EEE 323/3

Instrumentation and
Measurement Systems

Room: PPKEE 3.25

Ext: 6062
Email: eeamirfuad@eng.usm.my

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1a
Flow Measurement
Topics

Bernoulli
Differential pressure
Velocity & differential pressure
Type's of flow
Reynold's Number
Nutating Disc meter
Metering Pump
Manometer
Orifice & Venturi Flow meter
Pitot tube
Assignment1

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 Flow Measurement
It refers to the ability-
to measure the velocity, volume flow rate or mass flow
rate of any liquid or gas
Why?
Custody transfer and accounting
Performance evaluation
Research and development

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 Newtonian View
Newton’s Third Law states that “for every action there is
always an equal but opposite reaction.”
Newton’s Third Law, is often called the Law of Conservation
of Momentum, which states:
When an object is given a certain momentum in a given
direction, some other body will receive an equal
momentum in the opposite direction

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 Bernoulli's Principle
Daniel Bernoulli (Groningen, 29 January 1700 – 27 July 1782)
was a Dutch-Swiss mathematician, who is particularly
remembered for his applications of mathematics to mechanics,
especially fluid mechanics, and for his pioneering work in
probability and statistics.
Bernoulli's principle is equivalent to the principle of
conservation of energy. This states that in a steady flow the
sum of all forms of mechanical energy in a fluid along a
streamline is the same at all points on that streamline. This
requires that the sum of kinetic energy and potential energy
remain constant.
2
V P
 gz=Const ant
2 ρ
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 Bernoulli's Principle
In fluid dynamics, Bernoulli's principle states that for an
inviscid flow, an increase in the speed of the fluid occurs
simultaneously with a decrease in pressure or a decrease in the
fluid's potential energy.
Bernoulli's principle can be applied to various types of fluid
flow, resulting in what is loosely denoted as Bernoulli's
equation.
There are different forms of the Bernoulli equation for
different types of flow. The simple form of Bernoulli's
principle is valid for incompressible flows (e.g. most liquid
flows) and also for compressible flows (e.g. gases) moving at
low Mach numbers.

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 Volumetric Flow Rate
Rate of flow can be expressed by
Q = VA = V 1 A 1 = V 2 A 2
Q is the rate flow
V is the velocity of flow [in / sec]
A is the cross-sectional area [in2]

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 Flow Velocity
Flow Velocity is the distance a material travels in a carrier per
unit of time. Typical units of measurements are kg/h or lb/h. It
is expressed by the formula
Q
V=
A
Q is the rate flow
V is the velocity of flow [in / sec]
A is the cross-sectional area [in2]

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 Mass Flow Rate
Mass flow rate instruments are used to determined the weight
of materials that flow during a specific time period.
The weight can be read in pounds, tons, grams or kilograms
The time can be read per unit of time, such as seconds,
minutes, or hours.
It can be expressed by the following formula

M = pQ

Q is the rate flow

M is the mass
p is the mass density or weight density
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 Solid Flow Measurement
Solid materials that are measured for mass flow rate are
typically small particles, powder, pellets, or crushed materials.
Conveyors are usually used to transport these materials.
Mass flow rate calculation

WS
F=
L
F = Mass flow rate in lb/min
W = Weight of a material on a section of length
S = Conveyor speed in ft/min
L = Length of weighing platform
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 Solid Flow Measurement
Solid materials that are measured for mass flow rate are
typically small particles, powder, pellets, or crushed materials.
Conveyors are usually used to transport these materials.
Mass flow rate calculation

WS
F=
L
F = Mass flow rate in lb/min
W = Weight of a material on a section of length
S = Conveyor speed in ft/min
L = Length of weighing platform
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 Example 1
Water is forced by a pump through a pipe with an inside
diameter of 2 inches at a flow velocity of 5 feet per second.
Find the volumetric flow rate and the mass flow rate. The
weight density of water is 62.4 lb/ft3

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 Example 1
First we determine the pipe's inside area, where the diameter
in feet equals
2 in
D= = 0.167 ft
12 in./ft
2
 d 2 3.140.167 
A= = = 0.218 ft 2
4 4
Calculate the volumetric flow rate
Q = VA
= 5 ft/s0.218 ft 2 60 s /1 min
= 408 lb⋅min

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 Example 1
Determine the mass flow rate
M = pQ
= 62.4 lb⋅ft 3 6.54 ft 3 /min
= 408 lb⋅min

Q is the rate flow

M is the mass
p is the mass density or weight density

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 The Bernoulli Equation
Flow rate: Q = VA =  h⋅A = V 1 A 1 = V 2 A 2
Assuming that the flow to be ideal, we get:
V 21  V 22
P1  = P2 
2 2
The differential pressure Δh head is given by
P 1 −P 2 Δ
= h
g
Eliminating V1 and V2, and substituting the value of Δh, we will get
the ideal rate of discharge
A1 A 2
Q ideal = ⋅ 2 g⋅  h
 A1− A 2
2 2

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 The Bernoulli Equation
In reality, the actual Q is always less than Qideal because of the losses in the
fluid flow due to friction and eddying motions.
To account for the discrepancy, we define the term coefficient of discharge
Cd as Qactual
Cd =
Q ideal

Thus, we can write the actual rate of fluid flow as

A1 A 2 Δ
Qactual = C d ⋅ 2 g⋅  h
 A −A 2
1
2
2

The above equation can be rewritten in simplified form as

2
Qactual = Cd K  h

Where K is the constant of flow obstruction device and

A 1 A2
K = ⋅ 2 g
 A −A
2
1
2
2
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 Types of flow
Affected by
Viscosity
Density
Friction, of the fluid with the inner wall of the process line
Two types
Laminar flow
Turbulent flow

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 Reynold's Number
Reynold, determined a relationship for the four basic factors
that affect the flow: the velocity, viscosity, density and the
diameter of the process line
The relationship can be expressed as Reynold's Number, RN
v d
RN =

RN is a dimensionless number
%rho is the fluid density
v is the velocity (average)
%eta is the viscosity of the fluid
It is common for turbulence to build quickly after a certain
number of RN
RN < 3000 usually laminar flow
RN > 3000 suggest turbulent flow
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 Types of flow meter
In general, flow meter can be classified as
Displacement meters / mechanical-based
Metering pump
Positive displacement meter / nutating disc meter
Differential pressure / pressure-based / obstruction type
Orifice
Venturi tubes
Flow tubes
Flow nozzles
Pitot tubes
Velocity
Mass meter

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Displacement: Nutating Disc Meter

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 Displacement: Nutating Disc Meter
Also called a "wobble-plate" meter, a nutating disc meter
incorporates a measuring element comprised of a flat disc
around a central ball.
This element fits inside a measuring chamber with rounded
sides that allow it to pivot.
As liquid flow through the chamber, the disc nutates, or
wobbles, in a regular pattern, causing the shaft attached to the
disc to rotate in a conical pattern.
The circular motion of the end of this shaft drives the meter's
gear train.

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 Displacement: Nutating Disc Meter
Advantages of nutating disc meters:
Proven accurate and reliable for over a century
Unaffected by viscosity or flow profile disturbances
Tolerant of suspended solids that can stall other meter types
Withstands pressure up to 150 psi and temperature to 250 degrees F
Works with mechanical or electronic registers

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 Displacement: Metering Pump
A metering pump is a pump used to
pump liquids at adjustable flow rates
which are precise when averaged over
time.
Delivery of fluids in precise adjustable
flow rates is sometimes called
metering.
The term "metering pump" is based on
the application or use rather than the
exact kind of pump used.
Although metering pumps can pump
water, they are often used to pump
chemicals, solutions, or other liquids.
Many metering pumps are rated to be
able to pump into a high discharge
pressure.
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 Types of flow meter
In general, flow meter can be classified as
Displacement meters / mechanical-based
Metering pump
Positive displacement meter / nutating disc meter
Differential pressure / pressure-based / obstruction type
Orifice
Venturi tubes
Flow tubes
Flow nozzles
Pitot tubes
Velocity
Mass meter

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 Pressure measurement: Manometer
Many techniques have been developed for the measurement of
pressure and vacuum. Instruments used to measure pressure
are called pressure gauges or vacuum gauges.
A manometer could also be referring to a pressure measuring
instrument, usually limited to measuring pressures near to
atmospheric. The term manometer is often used to refer
specifically to liquid column hydrostatic instruments.
A vacuum gauge is used to measure the pressure in a vacuum
—which is further divided into two subcategories: high and
low vacuum (and sometimes ultra-high vacuum). The
applicable pressure range of many of the techniques used to
measure vacuums have an overlap. Hence, by combining
several different types of gauge, it is possible to measure
system pressure continuously from 10 mbar down to 10−11
mbar.
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Pressure measurement: Manometer

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 U tube Manometer
One of the most common is the water filled u-tube manometer used to measure
pressure difference in pitot or orifices located in the airflow in air handling or
ventilation system.
The pressure difference in a vertical U-Tube manometer can be expressed as

Pd = γ h
=ρgh (1)

where
Pd = pressure
γ = specific weight of the fluid in the tube (kN/m3, lb/ft3 )
ρ = density (kg/m3, lb/ft3)
g = acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/s2, 32.174 ft/s2)
h = liquid height (m, ft)
The specific weight of water, which is the most commonly used fluid in u-tube
manometers, is 9.81 kN/m3 or 62.4 lb/ft3.
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 Differential pressure flowmeter
Most common type of flowmeter
A restriction called an orifice is placed on the flow.
An orifice plate has a specified size hole bored through it,
through which the liquid must flow.
Using Bernoulli’s Principle, the differential pressure is
measured across the restriction and flow rates may be
calculated.

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 Differential pressure
Total energy at any point in a process line does not change as
energy can not be created or destroy
The velocity at V2 is greater than that at V1
Because energy remain the same, the pressure P1 is greater
than P2

P1
P2

V2
V1
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 Velocity and Differential pressure
The flow rate Q is directly related to the velocity V by Q = VA
The change in pressure is not directly related, but proportional
to the square of the velocity change
We deduce that the velocity is proportional and equal to the
square root of the pressure change, or differential pressure (h)
Q = VA =  h⋅A = V 1 A 1 = V 2 A 2
Q is flow of rate
A is cross-sectional area
h is the differential pressure

P1
P2
V2
V1 30
 Velocity and Differential pressure
We now understand the how a flow measurement is obtained
from the differential pressure.
If we know the diameter at cross-section 1 and 2, we then can
calculate the actual flow rate, Q in the process line

P1
P2

V2
V1
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Differential pressure w/ flow restrictor

Conventional orifice plate

Flow nozzle restrictor

Venturi tube restrictor

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Venturi meter

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Venturi meter

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 Venturi meter
theory

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 Venturi meter
Dimensional analysis of venturi tube indicates Cd = f (Re, D1,
D2) C d = f  RN , D1 , D2 

Coefficient of discharge

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 Venturi meter
Dimensional analysis of venturi tube indicates C = f (RN, D 1,
D2)

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 Venturi meter
Limitations
High installation cost
It occupies considerable space
Ratio of throat to pipe diameter (D2/D1) cannot be changed-
the maximum measurable flow rate is fixed
So if the flow range is changed, the throat diameter may be
too large to give an accurate reading or too small to
accommodate the next maximum flow rate

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 Orifice meter
It may be installed in pipeline with a minimum of trouble and
expense

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 Orifice meter
It may be installed in pipeline with a minimum of trouble and
expense

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 Orifice meter
theory

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 Orifice meter
Variation of K against Re

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 Orifice meter
Variation of K against RN

At high Reynolds number K is essentially constant, but as Reynolds number is

lowered, K is also increased
K~maxm at RN= 200-600
The lowering of Reynolds number increases viscous action which causes a decrease
in Cv and an increase in Cc
The latter apparently predominates over the former until Cc reaches its maximum
value (about to 1)
With further decrease in RN, ‘K’ then becomes smaller because Cv continues to
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decrease
 Orifice meter
Limitation
Its practical disadvantage is that - it offers greater frictional
resistances as compared to venturi meter

For venturi tube for the orifice meter

there is no contraction - the area of the jet is a
area of the jet is always variable (less than Ao, the
equal to the area of the area of the orifice)
throat and is fixed

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 Pitot tube

Measuring static and velocity head in the fluid flow 45

 Pitot tube

ρV2/2
p + 1 ρv 2 = cost
2
PT
PS

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Pitot tube

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 Pitot tube
Henri Pitot (May 3, 1695 – December 27, 1771) was a French
hydraulic engineer and the inventor of the Pitot tube, which
measures flow velocity.
The basic instrument consists of two coaxial tubes: the interior
tube is open to the flow (i.e. perpendicular), while the exterior
tube is open at ninety degrees to the flow (i.e. parallel). A
manometer can be used to measure the difference between
these two pressures and using Bernoulli's equation the flow
rate of the fluid can be calculated.

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 Pitot tube
The exterior tube, with an opening parallel to the flow, will
register the Static Pressure.
The interior tube, with an opening perpendicular to the flow,
will register the Stagnation Pressure.
Stagnation pressure is made up of Static Pressure plus
Dynamic Pressure (caused by the force of the fluid flowing
into the tube interior).
By measuring the pressure difference between the Static
Pressure (exterior tube) and the Stagnation pressure (interior
tube) allows the velocity of the fluid flow to be determined.

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 Pitot tube
Static tube: The opening of the static tube is parallel to the direction
of flow. It measures the static pressure, since there is no velocity
component perpendicular to its opening.
Impact tube: The opening of the impact tube is perpendicular to the
flow direction. The point at the entrance of the impact tube is called
as the stagnation point .At this point the kinetic energy of the fluid
is converted to the potential energy. Thus, the impact tube measures
the total pressure (also referred to as stagnation pressure) i.e. both
static pressure and dynamic pressure (also referred to as impact
pressure).
The two tubes are connected to the legs of a manometer or
equivalent device for measuring pressure.

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Pitot tube

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Pitot tube

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Pitot tube

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 Obstruction type flow meter
Consider incompressible steady flow of a fluid in a horizontal
pipe of diameter D that is constricted to a flow area of diameter
d, as shown in Fig. below. The mass balance and the Bernoulli
equations between a location before the constriction (point 1) and
the location where constriction occurs (point 2) can be written as

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 Obstruction type flow meter
Mass balance Q = VA =  h⋅A = V 1 A 1 = V 2 A 2
2
 V 1 =  A2/ A1 V 2 =  d / D  V 2

According to Bernoulli, we have

2 2
P1 V 1 P2 V 2
 = 
 g 2g  g 2g
Obstruction with no loss

V2 =
 2  P 1−P 2 
  1−
4

Where β = d / D is the diameter ratio. Once V2 is known, the flow
rate can be determined from
2
d
Q = A2 V 2 = V2
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Types of flow meter

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 Obstruction type flow meter
Measuring Flow Rate with an
Orifice Meter
The flow rate of methanol at 20°C
(ρ=788.4 kg/m3 and μ=5.857 ×
10-4 kg/m · s) through a 4-cm-
diameter pipe is to be measured
with a 3-cm-diameter orifice
meter equipped with a mercury
manometer across the orifice
place, as shown. If the differential
height of the manometer is read to
be 11 cm, determine the flow rate
of methanol through the pipe and
the average flow velocity.

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Exercise

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