is shifted left, the exponent is positive.

If the decimal is shifted right, the exponent is negative.
When changing from scientific notation to decimal.
If the power of ten is positive, shift the decimal point to the right.
If the power of ten is negative, shift the decimal point to the left.
When adding or subtracting numbers in scientific notation, change both numbers to the same power of ten by
moving the decimal point. Add or subtract the numbers, and keep the power of ten. Rewrite if necessary.
To multiply two numbers in scientific notation, multiply numbers and add exponents. Rewrite if necessary.
To divide two numbers in scientific notation, divide numbers and subtract exponents. Rewrite if necessary
.
Student Guide: Mathematics Chapter 10: Units and Conversions
10 UNITS AND CONVERSIONS
This chapter covers the use of conversion factors for establishing relationships between different
measurement systems as well as the process of converting various measuring units
TO 4.0 Given an applicable unit conversion chart, CONVERT from one unit of
measurement to another.
EO 4.1 SOLVE problems involving unit conversions.
Systems of Units
There are two unit systems in use at the present time: the English System and the International System of
Units (SI), formerly called the Metric System.
In the United States, the English System is presently used in most industry, commerce, and engineering.
Although most of our discussion will be in the English System, we will also provide you with a working
knowledge of the SI system. Refer to Table 10-1 for examples within both unit systems:
Dimension SI (metric) English System

Name Symbol Name Symbol
length meter m foot ft
mass kilogram kg pounds lb
time second s or sec second s or sec
Table 10-2 Fundamental Dimensions in SI and English Units

The International Bureau of Weights and Measures was established to provide a consistent way to describe
physical quantities. It was founded near Paris in 1875.. This is the basis for the International System of units
(SI). The Metric System was originally invented with the goal that all units would be defined in terms of
easily measured natural quantities. The meter was defined as a specific fraction of the Earth's circumference,
the gram was based on the density of water, and the second was a specified fraction of a day. In addition, the
Metric System had the goal that all units would be related by powers of 10. Thus, 1 m = 100 cm, and 1 liter
(l) = 1,000 cm3. This is distinctly different from the English System of inches, feet and miles or ounces,
quarts and gallons.
Conversion Factors
Conversion factors are based on relationships between different measurement systems. These
relationships are defined in conversion tables. A typical conversion table is shown in Table 10-2 below:
Length 1 yard = 0.9144 m

12 inchs = 1 foot
3 feet = 1 yard
5280 feet = 1 mile
1 inch = 2.54 cm
1m = 100 cm
1m = 1000 mm
1 km = 1000 m
Time 60 sec = 1 min
1 day = 24 hour
1 year = 365 days
Mass 16 oz = 1 lb.
2.205 lb. = 1 kg
1 kg = 1000 g
1 short ton = 2000 lb
1 metric ton = 1000 kg
Area 1 foot = 144 in.2
1 yard2 = 9 ft2
1 mile2 = 640 acres
Volume 7.48 gal = 1 foot3
1 gal = 4 qt
1 qt = 0.9464 liters
1 liter = 1000 cm3
1 gal = 231 in3
Table 10-3 Typical Conversion Table
Converting Units
From our study lesson on fractions, you may recall that when the numerator and denominator of a fraction are
both multiplied by the same number, the value of the fraction remains the same. In this way, fractions can be
converted as shown in the following examples:
Examples:
Convert 3 to halves.
3 3 2 6
3= = × =
1 1 2 2
Convert 4 to twentieths.
4 4 20 80
4= = × =
1 1 20 20
Convert 0.5 to percent.

0.5
0.5 = × 100% = 50%
1
Convert ¼ to percent.
1 0.25
= 0.25 = × 100% = 25%
4 1
Note that in each of these examples, we multiplied a by a number equal to one. A number equal to one is
called a unit conversion factor because it is equal to one (that is, unity). In the first example it was 2/2. In the
fourth and fifth examples it was 100%.
In all fundamentals courses, we will use unit conversion factors to convert from one unit to another. In
every case, we will multiply the quantity we have by another quantity equal to one -- the unit conversion
factor. We will introduce here the tool known as the "railroad track" method for multiplying fractions.
Here's how it works:
Example Multiply ¾ by ½
Solution: Normally, we write
3 1 3
× =
4 2 8
Notice that since we multiply the numerators together and the denominators together,
we could write this as

3 × 1 3
=
4 × 2 8
Now, we replace the indicated multiplication symbol (x) by a vertical bar(|), this problem can be
written as
The name "railroad track" comes from the appearance of a railroad track or vertical bar crossing the
horizontal bar.
Let's now divide using the railroad track method.
Example Divide 9/10 by ½
Solution: Normally, we invert and multiply and thus write:
9 1 9 2 18 9
÷ = × = =
10 2 10 1 10 5
On the railroad track this becomes
9 1 9 2 18 9
÷ = = =
10 2 10 1 10 5
Now we'll look at how this applies to unit conversions.
Example: How many inches are in five feet?
Solution: First, write down the problem as an equation.
5 ft = __ in
Next, select the appropriate relationship from the conversion table (for this example, 1 foot = 12 inches).
Third, put the unit conversion factor into the railroad track with the desired units on top and the undesired or
given units on the bottom or opposite the original units.
5 ft 12 in
5 ft = = ___ in
1 ft
Finally, we cancel the common factors in the top and bottom and perform the indicated multiplication.
5 ft 12 in
5 ft = = 60 in
1 ft
Steps for Unit Conversion
Using the following examples, we will step through the process for converting units.
Example: How many yards are in 38.5 feet?
Solution:
Step 1. Write down the information as an equation with railroad track on the right hand side.
First, we always write down the given quantity followed by an equal sign and the given quantity.
This is an equation. We will multiply the right-hand side by numbers equal to one until we get
the desired units.
38.5 ft = 38.5 ft
Step 2. Select an appropriate relationship from the conversion table.

Since 3 ft = 1 yd, we will use this as our conversion factor.
Step 3. Divide to obtain a fraction equal to 1 with .

desired units
given units
This is a unit conversion factor because
3 ft 1 yd
= 1, and =1
1 yd 3 ft
Step 4. Put the conversion factor into the railroad track.

We put the conversion factor into the railroad track with the desired units on top.
38.5 ft = 38.5 ft 1 yd
3 ft
Step 5. Multiplication and division to obtain the answer.

The feet in the numerator cancel the feet in the denominator. The answer is now:
38.5 ft 1 yd
38.5 yd
= = 12.8 yd
3
3 ft
Example: How many feet are in 795 m?
Solution:
Step 1. Write down the problem as an equation with railroad track on the right-hand side.
795 m 795m =
Step 2. Select an appropriate relationship from a conversion table.
0.9144 m = 1 yd = 3 ft
Step 3. Divide to obtain a fraction equal to 1:
desired units 3 ft
1 =
given units 0.9144 m
Step 4. Put the conversion factor into the railroad track.
795 m 3 ft
0.9144 m
Step 5. Multiply and divide to obtain the final answer.
3 ft 795( 3) ft
795 m = = 2180.8 ft
0.9144
0.9144 m
= 2608.3 ft
SI (metric) Prefixes and Powers of 10
Sometimes, the values we calculate are too large or too small to express conveniently. In the English
system, our only choice is to express very large or very small numbers in scientific notation. In addition
to scientific notation, SI gives us prefixes which help us state numbers that are very large or very small.
Table 10-3 lists the commonly used SI prefixes and their powers of ten.
Prefix (symbol) Value

giga (G) one billion 1,000,000,000 109
mega (M) one million 1,000,000 106
kilo (k) one thousand 1,000 103
centi (c) one hundredth 0.01 10-2
milli (m) one thousandth 0.001 10-3
micro (m) one millionth 0.000001 10-6
nano (n) one billionth 0.000000001 10-9

pico one trillionth 0.000000000001 10-12
Table 10-3 SI (Metric) Prefixes
Using metric prefixes and powers of ten is another kind of unit conversion, and it follows the same rule:
When the numerator and denominator of a fraction are both multiplied by the same number, the
value of the fraction remains the same.
Example: Convert 1,000,000,000 meters to km.
Solution: We follow the same steps for converting to new units.
The conversion we will use here is 1 km = 1,000 m.
Then, 1,000,000,000 m = 1,000,000,000 m 1 km

1,000 m
1,000,000,000 m = 1,000,000 km
We could also have written 1,000,000,000 as 1 x 109 m, and 1000 as 1 x 103 m, and converted the
following way:
Example:
1 x 109 m 1 km
1 x 109 m =
103 m
1 x 109-3 m = 1 x 106 km
Example: How many kg are in 1.68 x 1013 mg?
Solution: The conversions we will use are 1 kg = 103 g, and 1 g = 103 mg.
Then, 1.68 x 1013 mg = 1.68 x 1013 mg 1g 1 kg

103 mg 103 g
1.68 x 1013 mg = 1.68 x 107 kg

Chapter 10 Summary:
The English system of units is based on the three standard units:

· Foot (ft)
· Pound (lb.)
· Second (s)
The SI system of measurement consists of the three standard units:

· Meter (m)
· Kilogram (kg)
· Second (s)
Conversion tables list relationships.
Unit Conversion Steps (the “Railroad Track” Method)
Step 1. Write down the information as an equation with the railroad track on the right-hand side.
Step 2. Select an appropriate relationship from a conversion table.
Step 3. Divide to obtain a fraction equal to 1.
Step 4. Put the conversion factor into the “railroad track.”
Step 5. Multiply and divide to obtain the answer.
Metric prefixes are used in the SI system to express very large or very small numbers. A few
examples are:
Mega (M) = 10 milli (m) = 10-3

Kilo (k) = 103 micro (µ) = 10-6
centi (c) = 10-2 nano (n) = 10-9
pico (p) = 10-12
Student Guide: Mathematics Chapter 11: Algebraic Laws and Equations
11 ALGEBRAIC LAWS AND EQUATIONS
This chapter introduces basic algebraic terminology and laws and covers solving for unknowns in
algebraic equations
TO 5.0 APPLY the laws of algebra to solve for unknown values

EO 5.1 SOLVE for the unknown value in a given linear equation
EO 5.2 PERFORM the following mathematical operations:
A. Ratio
B. Proportions
Algebraic Expressions
An algebraic expression is one in which letters or symbols are used to represent one or more numbers. The
letter or other symbol that represents a number is called a variable. If we know the numerical values of the
variables and understand the arithmetic signs of an algebraic expression, then we can find the numerical value
of any algebraic expression.
Expressions are a collection of terms combined by addition and/or subtraction, and frequently grouped by
parentheses, as in: (3a + 2b), or (2a − 4c + 3b). The parentheses are only required when omitting them
would cause confusion.
Algebraic Laws
Many operations on algebraic equations are based on the commutative, associative, and distributive laws.
The effective use of these laws is important. These laws will be stated in written form as well as algebraic
form, where letters or symbols are used to represent an unknown number. The following is a review of
the commutative and associative laws and an introduction of the distributive law:
The commutative laws indicate that numbers can be added or multiplied in any order.
Commutative Law of Addition: a + b = b + a

Commutative Law of Multiplication: a • b = b • a
The associative laws state that in addition or multiplication, numbers can be grouped in any order.
Associative Law of Addition: a+(b+c) = (a+b)+c

Associative Law of Multiplication: a • (bc) = (ab) • c
The distributive law involves both addition and multiplication and states that:
Distributive law: a • (b + c) = ab + ac
That is, the multiplication by a is to be distributed to all the terms in the expression (b + c)
Example:
3( x + 2 y + 4 z ) = 3 x + 6 y + 12 z
2 ( a − 5 p + 7 q ) = 2a − 10 p + 14 q
The rules for addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division described in previous lessons will apply when
solving linear equations.
Types of Algebraic Equations
The letters in algebraic equations are referred to as variables. One of the variables in an equation is
unknown. The name unknown is used because letters are substituted for the numerical values that are not
known in a problem. Thus, x is the unknown variable in the equation 3x + 5 = 8. Linear algebraic
equations may have several variables, but only one unknown.
The basic principle used in solving any algebraic equation is: any operation performed on one side of an
equation must also be performed on the other side for the equation to remain true. This one principle is
used to solve all types of equations.
There are four rules used in solving equations:
Rule 1: If the same quantity is added to both sides of an equation, the resulting
equation is still true.
Rule 2: If the same quantity is subtracted from both sides of an equation, the
resulting equation is still true.
Rule 3: If both sides of an equation are multiplied by the same quantity, the
Rule 4: If both sides of an equation are divided by the same quantity, except 0, the
Rule 1 is called the addition rule; Rule 2, the subtraction rule; Rule 3, the multiplication rule; and Rule 4,
the division rule
If the scale, (Figure 11-2 on next page), is initially balanced, it will remain balanced if the same weight is
added to both sides, if the same weight is removed from both sides, if the weights on both sides are
increased by the same factor, or if the weights on both sides are decreased by the same factor.
Figure 11-22 Balancing Scales
Solving Linear Equations
The previous four rules are used to solve linear equations in three steps:
Step 1: Using the addition and subtraction rules, Rules 1 and 2, get all the terms
with unknowns on one side of the equation and get all the terms with
no unknowns on the other side of the equation.
Step 2: Using the multiplication and division rules, Rules 3 and 4, eliminate the
coefficient from the unknowns on the unknown side of the equation.
Step 3: Check the answer by substituting it for the unknowns in the original
equation.
Example: Solve the equation 3x + 7 = 13.
Solution:
Step 1: Using Rule 2, subtract 7 from both sides of the equation.
3x + 7 − 7 = 13 − 7
3x = 6
Step 2: Using Rule 4, divide both sides of the equation by 3.

3x 6
=
3 3
x=2
Step 3: Check the answer by substituting it for the unknowns in the original equation.
3 • 2 + 7 = 6 + 7 = 13
The answer checks.
The addition or subtraction of the same quantity from both sides of an equation may be accomplished by
transposing a quantity from one side of the equation to the other. Transposing is a shortened way of applying
the addition or subtraction rules. Any term may be transposed or transferred from one side of an equation to
the other if its sign is changed.
Consider the following examples:
Example: Solve the equation 4x + 3 = 19 by transposing.
Solution:
Step 1: Transpose the 3 from the left-hand to the right-hand side of the equation by changing its
sign.
4x = 19 − 3
4x = 16
Step 2: Using Rule 4, divide both sides of the equation by 4.

4x 16
=
4 4
x = 4
4 • 4 + 3 = 16 + 3 = 19
The answer checks.
Example: Solve the equation 7x + 30 = 3x + 50.
Solution:
Step 1: Using Rule 2, and subtract 3x from both sides of the equation.
7x + 30 − 3x = 3x + 50 − 3x
7x − 3x + 30 = 3x − 3x + 50
4x + 30 = 50
Step 2: Use Rule 2, and subtract 30 from both sides of the equation.
4x + 30 − 30 = 50 − 30
4x = 20
Step 3: Use Rule 4, and divide both sides of the equation by 4.

4x 20
=
4 4
x = 5
7 • 5 + 30 = 3 • 5 + 50
35 + 30 = 15 + 50
65 = 65
The answer checks.
Example: Solve the equation 2x + 9 = 3(x + 4).
Solution:
Step 1: First, notice that x is part of an expression which is multiplied by 3. So the first step is to
clear the parentheses.
2x + 9 = 3x + 12
Step 2: Using Rule 2, subtract 9 from both sides of the equation.
2x + 9 − 9 = 3x + 12 − 9
2x = 3x + 3
Step 3: Using Rule 2, subtract 3x from both sides of the equation.

2x − 3x = 3x + 3 − 3x
−x = 3
Step 4: Using Rule 4, divide both sides of the equation by −1.
−x 3
=
−1 −1
x= − 3
2 • (−3) + 9 = −6 + 9 = 3
3[(−3) + 4] = 3(1) = 3
The answer checks.
Example: The equation relating the pressure, p, to the force, F, and the area, A, over which
F
the force is applied is p = . Solve this equation for F, in terms of p and A.
A
Solution:
Step 1: Rules 1 and 2 do not help solve the problem, so go to Step 2.
Step 2: Using Rule 3, multiply both sides of the equation by A.
F
p • A = • A
A
F = pA
pA
= p The answer checks.
A
Solving Fractional Equations
A fractional equation is an equation containing a fraction. The fraction can be either a common fraction or a
decimal fraction. The unknowns can occupy any position in the equation. They may or may not be part of
the fraction. If they are part of the fraction, they can be either in the numerator or the denominator. The
following is an example of a fractional equation:
1
5x − = 8
2
Fractional equations are solved using the same rules and approach used for other algebraic equations.
However, the first step is to clear the fractions from the equation. This is done by determining the lowest
common denominator (LCD) for all of the fractions in the equation and then multiplying both sides of the
equation by this common denominator. This will clear the equation of fractions.
Ratios ---
3
A ratio is always a division problem. The ratio may be written as a fraction, like ; as a division, 3 ÷ 8; or
8
with the colon or ratio sign (:), 3:8. When the last of these forms is used, it is read "3 to 8," or "3 is to 8."
Ratios may also be expressed by the word "per," as in miles per hour. We may multiply a ratio by another
fraction which is equal to one. Since multiplying a quantity by one does not change its value, we use this
method to change the appearance to a ratio. Thus,
2 2 2 4 2
= • = . Note that = 1.
3 3 2 6 2
To reduce a ratio to its lowest terms, write the ratio as a fraction and reduce the fraction.
To compute a ratio between two quantities, perform the following steps:
Step 1: Place the numbers to be compared in a fractional form.
Step 2: Reduce the fraction.
Step 3: Express the fraction as a ratio.
Example: The betting odds at a race track are quoted as $60 to a $2 bet. Reduce this ratio
to lowest terms.
Solution:
$60 30 • 2 30
$60 : $2 = = = = 30 : 1
$2 2 1
So the odds are 30:1. We say this as, "30 to 1."
Example: A recipe for a very large cake calls for 20 lb of flour and 12 eggs. How much
flour is required for 3 eggs?
20 lb
20 lb flour : 12 eggs = =
12 eggs
Solution:
2 • 2 • 5 lb 5 lb
= = 5 lb : 3 eggs
2 • 2 • 3 eggs 3 eggs
Example: What is the ratio of 85 to 15.
Solution: The words are a little different, but the meaning is the same. "Divide the first
number by the second number."
85 5 • 17 17
= = = 17 : 3
15 5 • 3 3
Example: One day Eric paid $700 for a stereo and Scott paid $600 for the same stereo.
What is the ratio of the amount Eric paid compared to the amount Scott paid?
What is the ratio" means "divide the first amount by the second amount." The first
amount is that paid by Eric. The second amount is that paid by Scott.
$700
$600
Simplify the fraction. Both 700 and 600 can be divided by 100.
Eric’s price $7 • 100 $7 7

= = =
Scott’s price $6 • 100 $6 6
Eric's price : Scott's price = 7:6
Ratio and Proportion
One of the most important applications of fractional equations is ratio and proportion. A ratio is one number
divided by another number. It is written by separating the quantities by a colon or by writing them as a
fraction. For instance, if you hit 11 home runs in 220 "at bats," the ratio of your home runs to your number of
"at bats" would be 11:220 or, simplified, 1:20.
A proportion is a statement of equality between two ratios. It is used when the same ratio is true in more than
one situation.
A proportion consists of four terms. The first and fourth terms, a and d in the example below, are called the
extremes of the proportion, because the numbers are at the ends of the proportions expression. The second
and third terms, b and d in the example, are called the means, because the numbers are in the middle of the
proportions expression. If the letters a, b, c and d are used to represent the terms in a proportion, it can be
written in general form.
a:b = c:d
or
a c
=
b d
Multiplication of both sides of this equation by bd results in the following.
a c
bd • = bd •
b d
ad = cb
Thus, the product of the extremes of a proportion (ad) equals the

product of the means (bc). This is often called cross multiplication.
Ratio and proportion are familiar ideas. Many people use them without realizing it. When a recipe calls for
1½ cups of flour to make a serving for 6 people, and the cook wants to determine how many cups of flour to
use to make a serving for 8 people, the concept of ratios and proportion provides the answer. When the price
of onions is 2 pounds for 49 cents and we need the cost of 3½ pounds, we use ratio and proportion.
Most people know how to solve ratio and proportion problems such as these without knowing the specific
steps used.
Ratio and proportion problems are solved by using an unknown such as x for the missing term. The resulting
proportion is solved for the value of x by setting the product of the extremes equal to the product of the
means.
Example: If 5 pounds of apples cost 80 cents, how much will 7 pounds cost?
Solution: Using x for the cost of 7 pounds of apples, the following proportion can be
written:
5 pounds : 80 cents = 7 pounds : x

OR
5 pounds 7 pounds
=
80 cents x
The product of the extremes is 5 • x = 5x.

The product of the means is 7 • 80 = 560.
Equate these two products and solve the resulting equation.
5 x = 560
5x 560
=
5 5
x = 112
The unit of x is cents. Thus, 7 pounds of apples cost 112 cents or $1.12.
Example: If it takes 15 minutes to ride 4 miles on a bicycle, how long will it take to ride 5
miles?
Solution: This is set up by saying, "15 min is to 4 mi as x is to 5 mi." That is,
15 min : 4mi = x : 5mi
The product of the extremes is 5 mi • 15 min = 75 mi • min.

The product of the means is x • 4 mi = 4x mi.
Equate these two products and solve the resulting equation.
4 x mi = 75 mi • min
4 x mi mi • min
= 75
4 mi 4 mi
3
x = 18 min
4
15 x
We could also express this proportion as follows: =
4 5
We then simplify the proportion by cross-multiplying, which is just another way of multiplying
the means and the extremes.
15 x
=
4 5
75 = 4 x
3
x = 18
4
Chapter 11 Summary
Algebraic Laws:
• Commutative Law of Addition a+b=b+a
• Commutative Law of Multiplication a(b) = b(a)
• Associative Law of Addition a+(b+c) = (a+b)+c
• Associative Law of Multiplication a(bc) = (ab)c
• Distributive Law a(b + c) = ab + ac
There are four rules used in solving linear equations:
Rule 1: If the same quantity is added to both sides of an equation, the resulting equation is still true.
Rule 2: If the same quantity is subtracted from both sides of an equation, the resulting equation is still
true.
Rule 3: If both sides of an equation are multiplied by the same quantity, the resulting equation is still
true.
Rule 4: If both sides of an equation are divided by the same quantity, except 0, the resulting equation is
still true.
Ratios are fractions expressing the relative size of one item (in the numerator) to another (in the denominator). It
may be written with a colon or the word "to" in the place of the division bar or slash, e.g. 6:8 or 6 to 8.
• To reduce a ratio to its lowest terms, write the ratio as a fraction and reduce the fraction.
• To compute a ratio between two quantities, perform the following steps:

Proportion is a statement of equality between two ratios, such as: ad =cb or a/b = c/d
Student Guide: Mathematics Chapter 12: Algebraic Word Problems
12 ALGEBRAIC WORD PROBLEMS
This chapter covers methods of setting up word problems and solving for the unknowns
EO 5.3 Given a word problem, WRITE an equation which describes the situation in the
word problem and SOLVE for the unknown value
Word Statements
Expressions are commonly used to express word statements by substituting variables and arithmetic
operations for words. For example, if Bill is 5 years older than Mary, we can represent Mary's age as M.
Then Bill's age is (M + 5). If Tank A holds twice as much as Tank B, then we can represent Tank B as B.
Tank A is then equal to 2B. We can ask, "What number must we add to 3 to get 10 as the sum?" We use x to
represent the number we are looking for. Then (x + 3) is equal to 10.
Example: Today is 10°F hotter than yesterday. Write this relationship as an algebraic
expression.
Solution: Let Y be yesterday's temperature. Then today's temperature is Y + 10.
We could let T be today's temperature. Then yesterday's temperature is T − 10.

We may also write this as (T − 10).
Example: Pump G moves 200 gpm more than pump K. Write this relationship as an
algebraic expression.
Solution: Let K be pump K. Then pump G is K + 200.
If we let G be pump G, then pump K is G − 200.
Example: The contents of tank 22 are three times as radioactive as the contents of tank 23.
Write this relationship as an algebraic expression.
Solution: Let x be the radioactivity of tank 23. Then the radioactivity of tank 22 is 3 • x =
3x.
Equations
The equation is the one of the most important concepts in mathematics. Alone, algebraic operations are of
little practical value. But when these expressions are related to each other in an equation, algebra can be used
to solve practical problems.
An equation is a statement of equality between two equal quantities. Most people are familiar with the
concept of equality. The idea of equal physical quantities is encountered routinely. An equation is merely the
statement of this equality.
Examples: One foot equals 12 inches.

One minute equals 60 seconds.
One gallon equals 4 quarts.
One pound equals 16 ounces.
There are three key ideas in an equation:
• an equation has two or more terms;

• the terms must be equal;
• and the equation must state that the terms are equal.
Thus, the statement "the sum of three and one equals four" is an equation. It involves two expressions, (four
and the sum of three and one), the expressions are equal, and the equation states that they are equal.
The equal sign (=) is used to indicate equality in an equation. In its most general form, an algebraic equation
consists of two algebraic expressions separated by an equal sign. The equal sign is the key sign in algebra. It
is the sign that defines one expression in terms of another.
The answer of the equation is the number that makes the equation true.
Example: 3x + 5 = 8
Solution: The answer of this equation is 1 because x = 1 makes the equation true.
To solve an algebraic equation means to find the answer of the equation.
Algebra has many practical applications, because many physical problems can be solved using
algebraic equations.
Example: The combined capacity of 6 identical pumps is 2,400 gpm. What is the capacity
of one pump?
Solution: Let p be the capacity of one pump. Then,

6 p = 2400 gpm
2400 gpm
p =
6
p = 400 gpm
In technical practice, it is common to express certain facts in algebraic formulas. The usual way is to state the
formula with variables and to follow it immediately with definitions of the variables. For example, the area
of a triangle is equal to one-half the length of its base multiplied by its height. The formula is:
1
A = bh
2
where: A = area of the triangle

b = base
h = height
Basic Approach to Solving Algebraic Word Problems
Algebra is used to solve problems in science, industry, business, and the home. Algebraic equations can be
used to describe the laws of motion, the pressures of gases, electric circuits, and chemical reactions. They
can be applied to problems about the ages of people, the cost of articles, football scores, and other everyday
matters. The basic approach to solving all these problems is the same.
Step 1: Read the problem. This first reading is to determine what is given and
what is asked for.
Step 2: Draw a picture, if appropriate. This isn't art. It's just a representation of
the problem.
Step 3: Assign a letter to the unknown quantity. This is often the quantity which
represents the answer.
Step 4: Express the available information as algebraic expressions. Write these

expressions in terms of the unknown you selected in Step 3.
Step 5: Write an equation which accurately shows the relationship between the
expressions.
Step 6: Solve the equation.
Step 7: Check the answer in the original problem statement.

In writing algebraic expressions for the various quantities given in word problems, it is helpful to look for
certain words that indicate mathematical operations.
Example: The winning team in a football game scored 7 points less than twice the score of
the losing team. If the total score of both teams was 35 points, what was the final score for the
game?
Solution:
Step 1: There are two teams. We need to find the number of points scored by each team. We
have two statements that relate the points scored by the teams, so we have enough information to
solve the problem.
Step 2: A picture probably won't help here.
Step 3: Let L be the score of the losing team.
Step 4: The winning team scored 7 less than twice the points of the losing team. The algebraic
expression for this is
2L − 7.
Step 5: The total points scored was 35 points. So, (the winning teams points) + (the losing teams
points) = 35. That is,
L + 2L − 7 = 35
Step 6: Solving: L + 2L − 7 = 35
3L − 7 = 35
3L = 42
L = 14
2L − 7 = 28 − 7 = 21
Answers:
Losing team score = 14
Winning team score = 21
Step 7: Check by verifying that the scores add to 35.
14 + 21 = 35,
The answers check.
Example: What are the capacities of two storage tanks if one holds 900 gallons less than
three times the other, and their total capacity is 10,000 gallons?
tank 1
tank 2
Figure 12-23 Tank

Capacities
Solution:
Step 1: We are given two statements about these tanks which relate their capacities. One
statement relates the capacity of one in terms of the other, and the second statement tells us their
combined capacity. We are asked to find the capacity of each tank.
Step 2: A simple drawing is used such as Figure12-1 above.
Step 3: Let C be the capacity of the smaller tank 1.

Step 4: Then the capacity of the larger tank 2 is 900 gallons less than 3C. That is, (3C − 900).
The two tanks are now represented by the following expressions:
the capacity of tank 1 is C

the capacity of tank 2 is 3C − 900.
Step 5: The combined capacity of these two tanks is 10,000 gallons. Combined means add, and
is means equal. So we have the following equation:
C + (3C − 900) =10,000
4C − 900 = 10,000
4C = 10,900
10900
C= 2,725 gallons (The capacity of the tank 1)
4
3C − 900 = 3( 2725) − 900 = 8,175 − 900 = 7,275 gallons (tank 2)
Step 7: Check the solution.
To check the solution, we just check that the two capacities add to 10,000 gallons:
2,725 + 7,275 = 10,000
The solution checks

Problems Involving Motion
Many algebraic word problems involve fundamental physical relationships. Among the most common are
problems involving motion. For example, speed is distance traveled divided by the time (t) it takes:
distance d
v ave = =
time t
It is customary to abbreviate miles as mi and hours as hr. We will do this from now on in equations.
For example, if a car travels 125 miles in 2 hours, the average speed vave is
125 mi 62 .5 mi mi
v ave = = = 62 .5 = 62 .5 mph
2 hr 1 hr hr
This relationship applies for constant velocity. In practice, it is applied more generally by using average
speed. The distance traveled is usually represented by d; the average speed, also called the average velocity,
is represented by vave ; and the time is given by t.
This physical relationship can be written in two other forms, obtained by multiplying both sides of the
equation by t :
d = vave t
d
or by dividing both sides of this equation by vave : t =
v ave
Example: How far can a car traveling at a rate of 52 miles per hour travel in 2½ hours?
Solution:
d = v ave t
52 mi 1
d = • 2 hr
hr 2
52 mi 5 hr
d = •
hr 2
d = 130 mi
Example: How long does it take a plane traveling at 650 miles per hour to go 1430 miles?
Solution:
d
t =
v ave
1430 mi
t =
 650 mi 
 
 hr 
1430 mi hr
t = •
650 mi
t = 2.2 hr
Algebraic word problems involving motion are solved using the relationships among distance, time, and
average velocity. We follow the steps for solving algebraic word problems.
time
t 350 mile/hr
t – 2 hrs 525 mile/hr
distance
d
Figure 12-24 Two Airplanes in Motion
Example: Two airplanes fly the same route. One plane flying at 525 miles per hour
completes the trip in 2 hours less than the other plane flying at 350 miles per hour. What is
the distance traveled?
Solution:
Step 1: We are asked for distance. We are given two speeds, and the relationship between
two times.
Step 2: Motion problems become much clearer when we use a simple sketch.as in Figure
12-2 above.
Step 3: In all motion problems involving two moving objects, something is constant.
Time, distance, or speed are the same for both objects. In this problem, distance is the same.
Both planes fly the same distance. This tells us which motion equation to use.
d = vave t
We will let t be the time for the slower plane.
Step 4: Since t is the time for the slower plane, the time for the faster plane is
(t − 2 hours). Then, the distance for the slower plane is:
mi
d = 350 • t
hr
And the distance for the faster plane is:

mi
d = 525 • ( t − 2 hr )
hr
Step 5: Since both planes fly the same distance, the two expressions for distance are
equal. Then the equation is,
mi mi
350t = 525 • ( t − 2 hr )
hr hr
350t = 525 • ( t − 2 hr )
350t = 525 • (t − 2 hr)
350t = 525t − 1050 hr
1050 hr = 175t
t = 6 hr
Since t = 6, then
v ave • t = d
mi
350 • 6 hr = 2100 mi
hr
Step 7: We check this by multiplying the other plane's speed by its travel time. The
distance should be 2100 miles.
vave • t = d
mi
525 • (t − 2 hr) =
hr
mi
525 • (6 hr − 2 hr) =
hr
mi
525 • 4 hr = 2100 mi
hr
Example: It takes a man 4 hours to reach a destination 1325 miles from his home.
He drives to the airport at an average speed of 50 miles per hour, and the average speed
of his plane trip is 500 miles per hour. How far does he travel by each mode of
transportation?
We will abbreviate miles as mi and hour as hr in this problem. We will use abbreviations
for all units more consistently.
Solution:
Step 1: We know the distance the man travels (1325 mi), the speeds of the two methods
of travel, and the time it takes (4 hr). So the distances traveled by car and plane add to
1325 mi. And the times traveled by car and plane add to 4 hr. We are asked for the
distances traveled by each.
Step 2: The following sketch contains the information in the problem.
2325 miles total

4 hours total
500 mi/hr
50 mi/hr
START AIRPORT DESTINATION
Figure 12-25 Car and Airplane Motion
Step 3: There are two ways to solve this. We could write expressions for time (which
add to 4 hr), or we could write expressions for distance (which add to 1325 mi).
d
Since d = v ave • t , and t = , let's use d = v ave • t , since it doesn't
v ave
involve fractions. Then, t = the time traveled by plane.
Step 4: Since t = time traveled by plane,
4 hr − t = time traveled by car
Then, (500 mi/hr • t) = distance by plane, and

[50 mi/hr • (4 hr − t)] = distance by car.
Step 5: These two distances add up to 1325 mi. So,

 mi   mi 
 500 • t  +  50 • ( 4 hr − t )  = 1325 mi
 hr   hr 
Step 6: Solving,
 mi   mi 
 500 • t  +  50 • ( 4 hr − t )  = 1325 mi
 hr   hr 
mi mi mi
500t + 200 hr − 50t = 1325 mi
hr hr hr
mi
450t + 200 mi = 1325 mi
hr
mi
450t = 1125 mi
hr
1125 mi
t=
mi
450
hr
 hr 
t = 1125 mi •  
 450 mi 
t = 2.5 hr
 mi 
 500 • 2.5 hr  = 1250mi( plane )
 hr 
 mi 
 50 • ( 4 hr − 2.5hr )  = 75mi( car )
 hr 
Step 7: We check this by verifying that the times add to 4 hr and that the distances add to 1325
mi.
mi
Example: A train leaves San Francisco, CA headed east at 60 . Two hours later, a second
hr
mi
train leaves Atlanta, GA headed west on the same track at 75 . It is 3000 mi
hr
from Atlanta to San Francisco for this particular track network. Using San
Francisco as the “0” mile marker and Atlanta as the “3000” mile marker, where will
the trains meet?
0 mi 3000 mi
60 mi/hr   75 mi/hr
timeeast = A timewest = A + 2
San Fran Atlanta
Figure 12-26 Two Trains Motion Word Problem Sketch
Solution:
Step 1: We have the speeds of both trains, the initial distance between them, and the time
relationship. We are asked for a distance from either end of the track.
Step 2: Figure 12-4 contains the problem information.
Step 3: distancewestbound + distanceeastbound = 3000 mi
d = v ave t
If we solve for t, we can add distances.
Let A be the west bound time.
Step 4: Then, A + 2 hr = the east bound time.

 mi 
distancewestbound =  75 • A ,
 hr 
 mi 
and distanceeastbound =  60 hr • ( A + 2 hr ) 
 
Step 5: The equation i
distancewestbound + distanceeastbound = 3000 mi
 mi   mi 
 A • 75  +  ( A + 2 hr ) • 60  = 3000 mi
 hr   hr 
Step 6: Solving,
 mi   mi 
 A • 75  +  ( A + 2 hr ) • 60  = 3000 mi
 hr   hr 
mi mi mi
75 A + 60 A + 120 • hr = 3000 mi
hr hr hr
mi
135 A = 3000 mi − 120 mi
hr
mi
135 A = 2880 mi
hr
2880 mi
A=
 135 mi 
 
 hr 
 hr 
A = 2880 mi 
 135 mi 
A = 21.333... hrs
 mi 
distancewestbound =  75 • A
 hr 
 mi 
=  75 • 21.333... hrs  = 1600 mi
 hr 
 mi 
distanceeastbound =  60 • ( A + 2 hr ) 
 hr 
 mi 
 60 • ( 21.333... hrs + 2 hr )  =
 hr 
mi
60 • 23.333... hrs = 1400 mi
hr
Step 7: The trick in checking a solution is to use the calculated answer to verify
independently something in the problem statement. In this case, we can verify that the
two distances add to 3000 mi.
1400 mi + 1600 mi = 3000 mi. The solution checks.

Example: In one hour a car travels 40 miles less than twice as far as it travels in the
next hour. It traveled a total of 62 miles in two hours. How far did it travel in the first
hour, and how far in the second hour?
Solution:
Step 1: Once again, we are given two statements that relate the distance traveled in each
hour. We are asked how far the car travels in each hour.
Step 2: A sketch might look like the one in d total= 62 mi

Figure 12-5.
d = 2x - 40 d =x
0 hr 1 hr 2 hr
Figure 12-27 Car Distance
Step 3: It isn't clear whether the car travels farther in the first hour or the second. So we
simply pick one and call it x.
Let x be the distance traveled in the second hour.
Step 4: Since the distance traveled in the second hour is x, the distance traveled in the
first hour is 40 less than 2 • x, or 2x − 40. The two expressions for the distance traveled
in each hour are:
x is the distance traveled in the second hour
2x − 40 is the distance traveled in the first hour
Step 5: The second sentence of the problem statement says that these two distances add
to 62 miles. Our equation then becomes:
x + 2x − 40 = 62
Step 6: Solve this equation yourself.
Step 7: Check your answer.
Chapter 12 Summary
Algebraic word problems can easily be solved by following these basic steps:
Step 1: Read the problem. This first reading is to determine what is given and what is asked for.
Step 2: Draw a picture, if appropriate. This isn't art. It's just a representation of the problem.
Step 3: Assign a letter to the unknown quantity. This is often the quantity which represents the answer, but it
doesn't have to be.
Step 4: Express the available information as algebraic expressions. Write these expressions in terms of the
unknown you selected in Step 3.
Step 5: Write an equation which accurately shows the relationship between the expressions.
Step 7: Check the answer in the original problem statement.

Student Guide: Mathematics Chapter 13: Graphs
13 GRAPHS
This chapter covers graphing systems that are pictorial representations used to display the relationship of
one physical quantity to another
TO 6.0 Plot data on and INTERPRET graphs.

EO 6.1 Given a data table and a blank graph, PLOT the data on the Linear graph
EO 6.2 INTERPRET data on the Linear graph
Introduction
The concept of a graph is familiar to all of us. We see graphs in newspapers, on television, and at work. The
purpose of these graphs is to reveal information at a glance.
A graph is a pictorial representation of the relationship between two or more quantities. Graphs are used
frequently both to monitor and gather data physical systems. The basic principle of any graph is that
distances are used to represent the magnitudes of numbers.
When working with physical systems, the relationship of one physical quantity to another is important. For
example, the level of a tank can be measured over time, and recorded on a log sheet. Thus, the level of a tank
at specific times could be found by reviewing the log sheets. However, trends or changes are hard to
visualize. When it is important to track trends or changes, graphs are used.
All numbers are represented as distances along a number line. A graph uses two number lines, one that is
horizontal and one that is vertical. This grid of horizontal and vertical lines is known as a coordinate system.
The intersection of these lines is the “coordinate” for that point and is a method of describing a location on a
graph. Much like a city map, where a location is described as “3rd Avenue and 33rd Street.
The Cartesian Coordinate System
The Cartesian Coordinate System, also known as the rectangular coordinate system, consists of two
number lines, called the x-axis for the horizontal number line and the y-axis for the vertical number line.
See Figure 13-1.
Each scale is a number

line drawn to intersect
the other at zero. The
zero point is called the
origin. The divisions
along the scales may be
any size, but each
division must be equal.
The axes divide the
coordinate system into
four regions called
quadrants.
The use of a graph

starts with the plotting
of data points using the
coordinate system. A
point on a Cartesian
coordinate graph is
specified by giving its
x-coordinate and its y-
coordinate. X- coordi-
nate values represent
the distance along the
x-axis from the origin.
The positive values are Figure 13-28 Cartesian Coordinate System
measured to the right
and the negative values
to the left. Y-
coordinate values represent the distance along the y-axis from the origin. The positive values are
measured up and the negative values down.
By convention, specific points on a Cartesian coordinate graph are always represented as (x,y) in
parentheses. The first value x, represents the x-coordinate and is followed by a comma. The y represents
the y-coordinate and is always given second. For example, the x- and y-coordinates of the origin are both
zero.
Thus, the origin is denoted as (0,0). The first zero refers to the value of the x-coordinate and the second zero
refers to the value of the y-coordinate. Any point that is directly on the horizontal number line or x-axis will
always have a zero for the y-coordinate, such as (3,0) or (−1,0). A point directly on the vertical number line
or y-axis will have a zero for the x-coordinate, such as (0,2) or (0,−4). See Figure 13-2.
Quad II Quad I
Quad III Quad IV
Figure 13-29 Points Plotted on X and Y Axis

Quadrant I is the region above the x-axis and to the right of the y-axis. Quadrant II is the region above the x-
axis and to the left of the y-axis. Quadrant III is the region below the x-axis and to the left of the y-axis.
Quadrant IV is the region below the x-axis and to the right of the y-axis.
Refer to Figure 13-3 and locate the following points:
PointCoordinate Quadrant are measured are positive numbers it is easy to see

why this is the most common graph used.
A(0,4) I
B(4,2) I The x-axis and the y-axis must be labeled to
C(1,1.5) I represent the quantities and the appropriate units
D(−2,2) II of measure along each axis must be established.
E(−2,−4) III
F(5,−4) IV
The characteristics of a Cartesian graph are as Although the x-axis and the y-axis intersect at a
follows: value of zero there are many times when it is
Quadrant “X” “Y”
I positive
positive
II negative
positive
III negative
negative
IV positive
negative
Also as shown
by point C,
fractional or
decimal
coordinate
values can be
used.
Cartesian Coordinate
Graphs
The most common type of

graph using the Cartesian
Coordinate System is one in
which involves only Quadrant
I of the graph. In this
quadrant, all x- and y-
coordinates are positive
numbers and are used to show
the relationship between two
physical quantities such as the
change in temperature versus
time. Since most items that
Figure 13-30 The Cartesian System

desirable to build a graph that does not begin at

zero on both axis.
Example: You wish to plot the There are two reasons for these
temperature of steam flowing in a selections. We are graphing a
process line at regular intervals. You temperature change over time.
have the following data to work with: By selecting the x-axis to
represent time, the earliest plot
will be shown at the extreme left
Time (min) Temperature (° of the graph. As time passes, we
F) move to the right of the graph.
Second, people tend to associate
0 400° height with an amount or
15 420° magnitude. We label y-axis as
temperature because an
30 440°
increasing temperature is easily
45 460° associated with a graph moving
60 480° up the page.
75 497°
90 497° The next step is to establish the
105 497° units of measurement along each
120 497° axis. Use the units given with
the data and make sure there is
enough range to plot all the given
Refer to Figure 13-4. points. The x-axis will be in
Figure 13-31 Graph of Temperature vs.

Time (Quadrant I)
minutes and range from 0 to at
least 120 minutes. The y-axis
The first step is to label the x-axis will be in °F and range from at
and the y-axis. In this example least 400 to 497°F.
we will label the x-axis as time
and the y-axis as temperature.
Finally, plot the points one-by-

one on the graph and connect
them.
Logarithmic Graphs
Frequently, the function to be plotted on a graph

makes it convenient to use scales different from
those used for the Cartesian coordinate graphs.
Logarithmic graphs are common. A semi-log plot
is a graph with a linear scale for one axis and a
logarithmic scale for the other axis.
To illustrate the usefulness of these plots, refer to

column data below and Figure 13-5. The column
data gives data on the amount of radioactive
strontium 90 present as a function of time in
years. Every twenty-five years one-half of the
material decays. Figure 13-5 is a Cartesian
coordinate graph of the data given in data
columns. As you can see from the graph, it is
difficult to determine from the plot how much
strontium 90 will be present after long periods of
time such as 125 years, 150 years, or 175 years.
Data on the Radioactive Decay of Strontium

90:
Time (years) Strontium 90 (grams)
0 100
25 50
50 25
75 12.5
100 6.25
125 3.125
150 1.5625
175 0.78125
Figure 13-32 Plot of Radioactive Decay of Strontium 90

The same data, is now plotted on a semi-log

graph. See Figure 13-6. The resulting graph is a
straight line and allows for a better representation
of the data than the curve obtained from the X-Y
plot. Caution is required when reading a semi-log
graph. You should note that there is no 0 point on
the logarithmic scale and the numerical divisions
on the y-axis are not equally spaced. You can see
on Figure 6-6 that as you move upward from 0.1
to 1 gram, the distance between the horizontal
lines gets smaller. This pattern of repetition from
one power of ten to the next will be repeated all
along the vertical axis.
Figure 13-33 Semi-log Plot of Radioactive Decay pf Stromtium 90

Certain conventions are used when estimating

readings on a log scale. On a scale running from
1 to 10, 2 is approximately 1/3 the distance
between 1 and 10, 3 is approximately 1/2 the
distance between 1 and 10, and 5 is about 2/3 the
distance between 1 and 10. This pattern holds true
for any power of ten range on the graph.
Logarithmic graphs readily show very large
quantities as in Figure 13-7 and very small
quantities as in Figure 13-8.
Figure 13-34 Semi-log Graph with Large

Values
Figure 13-35 Semi-log Graph with Small Values

Chapter 13 Summary
Cartesian Coordinate System
• Rectangular Coordinate System

• Divided into four quadrants by x-axis and
y-axis
Logarithmic Coordinate System
• One or both of the scales are divided

logarithmically
• Semi-log graphs contain linear x-axis and
logarithmic y-axis
Student Guide: Mathematics Chapter 13: Graph

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OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM

NOTICE: If you plan to use this material in a classroom

Addition and Subtraction of Decimals............................................................................................... 25

iii of vii Rev. 0

Basic Rules for Exponents....................................................................................................... ...........59

Figure 12- 26 Two Trains Motion Word Problem Sketch.........................................................103

Table 9- 1 Powers of 10................................................................................................................65

List of Terminal Objectives:

vii of vii Rev. 0

TO 1.0 Given a basic arithmetic problem, SOLVE for the answer

Addition of Whole Numbers

Example: Add 2+3

We can show this operation graphically on a number line in Figure 1-1.

Using this very basic approach we can see that 2 + 3 = 5.

Page 1 of 115 Rev. 0

Solution: If we apply the Commutative Law of Addition, we see that 5 + 3 equals 3 + 5.

Note what happens if we add 3 + (5 + 7).

The answer is still 15.

This fact illustrates the Associative Law of Addition. In equation form:

Page 2 of 115 Rev. 0

Subtraction of Whole Numbers

Example: The difference of 5 − 3 is not the same as 3 − 5.

Example: Subtract 32 from 54.

Example: Subtract 78 from 136.

Page 3 of 115 Rev. 0

Multiplication of Whole Numbers

Page 4 of 115 Rev. 0

We multiplied 2 × 3 first to get 6, then multiplied 6 × 5 to equal 30.

Note what happens when we group the numbers differently:

In both cases the product is 30.

Division of Whole Numbers

Page 5 of 115 Rev. 0

Long Division of Whole Numbers

Example: Divide 347 by 5.

Hierarchy of Mathematical Operations

Rule 3: Perform math operations in the following order, as applicable:

The hierarchy of operations is demonstrated in the following examples:

Page 6 of 115 Rev. 0

Perform all math operations within the sets of parentheses first.

Example: Solve the following equation:

Solution: Perform operations in the innermost set of parentheses.

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Step 2: Count the number of quantities to be averaged.

$10,200; $11,300; $9,900; $12,000; $18,000; $7,600

Add the individual numbers or quantities to be averaged.

0200 + 11300 + 9900 + 12000 + 18000 + 7600 = 69000

Step 2: Count the number of quantities to be averaged.

Total number of prices is 6

Thus, the average price of the six cars is $11,500.

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The general rules of hierarchy or order of operations are summarized below:

Calculating the average of a set of numbers requires three steps:

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EO 1.3 APPLY the arithmetic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and

2 is the numerator and 3 is the denominator.

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Fundamental Property of Fractions

If A/B is a fraction, and C is a number not equal to 0, then:

Example: Find two fractions equivalent to 1/2.

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Finding The Prime Factors of a Number

To find the prime factors of a number: