Professional Documents
Culture Documents
GVI Amazon
Submitted in whole to
GVI
Yachana Foundation
Museo Ecuatoriano de Ciencias Naturales (MECN)
Produced by
And
Edited by
Karina Berg – Country Director
Email: ecuador@gviworld.com
Web page: http://www.gvi.co.uk and http://www.gviusa.com
Executive Summary
This report documents the work of Global Vision International‟s (GVI) Rainforest
Conservation and Community Development Expedition in Ecuador‟s Amazon region
and run in partnership with the Yachana Foundation, based at the Yachana Reserve in
the province of Napo. During the fourth phase of 2010 from 1st October to 10th
December, GVI has:
Began a new bird project studying the effect of the road in understory bird
communities.
Began a new mammal project investigating the edge effects of the road that runs
through the reserve.
Continued with a project investigating the effects of disturbance from the road upon
butterfly communities.
Continued with English lessons for local school children in Puerto Rico twice a
week.
Continued giving English lessons for local school children in Puerto Salazar every
Saturday.
Began giving lessons at the small community of Rio Bueno every Wednesday.
Welcomed three pasantes (work experience students) and three graduates from
the Yachana Technical High School to join the expedition, in order to exchange
language skills, knowledge and experience.
Visited Yasuní National Park, and Sumak Allpa (an island reserve and school run
by a local conservationist).
Given two presentations on conservation; one at Puerto Rico and one at Puerto
Salazar, and set up an information stand, one Saturday at the local market of Agua
Santa.
iii
List of Figures and Tables
Figure 1.1.0 Map showing GVI Amazon location in Ecuador.
Figure 2.3.2 Number of individuals per net hour for the four mist-netting sites sampled
in Phase 104.
Figure 2.3.3 Number of individuals caught at Buena Vista South (02 S) and Buena
Vista North (06 N) mist-netting sites in November, 2010.
Figure 2.3.4 Number of individuals within the seven families caught at Buena Vista
South (02 S) and Buena Vista North (06 N) mist-netting sites in November 2010.
Figure 3.3.5 Distribution of species diversity (amphibians) with Shannon index applied.
Pitfall and VES (first 12 months of data only).
Figure 4.3.3 Individual butterflies by sub-families caught per day at site.
Figure 4.3.4 Individual butterflies by tribes caught per day at site.
Figure 4.3.5 Individual butterflies by genera caught per day at site.
Figure 4.3.6 Species distribution of Tigridia acesta over trap distances from the road.
Figure 4.3.7 Species distribution of Colobura annulata over trap distances from the
road.
Figure 4.3.8 Shannon diversity of species over distance.
Table 2.3.1 Results for the four mist-netting sessions conducted in Phase 104.
Table 2.6.1 Road Uniques recorded on point count surveys in Phase 104.
Table 2.6.2 Forest Uniques recorded on point count surveys in Phase 104.
Table 3.3.1 Number of individuals found in pitfalls in Phase 104.
Table 3.3.2 Number of individuals found on visual encounter surveys in Phase 104.
Table 3.3.3 Number of individuals found in pitfall traps in total in the project so far.
Table 3.3.4 Number of individuals found in total for visual encounter surveys in the
project so far.
Table 4.3.1 Individual butterfly numbers as distributed in trap sites by distance from the
road, combined from all four sites over the first nine days of sampling.
Table 4.3.2 Individual butterfly numbers as distributed in trap sites by distance from the
road, combined from all four sites over the 18 sampled days.
Table 5.3.1 Raw VES data October-December 2010.
Table 5.3.2 Raw sand pad data October-December 2010.
iv
1. Introduction
The Rainforest Conservation and Community Development Expedition operated by
GVI is located in the Yachana Reserve in the Napo province (0° 50' 45.47"S/-77° 13'
43.65"W; 300-350m altitude), Amazonian region of Ecuador. The reserve is legally-
designated a Protected Forest consisting of approximately 1500 hectares in total area.
The area of the reserve where the bulk of the programme and surveying work is
conducted is 946 hectares consisting of predominantly primary lowland rainforest, as
well as abandoned plantations, grassland, riparian forest, successional regenerating
forest and a road. The Yachana Reserve is owned and managed by the Yachana
Foundation. It is surrounded by large areas of pasture land, small active cacao farms
and currently un-mapped disturbed primary forest. The road within the Yachana
Reserve is a large stone and gravel based road which dissects the forest.
GVI also works with local research institutions. The Museo Ecuatoriano de Ciencias
Naturales, MECN, (Ecuadorian Museum for Natural Sciences) provides technical
assistance with field research and project development. The museum is a government
research institution which houses information and conducts research on the presence
and distribution of floral and faunal species throughout Ecuador. GVI obtains their
investigation permit with the support of MECN for the collection of specimens. The
data and specimens collected by GVI are being lodged with the MECN in order to
make this information nationally and internationally available, and to provide verification
of the field data. MECN technicians are continuously invited to the Yachana Reserve
to conduct in-field training and education for all participants in the programme, as well
as explore research opportunities otherwise unavailable.
2.1. Introduction
Rainforests worldwide have been suffering the effects of habitat fragmentation for
decades, and its impacts on the flora and fauna of these globally significant
ecosystems are severe. Although not as severe as complete habitat fragmentation,
roads can significantly affect rainforest environments and expose edge effects on the
plant and animal communities. Although roads are beneficial in providing access to
remote areas, the effects of roads on forest ecosystems extends further into the forest
than just at the road edges (Gossem 2007, Coffin 2007), and is said to cause “internal
fragmentation”, a less recognized yet potentially severe threat caused by roads in
rainforest ecosystems (Gossem 2007). Roads can have a wide variety of impacts on
the surrounding environments, including habitat loss and alteration, edge effects,
disturbance effects such as noise pollution and chemical introduction, invasions of non-
native flora, fauna and disease and road mortality, which together can create
substantial barriers to the movement of a wide range of multi-taxa species and alter
ecological processes (Gossem 2007). As a result, there is a high potential for loss of
biodiversity of rainforest ecosystems.
A study in Colorado showed that bird species composition was altered adjacent to trails
in two ecosystems, one of which was forest habitat (Miller et al. 1998). Also, generalist
species were found to be more abundant near trails and specialist species showed to
be less common (Miller et al. 1998).
The purpose of this study is to determine if the road through the Yachana Reserve has
any impact on the avian communities present, through both mist-netting and point
count survey methods. Previously, mist-netting has been carried out in the Yachana
Reserve to investigate the impacts of disturbed versus less disturbed habitat on avian
communities. Point counts in the Yachana Reserve have also looked at similar trends,
focusing on the different habitats and their influences on the birds present on the
reserve. This study is planned to be carried out over a period of six months in order to
gather all the data necessary to produce significant results and build a larger picture of
the impacts of the road through the reserve on its avian communities.
In addition to the main goals of this project, there is interest in testing the methods for
training non-specialist participants for point count surveys. Recent years have seen a
large increase in the number of people undertaking volunteering work in developing
countries as an alternative to study or employment, and conservation based projects
are among the most popular (Year Out Group 2010). Therefore determining the
capacity of these volunteers to undertake a point count methodology would have wider
applications which are expected to continue to expand. It is hoped that by applying the
correct model to the data collected and teaching volunteers to a high enough level, a
viable analysis of the differing avian assemblages can also be conducted. Previously
in the Yachana Reserve (the last six months), volunteers have been trained using
audio cues; in this study, GVI was introducing methods of training involving visual and
audio cues to test the effectiveness of the two methods.
Aims
To determine if there are impacts from the road on the distribution and
movements of avian communities of the Yachana Reserve.
To gain more information about the distribution of understory and canopy bird
species on the reserve through a multi-methodology study.
To investigate the capacity of untrained volunteers to learn sufficient bird calls
in order to act as independent observers in a point count methodology.
Objectives
To produce an avian report on the impacts of road disturbance and
corresponding edge effects; this could serve as a model for future development
on small reserves, for conservation monitoring purposes.
To correlate the results found for bird communities with the coinciding mammal,
amphibian and butterfly projects to produce a multi-taxa assessment of the
impact of the road through the Yachana Reserve.
To monitor the patterns of observer improvement with training and quantitatively
analyze the effectiveness of various training techniques in using volunteers for
point count surveys, over a time gradient.
Study Site
All research was conducted in the Yachana Reserve, which, as already stated in the
Introduction, is situated within the Napo province in the Amazonian region of eastern
Ecuador (0°5‟ 0”S/077°13‟ 60”W; 300-350m altitude). The gravel road that cuts
through the reserve runs in a general northwest to southeast direction. Its length
through the reserve is approximately 3.5 km, and allows access to the community of
San Francisco de Puerto Rico along with other small communities, as well as access to
the main roads to the larger towns of Tena and Coca. The road was cut through the
reserve in 2005. It generally acts as a divide between the less disturbed primary forest
and the successional growth plantations and grassland zones within the reserves.
Eastern Ecuador is renoun as one of the most diverse regions in the world for birds
(Ridgely & Tudor 2001; Blake and Loiselle 2009). Since 2006, over 300 species of bird
have been recorded within the reserve borders.
Eight mist-netting sites were chosen with respect to the other proposed sites and the
proximity to the road through the Yachana Reserve. The placement of the sites
consists of four sites on the north side of the road and four corresponding sites (directly
south of the north sites) on the south side of the road. Each mist-netting site had a
500m buffer to adjacent sites on the same side of the road. Each site was 150m from
the road, therefore each north-south site set had a 350m overlap over the road zone.
The mist nets were opened for a period of four consecutive days (weather permitting)
at each site, one site at a time. Four sites were surveyed during this ten week
expedition period, which follows the proposal plan to survey all mist-netting sites over a
period of six months. The mist nets were opened at sunrise (approximately 6:00 am)
and remained open for approximately 4.5-5 hours per morning. 70 net hours (hours
open x number of nets) were targeted for each four day session (standard for a four net
array; if six nets available, 105 net hours were targeted).
During the open period, the nets were checked in sequence every 30 minutes to
ensure that birds were not tangled in nets for an excessive amount of time. When
checked, any birds caught were removed by trained and capable staff and placed into
a bird bag to minimize stress of the birds until processed. Birds were processed at an
adjacent station and identified to species. If possible, the birds were banded with an
aluminum butt-end band (hummingbirds excluded and others limited to band sizes
available). This allows for monitoring of recaptures. Birds were weighed, measured,
aged and sexed where possible. The birds were released over 50m away from the net
sites after processing. All standard mist-netting procedures and protocols were
observed and monitored by trained staff on the project.
Mist-netting has generally been found to be less efficient than point counts (Blake and
Loiselle 2001; Barlow et al. 2007); however it offers a method free from observer bias.
It is also a useful and standardized technique to compare understory avifaunal
communities composed of non-vocal and secretive species, (Blake and Loiselle 2000).
In this phase, four sites were surveyed: Ridge South (01 S, 350m from road, 12th to 15th
October 2010), East Bambosh (03 S, 350m from road, 25th to 29th October 2010),
Buena Vista South (02 S, 150m from road, 15th to 18th November 2010) and Buena
Vista North (06 N, 150m from road, 29th November to 3rd December 2010). The
distances from the road were modified after the first two mist-netting sessions in order
to better meet the aims and objectives of the project; this will be discussed further
below, (see Appendix 10.1 for map with mist-netting sites).
Four mist-netting sessions were conducted on the Yachana Reserve between October
and December 2010. Adequate net hours were attained for each session. Results are
shown in Table 2.3.1 below.
Table 2.3.1 Results for the four mist-netting sessions conducted in Phase 104.
Buena
Ridge East Buena
Vista
South (01 Bambosh Vista North Total
South (02
S) (03 S) (06 N)
S)
Net Hours 75.32 77.33 71.91 76.67 301.23
No. of
8 41 19 30 98
Individuals
Individuals
0.11 0.53 0.26 0.39 0.32
per Net Hour
Number of
6 16 10 15 33
Species
Species per
0.08 0.21 0.14 0.20 0.11
Net Hour
Number of
5 7 5 7 9
Families
Unidentified
0 0 0 1 1
Species
Recaptures 0 1 2 2 5
The results in the table show that the East Bambosh (03 S) and Buena Vista North (06
N) sites were the most productive for capture rate, as they both hold the highest
number of individual birds caught per net hour, as well as highest number of species
caught per net hour. The most species were also found at these two sites (Figure
2.3.2).
Figure 2.3.2 Individuals per net hour for the four mist-netting sites sampled in Phase 104.
Nine families of birds were caught in the mist-netting sessions conducted this phase.
These included Thamnophilidae, Pipridae, Tyrannidae, Emberizidae, Trochilidae,
Dendrocolaptidae, Turdidae, Columbidae, and Thraupidae. However, the most
common groups encountered tended to be Pipridae (Manakins), Thamnophilidae
(Antbirds), and Tyrannidae (Flycatchers).
The birds caught at the Ridge South site (01 S) and the East Bambosh site (03 S),
even though of interest to gather various information, are not comparable as the
distance to the road was changed after those sites were sampled. Of more
significance is the species composition between the Buena Vista South (02 S) and
North (06 N) sites, which were sampled two weeks apart from each other and lie only
300m from each other, divided by the road at the midpoint. 19 species were caught in
total for the paired sites (including one unidentified species). Of those 19 species, six
(working out at 32%) were found at both sites (Fig. 2.3.3). Individuals that were only
caught once at only one site have been removed from the 19 species caught at these
sites.
With regards to family composition, seven families were recorded for the two
comparable sites. Four families of understory birds were found in concentration at both
sites (Fig. 2.3.4), indicating similar species composition. The unidentified family has
been omitted.
Figure 2.3.4 Number of individuals (within the seven families) caught at Buena Vista South (02
S) and Buena Vista North (06 N) mist-netting sites in November 2010.
Five recaptures were caught during this expedition phase. In some cases, recaptures
caught were from a previous day of sampling at that site. For example, at East
Bambosh (03 S), a White-necked Thrush (Turdus albicollis) was recaptured the day
after it was banded, indicating its presence and likely territory in the area. However,
there were two recaptures that were not initially banded at the sites they were
captured. The first was an adult female Blue-crowned Manakin (Lepidothrix coronata)
with a band ID of 45L, captured at Buena Vista South (02 S), and was initially banded
at an old mist-netting site (Cascada), on 20th January 2010, approximately 350m from
where she was recaptured. The other, an immature Golden-headed Manakin (Pipra
2.4. Discussion
This was the first ten week phase of a new mist-netting project focusing on road
impacts on avian communities in the Yachana Reserve. The results, however, do
show some interesting initial trends. The comparable sites of Buena Vista South (02 S)
and Buena Vista North (06 N) showed to have similar avian species composition, and a
majority of the family groups caught in the mist nets were found at both sites. Both
sites were each 150m from the road, were of similar vegetation composition that
consisted mainly of overgrown coffee plantation and dispersed cacao plantation, with
small adjacent patches of primary forest. Vegetation mapping has yet to be completed
for these two sites, but could indicate the similarity between the two sites more
accurately. By the similarity in species composition, there are indications that it is
possible that bird communities may spread across the road barrier. However, in the
short sampling time at each site, there were no recaptures caught on either side of the
road that had been banded at the adjacent site, and more time at each site is required
to assess if the birds will cross the road or if it creates a barrier through the habitat.
Two recaptures of interest were caught in Phase 104 as already mentioned. The adult
female Blue-crowned Manakin (Lepidothrix coronata) with a band ID of 45L, recaptured
this phase approximately 350m from where she was first captured could indicate that
this bird dispersed from its parental range, likely near the previous mist-netting site
where it was initially banded. In this case however, the recaptured manakin was found
much closer to the road, which may indicate a level of resilience these species can
withstand with regards to significant road disturbance.
After the first two mist-netting sites (Ridge South [01 S], 350m from the road; East
Bambosh [03 S], 350m from the road) were surveyed, the project design was assessed
with regards to its overall aims and it was concluded that a distance of 350m from the
road was too far to gauge if understory birds consider it as an intrusive barrier to their
movement. Therefore, we moved the sites to be closer (150m) to the road, inducing a
potential 350m overlap for territory range over the road for the paired sites. It was also
decided better to survey adjacent north-south sites in sequence (with a non-survey
week in between), rather than to survey all the sites south of the road over a ten week
period. This will allow for a better scope of species composition and current
movements of species of birds in question.
For the following expedition phase, our objective will be to survey two more paired
sites, in the hope to collect more information on the bird communities that are found in
close proximity to the road. The results collected, in collaboration with the results
collected from the point count surveys, will be compiled to get a better understanding of
how the road through the Yachana Reserve affects the avian communities present.
Point count surveys were conducted along eight linear transects on the north side of
the road that runs through the Yachana Reserve. Points were set at 0m, 150m, 300m,
450m, and 600m along each transect; 0m is located at the road and the points continue
northward along the transect. This accounts for independence of understory birds
recorded. Five points were surveyed each morning (weather permitting). The count
lasted for a duration of ten minutes at each site, with a three minute settle period upon
arrival at each site prior to beginning each count. All birds seen and heard were
recorded individually by each staff and volunteer. Total species recorded for each
point were tallied at the end of each survey day.
Prior to the commencement of the point count survey, each ten week phase, each
volunteer was assessed to determine whether they could recognize bird calls more
efficiently through either:
After the assessment, all volunteers were placed into the two treatment groups for
learning the bird calls of the Yachana Reserve for the point counts survey purposes.
Those volunteers who demonstrated themselves to be significantly better at one
method over the other were placed in the corresponding treatment groups. Others who
did not show different results between the audio and audio & visual assessments were
divided and randomly and evenly placed into the two treatment groups.
Point count training consisted of at least one session per week, which continued
throughout the phase to continually revise and refresh bird calls for volunteer
participants. The training schedule for a five week period was:
1st set (weeks 1 & 2) – 30 birds, most commonly heard on Yachana Reserve
2nd set (week 3) – 15 new birds
3rd set (week 4) – 15 new birds
4th set (week 5) – 15 new bird
In order to assess whether learning bird calls would be enhanced by seeing visual cues
of the birds we split the learners into „audio only‟ and „audio and visual‟ learners. Audio
and visual learners were shown pictures of the birds during training sessions. Another
test conducted was using a small sub-set of 15 bird calls at the beginning of their
training that were introduced and followed by a small test. This was to see if learner
ability could be assessed by an initial small scale assessment. The rankings of their
abilities would be later compared with their final ranking abilities from their personal
performance in the field in relation to staff abilities.
2.6. Results
Species Composition
In Phase 104, eleven point counts were conducted along five transects that run from
the road north to 600m. During the surveying period, 63 species of birds were
recorded from visual and audio observations. From the eleven surveys conducted,
there were eight species of birds that were found to be specific to the road as they
were recorded in close proximity to it (150m or closer). These bird species are classed
as “Road Uniques”, see Table 2.6.1. These include species found at sites 1 (0m, point
is on the road) and 2 (150m from the road), but were not recorded beyond the 150m
point into deeper forest.
Table 2.6.1 Road Uniques recorded on point count surveys in Phase 104.
Points
Common Name Scientific Name Order: Family
Recorded
Amazonian Trogoniformes:
Trogon violaceus 1 and 2
Violaceous Trogon Trogonidae
Black-throated Trogoniformes:
Trogon rufus 1 and 2
Trogon Trogonidae
Forest-Falcon Falconiformes:
Micrastur sp. 1 and 2
(unid) Falconidae
Piciformes:
Ivory-billed Aracari Pteroglossus azara 1
Ramphastidae
Marbled Wood- Odontophorus Galliformes:
1 and 2
Quail gujanensis Odontophoridae
Falconiformes:
Swallow-tailed Kite Elanoides forficatus 1
Accipitridae
Passeriformes:
Swallow-Tanager Tersina viridis 1
Thraupidae
White-collared Streptoprocne
Apodiformes: Apodidae 1
Swift zonaris
Table 2.6.2 Forest Uniques recorded on point count surveys in Phase 104.
Points
Common Name Scientific Name Order: Family
Recorded
Falconiformes:
Black Caracara Daptrius ater 4 and 5
Falconidae
Broad-billed Electron
Piciformes: Motmotidae 3, 4 and 5
Motmot platyrhynchum
Dwarf Tyrant- Tyranneutes
Passeriformes: Pipridae 3, 4, and 5
Manakin stolzmanni
Fasciated Passeriformes:
Cymbilianus lineatus 5
Antshrike Thamnophilidae
Lawrence‟s
Turdus lawrencii Passeriformes: Turdidae 5
Thrush
Columba Columbiformes:
Ruddy Pigeon 5
subvinacea Columbidae
Scale-backed Hylophylax Passeriformes:
3, 4, and 5
Antbird poecilinota Thamnophilidae
Scaly-breasted
Celeus grammicus Piciformes: Picidae 3, 4, and 5
Woodpecker
Passeriformes:
Screaming Piha Lipaugus vociferans 3, 4, and 5
Cotingidae
There were a majority of cosmopolitan species that were recorded at all five points.
Seventeen species, including Yellow-tufted Woodpecker (Melanerpes cruentatus),
Blue-crowned Manakin (Lepidothrix coronata) and Gilded Barbet (Capito auratus),
indicating that 27% of the species recorded are not affected by the presence of the
road. Despite these common species to the Yachana Reserve, the road does seem to
impact certain specialist bird species on the reserve.
There was no clear benefit of having a visual cue in addition to an audio learning
technique; those learners with visual cues did not perform any better than learners with
purely audio learning resources. It also appears that a quick assessment cannot be
made regarding a learner‟s ability. Spearman‟s Ranking value r = 0.311, is lower than
the 0.456 critical value (n = 14), indicating that there was no significant correlation
between the two ranks based upon the initial assessment and final ability levels of the
learners.
Species Composition
From the point count surveys conducted during Phase 104, preliminary data was
collected to investigate the impacts of the road on the avian communities on the
Yachana Reserve. From the data collected in this first phase of the project, some
evidence does show that the road does impact certain species. Those “forest
uniques”, as nine species have not been recorded any closer than 300m to the road.
These specialized species typically prefer better quality forests that are less disturbed
by road impacts. A majority of the species specific to this distance from the road tend
to be understory species with low-pitched calls, better for travelling through a forested
environment.
However, despite this, eight species were found to be “road uniques” that seem to
prefer the roadside habitats. These species are likely to fill these successional niches
to take advantage of food sources, open areas and perhaps less competition with other
understory species. There is a bias to take into consideration with the point count
surveys; with on road point counts, it could be considered much easier to record birds
by visual observation compared to within dense forest habitat, where the key is to rely
on skill and experience of audio observation and recognition.
A high number of species were recorded at all five points, from the road into the
undisturbed forest. There are a number of reasons for this occurrence. The most
common species and most vocal species are well known by staff and volunteer
observers, and by knowing the calls of these species, it is more likely that these calls
will be picked up more frequently on the surveys than species that are more
challenging to identify or unknown to the unskilled participants. They are also very
vocal species; this presents a bias with conducting point counts in dense tropical
rainforest. For example, a species that was never recorded on a point count survey,
yet was found at every mist-netting site was the Ochre-bellied Flycatcher (Mionectes
oleagineus), clearly a very common species on the reserve, yet difficult to see in the
understory due to its shy habits and non-vocal tendencies. Carrying out both the mist-
netting and the point count survey methods during the same expedition periods has
enriched our understanding and knowledge of the avian communities within the
reserve. It has allowed us to gain a greater insight into which species are
demonstrating attributes of more common, generalist and specialist species in the
reserve. By enlarging the data set and information in future expedition phases and
Many learners stated that having a visual cue often made learning more complicated
due to having to focus on not only an audio cue, but an image as well. Others, in the
meantime, contradicted this thinking by stating that a visual representation helped with
an association when a call was heard in the field. These learning styles may be
individually specific and beneficial to different types of people and successful learning
techniques.
The fact that a prediction could not be made on potential learner ability may show that
learners who may start poorly can develop more quickly than others that may have had
a higher initial ability. The sample size in this experiment was relatively small and may
be a contributing factor as to why no correlation between ranks was observed.
In the forth-coming phase, point count surveys will focus more in depth on the avian
communities, in order to sample species composition as well as abundance to get a
diversity measure. As we have answered questions regarding volunteer learning
abilities and potential training methods, we now hope to focus more on the bird
communities and their distributions with respect to road impacts on the Yachana
Reserve.
3.1. Introduction
One of the key drivers of worldwide species loss is habitat change; defined as habitat
deforestation, fragmentation and deterioration (Urbina-Cardona, 2008). The rapid rate
of forest conversion in the Neotropics has been offset by large-scale expansion of
secondary forest, plantation and pastureland (Wright SJ, 2005; Gardner et al. 2007b).
Despite the increasingly dominant role of these degraded habitats in the tropical
landscape, there is little consensus within the scientific community about the extent of
its conservation value (Gardner et al. 2007c, Lo-Man-Hung1, et al. 2008). Wright &
Muller-Landau (2006) predict that the future loss of primary forest will be offset by
regenerating secondary forest and consequently suggest that the predicted loss of
species due to habitat change may be premature. However, there is currently a lack of
empirical evidence to support the theory that regenerating forests can fully support
native forest species (Gardner 2007c).
Two recent multiple taxa assessments, conducted on the cubraca cacao plantations of
Bahia, Brazil (Pardini et al. IN PRESS) and eucalyptus plantations of the Jari forestry
project, Brazil (Barlow et al. 2007), found that responses to structural habitat change
were taxon specific. Barlow et al. (2007) found that four of the fifteen taxa analysed
(trees and lianas, birds, fruit feeding butterflies, and leaf litter amphibians) were found
to decrease in species richness with increasing habitat disturbance. However, five taxa
(large mammals, epigiec arachnids, lizards, dung beetles and bats) exhibit idiosyncratic
responses to habitat change (Barlow et al. 2007). Both studies concluded that
responses to structural habitat change will be species specific, not simply taxon
specific. Analysis of a generalised taxon response is likely to hide a higher level of
species specific disturbance responses which are important when designing
conservation strategies (Barlow et al 2007; Pardini et al. 2009). These studies highlight
the importance of performing multiple taxa assessments that are species specific
relating to the conservation value of secondary and plantation forests.
Problem Statement
The Neotropics are estimated to contain nearly 50% of the worlds amphibians (IUCN,
2007) and 32% of the worlds reptiles (Young et al. 2004), this equates to over 3000
species of each taxon. Within the continental Neotropics, the 17 countries in Central
Amphibians and reptiles are important primary, mid-level and top consumers in
Neotropical ecosystems; therefore, it is important to understand the responses of these
organisms to structural habitat change (Bell et al. 2006). Despite its apparent severity,
the amount of research time given to studying the impacts of habitat change on
amphibian and reptile populations is relatively low. This is especially true in the
Neotropics which, despite an estimated 89% of threatened species being affected by
habitat loss, has only been the subject of 10% of the world‟s herpetological studies
(Gardner et al 2007a). There is a general consensus amongst herpetologists that the
effect of structural habitat change on determining amphibian and reptiles and
distributions is limited (Pearman, 1997; Krishnamurthy, 2003; Urbina-Cardona, 2006;
Gardner et al, 2007b).
A recent global scale review of the state of amphibian and reptile research regarding
structural habitat change highlighted several serious deficiencies:
There is currently a strong study bias away from the Neotropics towards North
America and Australia.
Published studies report contradictory responses of amphibian and reptile
populations to habitat change.
There are several common limitations in study methodology and analysis
(Gardner et al. 2007a).
3.2. Methods
In Phase 104, pitfall data was collected for 19 days (12 th to 21st October and 22nd to
30th November 2010) and six visual encounter surveys were conducted from 13th
October to 29th November 2010. This data will be used to supplement data from the
previous herpetological project (ended Phase 102, July 2010). During Phase 104, five
pitfall trap arrays (of twelve available) and three visual encounter transects (of ten
available) were surveyed. The sites surveyed in Phase 104 were chosen in order to
better represent grassland and plantation sites in the complete dataset.
Twelve 75m transects in both the primary and secondary locations were established for
the original project. Ten additional transects were added for Phase 103. Only three of
these were surveyed in Phase 104. Care was taken to space transects sufficiently to
avoid psuedoreplication. Transects were marked with coloured transect tape to avoid
unnecessary habitat modification. Where possible, the transects were located at least
10m from streams and 100m from forest edges to avoid biases resulting from
increases in species richness and abundance, which could result in confusion about
the true effect of structural habitat change on amphibian and reptile diversity.
Visual encounter surveys have been shown to be one of the most effective methods for
sampling tropical herpetofaunas (Bell et al, 2006). They have been repeatedly shown
to yield greater numbers of individuals per effort than other sampling methods in recent
publications (Ernst and Rodel, 2004; Donnelly et al 2005) and GVI‟s own preliminary
investigations. Each transect was searched by six observers (strip width = 6m,
duration = 1h 30m).
Pitfall Trapping
Twelve pitfall arrays were established in both primary and secondary forest with a
further twelve being added in Phase 103. Only five of these were surveyed during
Phase 104. Each array consists of four 25L buckets with 8m long by 50cm high plastic
drift fence connecting them in linear shaped design. When open, the pitfalls were
checked once a day.
Any amphibians or reptiles encountered through either method were identified in the
field using available literature and released. Any individual which could not be
identified was taken back to the GVI base camp for further analysis. A small proportion
of the captured individuals, including those that could not be identified, were
anaesthetised with Lidocaine and fixed with 10% formalin. All preseserved specimens
are stored at the Museo Ecuatoriano de Ciencias Naturales (MECN).
3.3. Results
During this phase, 61 identified reptile and amphibian individuals were encountered,
comprising of nine species of amphibian and ten species of reptile.
During the whole project to date (both the initial project and the supplementary data
collection completed this phase), 1985 identified reptile and amphibian individuals have
been encountered.
Pitfalls
Table 3.3.3 Number of individuals found in pitfall traps in total in the project so far.
Figure 3.3.5 Distribution of species diversity (amphibians) with Shannon index applied. Pitfall
and VES (first 12 months of data only).
Pitfall species diversity was projected onto a map of the Yachana Reserve using the
Kriging method see Figure 3.3.5. The projection shows clearly that there appears to be
3.4. Discussion
The amphibian and reptile work continues to provide a wealth of species which
continue to show that some species are more prevalent than others and there are
certainly some differences in the numbers and types of species found within different
areas of the reserve. The amphibians Ameerga bilinguis, Pristimantis kichwarum,
Pristimantis lanthanites, Bolitoglossa peruvianus (Dwarf-climbing Salamander) and the
lizard Lepsoma parietale are still found in greater numbers than other species at
various habitat types around the reserve. The diversity projection (Fig. 3.3.5) will be
expanded in future reports to include all trapping techniques and surveys.
Data collection for the original sites is now complete. The original sites have been
surveyed for one full year. Phase 103 saw the introduction of twelve new pitfall sites
and ten new visual encounter survey sites. These were set up to gather additional data
to add to the original sites. The new sites include riparian areas, less disturbed area,
old cacao plantation and grassland areas. For Phase 104, five of the new pitfall sites
and three of the new visual encounter sites were surveyed to further supplement the
data.
As data collection is now complete further analysis can begin. This will involve
multivariate analysis such as principal component analysis in addition to decision tree
analysis that may be applied to the development of a model used to determine the
species of amphibians and reptiles found in specific habitat types.
4.1. Introduction
The effects of fragmentation and development within forest landscapes have been
reasonably well documented due to their many impacts including alteration of habitat,
spread of disease, and population decline. However, the development and
construction of roads are a basic requirement of growing communities and will continue
to impact tropical rainforests (Goosem, 2007).
Road systems sharply define and fragment forest ecosystems, resulting in changes to
plant species composition and structure from road edges to the surrounding interior
(Bennett, 1991). The presence of roads and trails opens up the forest canopy, creating
light gaps, modifying plant communities and resources available for other species.
Despite being a part of the most diverse taxon in the Neotropics, little is known about
distribution and factors influencing diversity of butterflies (Murray, 1997). It is
necessary to understand impacts on butterflies as its dependence of the larval stage on
a specific host plant, combined with adult pollinating roles make them important
ecological indicators (Ehrlich and Raven, 1965). Butterfly communities have shown to
be sensitive to environmental variables, such as sunlight, gaps and edges (Ramos,
2000). Therefore, the interest of this study is to determine the impact of roads on aerial
and ground communities of Nymphalid butterflies in the Yachana Reserve as well as to
achieve the outlined aims:
To determine if there are any edge effects caused by the road that significantly
impact the distribution in the Yachana Reserve.
Study Site
All research was performed directly on the Yachana Reserve. The habitat the survey
took place in is mature, undisturbed terra firme forest. Excluding rare emergent trees,
the average height of the forest canopy is 25-30m.
Surveys were undertaken from October 2010 to December 2010. In this study, four
sites in 500m intervals along the north side of the road were used. Each site contained
a trap in the mid-forest canopy and a trap 1-1.5m above the ground placed 0m, 100m,
200m, 300m and 400m from the road. After the first sampling period of nine days, a
canopy and ground trap were placed 50 meters from the road at all four sites.
Sampling periods ran for nine days and traps were checked daily in the afternoon. The
traps were baited with mashed banana, which had been left to ferment for three days
prior to the baiting of the traps, and were replaced every three days. Bait was prepared
following the methods of DeVries and Walla (1999). All captured butterflies were
identified in the field by GVI volunteers and staff, using plates, and marked on the
upper wing with a dot code to monitor recaptures.
It is worth noting that although specific, dot-code data is unreliable, unless all butterflies
caught continued to be marked before release. However, butterflies were not marked if
they were too small (ie. smaller than Tigridia acesta), their wings showed dramatic
effects of wear (e.g. if there were pieces of wing missing), in order to prevent further
damage to the wings, or if their wings were transparent to avoid disrupting
camoflauge/disguise. Despite this, it will still be possible to differentiate between
recaptures and newly-caught individuals and hence avoid any pseudo-replication.
After the nine days of sampling, the traps were closed. The traps were opened again
for another nine days of sampling after 27 days. The traps are designed with a 25cm
diameter tray which holds a small bowl of bait. The tray is suspended approximately
8cm below a cylinder of netting on average 1m in length. Canopy traps were
suspended with thin rope over branches so all traps could be raised and lowered.
4.3. Results
Table 4.3.1 Individual butterfly numbers as distributed in trap sites by distance from the road,
combined from all four sites over the first 9 days of sampling.
.
Dist. From road No. of
(m) individuals
0 6
100 18
200 20
300 19
400 23
Table 4.3.2 Individual butterfly numbers as distributed in trap sites by distance from the road,
combined from all four sites over the 18 sampled days.
0 26
50 39
100 35
200 40
300 30
400 30
In order for data to be comparable (as trap sites were open different numbers of days),
the numbers of individuals caught in the site were divided by the number of days the
trap was open in total. Of the five caught, only sub-families that had over 30 individuals
caught were used to compare individual distribution over the different trap distances
(Fig. 4.3.3).
Of the eleven tribes caught, comparison was made among those with over 15
individuals caught (Fig. 4.3.4).
Of the 28 genera caught, numbers of 14 or more individuals per site were used to
compare the distribution of different genera from trap sites. Although Colobura and
Tigridia were the two genera that were caught most frequently, they are not included in
Figure 4.3.5 because there was only one species contributing to the large genera
number. Instead, individual species graphs were made to represent the distribution of
Tigridia acesta (Nymphalinae: Nymphaliini) (Fig. 4.3.6) and Colobura annulata
(Nymphalinae: Nymphaliini) (Fig. 4.3.7) over trap distances. In order to look at species
diversity, Shannon diversity index was applied to the numbers over distance which is
shown in Figure 4.3.8.
Figure 4.3.6 Species distribution of Tigridia acesta over trap distances from the road.
Figure 4.3.7 Species distribution of Colobura annulata over trap distances from the road.
2.9
Shannon Diversity of Species
2.7
Shannon Diversity Index
2.5
2.3
2.1
1.9
1.7
1.5
0 50 100 200 300 400
Distance from road (m)
4.4. Discussion
A total of 229 individuals were collected in traps; 79 individuals being caught during the
first nine days of sampling and 150 individuals being caught during the second nine
days of sampling. The increase could be a result of a number of factors. One of the
reasons for the increase is a result of additional traps being opened during the second
sampling period. However, the seasonal effects in the feeding and reproductive cycles
of butterflies could account for a fluctuation in numbers at various times of the year.
Also, changes in rain amounts can affect the daily activity of butterflies. Theorectically
the increase could also be an effect of the quality of the bait used; however, no
deviations were made in the process and fermentation times allotted for the preparation
of the bait. Additionally, more butterflies might have been able to be identified due to a
lower escape number as numerous traps were created and received repairs prior to the
second nine days of sampling.
In order to create comparable data since traps had been opened for different durations,
the number of individuals being focused on were divided by the number of days the
trap was open to provide a ratio. The ratio is reflected as number of individuals caught
per day. As shown in Figure 4.3.3, the Nymphalinae sub-family seem to demonstrate
an obvious preference, with the highest number of individuals caught at 50m which
consistently decreased over to result in containing one of the lowest numbers of
individuals caught per day at 400m, with a low number at 0m as well. This trend
reflects the preference for slightly disturbed areas.
5.1. Introduction
The effects of fragmentation within the forest landscape has been reasonably well
documented in the past, rising to an overwhelming agreement that it is one of many
major driving forces towards habitat loss, population declines and extinction. It has
been documented as “a severe threat to tropical rainforests” by Goosem (2007),
however still continues today at an unprecedented rate all over the world.
Roads can be considered as being “agents of change that have both primary, or
indirect effects, as well as secondary, or indirect effects on the biota” (Coffin, 2007).
This may entail the displacement of particular species and the reduction of core habitat
unaffected by roads. They have been documented to cause internal fragmentation
(Goosem, 2007), habitat loss, habitat alteration, facilitation of the spread of exotic flora
and fauna species, altered microclimates and vegetation structure, and loss of
connectivity (barrier effect) which restricts the movement of individuals (Goosem, 2007;
Bisonette and Rosa, 2009; Kindlemannet et al, 2007; Pocock and Lawrence, 2005).
These effects have all been associated with altering rainforest faunal habitats, and
therefore may affect mammal abundance, diversity and species composition.
Mammals, of course, are not the only affected taxa, and the full extent of road impacts
could be assessed across multi-taxa studies.
It is the interest of this study to determine if this minor road has any impact on the
adjacent rainforest non-flying mammal communities in the Yachana Reserve.
To determine if there are any edge effects caused by the road that significantly
impacts the distribution of mammal species in the Yachana Reserve.
5.2. Methods
This mammal project began at the beginning of this expedition phase in October 2010.
Whilst only two sites have been set up and surveyed (Sites 1 and 3), the project plans
to survey four sites, each spaced at 500m intervals along the road which runs through
the reserve. Each site consists of five 500m long transects placed at 0m, 25m, 150m,
350m and 700m from the road, following the road contours. Sand pads were
constructed within these sites, and these methods will be further discussed in the Sand
Pads section.
Ten visual encounter survey (VES) transects were also set up across two sites. Each
transect had a thin trail cut along it and marked with coloured plastic marker tape for
navigation and distance purposes.
During Phase 104 eight visual encounter surveys were undertaken between the dates 18th
October to 26th November 2010. Nocturnal visual encounter surveys were completed
along these transects within the hours 2000-2300 walking at a pace of approximately
300m/hr. Each transect was searched by four observers and visual and audio signs of
mammals were recorded.
Sand Pads
Only one site was sand padded at a time due to limited resources. Each site contained
ten sand pads; two pads per 0m, 25m, 150m, 350m and 700m transect placed at 100m
in from each end to minimise disturbance from access trails skirting the edges of the
transect sites.
Sand pads were circular with a one metre diameter with sand overlain ontop of black
plastic sheeting to aid containment, and a bait lure of mashed sardines in a tomato
sauce and water solution was poured onto the centre of the pad (Smithsonian Institute,
1996).
During Phase 104, 20 sand pads across two sites (Sites 1 and 3) were opened for a
total of five days and five nights (totalling 50 sand pad days and nights) between the
dates 9th to 11th November and between 16th to 19th November 2010.
Site 1 was run for three consecutive days (sand pads open for three days and three
nights), although Site 3 was only run for two consecutive days (two days and two
nights) due to large amounts of sand being washed away by a storm on the second
night. This provoked a revision of the sand pad design where sand pads on Site 1
were set up with a 1m x 2m clear plastic tarp over each sand pad to save sand from
rain splash. Sand pads were checked twice daily for diurnal and nocturnal activity
between the hours 0630-1000 and 1430-1800.
Both VES and sand pad survey methods produced effective detection rates for the
presence of mammals. Every VES conducted recorded at least one mammal
sighting/audio call, detecting a total of 19 observations with at least six different species
(some opossums detected were not able to be identified to species level). A much
lower number of individuals and species were recorded for the 350m and 700m VES
transects, however it must be noted that only Site 1 was surveyed for these distances
(not Site 3) during the past phase. Therefore an incomplete, unbalanced data set is
presented below in Table 4.2.1.
Total: 15 Total: ≥6
Due to the cryptic nature of Neotropical rainforest mammals and the fact that this
project is in its very early, initial stages, there is not enough data collected to perform
any statistical analysis as yet. This project expects to run over the coming months
where future survey work is expected to collect enough data to perform some analysis
and draw any conclusions.
GVI continues to document mammal activity in the reserve through incidental sightings
and tracks. All mammal species encountered outside of specific mammal surveys
Records
During this phase, various mammals were encountered and recorded incidentally.
These include:
Kinkajou (Potus flavus);
Brazilian Forest Rabbit (Silvagus brasiliensis);
South American Coati (Nasua nasua);
Black Agouti (Dasyprocta fuliginosa);
Amazonian Red Squirrel (Sciurus igniventris);
Black-mantled Tamarin (Saguinus nigrocollis);
Paca (Agouti paca);
Nine-banded Armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus);
White-tailed Deer (Oclocoileus virginianus);
Southern Naked-tailed Armadillo (Cabossous unicinctus);
Anderson‟s Gray Four-eyed Opossum (Philander andersoni);
Round-eared Bat (Tonatia bidens);
Southern Two-toed Sloth (Choleopusdidactylus).
6.1. Introduction
The community programme at GVI Amazon continues to grow and significant advances
have been made this Phase 104 (between October and December 2010). Detailed
below are the aims and achievements to date for the various community projects being
conducted by GVI in the Yachana Reserve and in the surrounding area.
GVI continues to work closely with the Yachana Technical High School. GVI welcomes
students from the Yachana Technical High School joining the expedition for varying
periods. They participate in all aspects of the expedition, including survey work, camp
duty and satellite camps. The students are of great assistance during field work,
sharing their knowledge about local uses for plants and local flora and fauna
knowledge, as well as helping with the scheduled project work. They share their
culture with volunteers and allow a greater insight into their background.
Aims
This phase GVI Amazon welcomed three highs school graduates from the Yachana
Technical High School to the programme for a period of four weeks each. Alongside
this GVI was also able to welcome three pasantes (work placement students) for one
week each. The students participated in all camp activities and surveys, as well as
undertaking regular Spanish and English exchange sessions with the volunteers.
In order to continue to work towards the aims set out above we hope to increase the
interaction between high school students and GVI volunteers by arranging for small
groups of the Yachana students to stay at camp for a period of 24 hours for each visit.
The groups will stay overnight in the GVI base camp in groups of no more than eight
total (including their teacher) and will participate in survey metholody demonstrations
as well as English-Spanish and cultural exchanges.
Puerto Rico is a village located approximately twenty minutes walk from the GVI
Amazon base camp, along the road that runs through the Yachana Reserve. The
school has two classes, a young and older class, and lessons are given twice a week.
Aims
Progress
Twelve English classes were given at Puero Rico this phase (between October and
December 2010). This resulted in 24 volunteer hours of teaching, to 19 older students
(7-13 years old) and 12 younger students (4-7 years old). One conservation class was
given druring the expedition. Topics that addressed included: Why is rainforest
Important? What happens if you cut down the rainforest? What does GVI do on the
Yachana Reserve?
Future
The next expedition will see the continuation of these lessons, supplemented by an
occasional tropical ecology class given at the end of each five weeks.
Aims
Progress
Four informal English classes were given at Puerto Salazar on Saturday afternoons
followed by games or football to which the community were invited to join.
Future
GVI hopes to continue these classes and expand upon them in the future, however GVI
are somewhat tied to time and resources and this does bring with it limitations. GVI is
aiming to support the communities in the surrounding areas of the Yachana Reserve as
much as possible, but is very aware of the limitations due to fluctuations in numbers of
volunteers and therefore do not want to over-commit to programmes with the
communities. For this reason the work with Puerto Salazar will continue on the
occasions when it is convenient to both the local community and the GVI Amazon
schedule, with a view to continuing the work in the future.
Aims
Progress
Seven English lessons were delivered this phase, plus one conservation and
environment lesson given in Spanish. The class are extremely willing to learn and we
have made a great deal of progress with the level of English given that it is our first
decisive contact with this school and community. The teacher is also putting a lot of
effort into improving her own level of English knowledge and is taking the class through
the work between lessons with volunteers. In order to encourage this type of progress
GVI has been providing vocabulary flashcards and posters (made by volunteers) for
the English lessons themselves which can then be left with the class and teacher for
additional practise between the regular classes that GVI delivers.
Future
We hope to continue the weekly lessons with Rio Bueno and give environmental
presentations each five weeks.
The butterfly project will continue, examining the effects of road and trail
disturbance upon fruit feeding species, in relation to changes in vegetation.
GVI will continue to participate in exchanges with the Yachana Technical High
School.
TEFL at Puerto Rico will continue with a defined focus for each ten week block,
for each age group, and the aim is to encourage students to put their learning
into practise and get them conversing in English.
Simple environmental lessons will be continued at the school in Puerto Rico (to
be given in Spanish) and initiated at Rio Bueno.
An expansion of teaching will branch out with weekend lessons at the local
community of Rio Bueno and when possible at Puerto Salazar. These lessons
will be the basis for a future opportunity of more structured teaching times within
this community.
The biggest aim for next phase is to begin to wrap up the current projects in
order to start working towards re-structuring the reserve into a grided format.
This will allow for a more standardised research surveys and methodologies
that will develop into a well structured, long term surveying project.
In 2009 an ex GVI staff member published an article about an extremely rare glass frog
that was found in the Yachana Reserve, during the GVI Amazon expedition in the
previous year by GVI volunteers and staff. The article was published in Check List and
focuses on the geographic distriubution of Amphibia, Centrolenidae, Hyalinobatrachium
iaspidiense. The full article can be found at the following link:
http://www.checklist.org.br/getpdf?NGD004-09
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Australia: Surrey Beatty. Nature Conservation 2: 99-118.
DeVries, P. J., Walla, T. R., 1999. Species diversity in spatial and temporal dimensions
of fruit-feeding butterflies from two Ecuadorian rainforests. Biological Journal of the
Linnean Society 68: 333-353.
Ehrlich, P. R., Raven, P. H., 1965. Butterflies and plants: A study in co-evolution.
Evolution 18: 586-608.
Murray, D. L., 2000. A Survey of the butterfly fauna of Jatun Sacha, Ecuador
(Lepidoptera: Hesperioidea and Papilionoidea). Journal of Research on the
Lepidoptera 35: 42- 60.
Mammal References
Bissonette, J.A. and Rosa, S.A. (2009).Road Zone Effect in Small-Mammal
Communities.Ecology and Society 14: 27
Eisenberg, J.F. and Redford, K.H. (1999). Mammals of the Neotropics: The Central
Neotropics Volume 3: Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil. The University of Chicago Press,
USA.
Pocock, Z., and Lawrence, R.E. (2005). How far into a forest does the effect of a road
extend? Defining road edge effect in eucalyupt forests of south-eastern
Australia.Pages 397–405 in C. L. Irwin, P. Garrett, and K. P. McDermott, editors.
Proceedings of the 2005 International Conference on Ecology and Transportation.
Center for Transportation and Environment, North Carolina State University, Raleigh,
North Carolina, USA.
Silveira, L., Jacomo, A.T.A. and Diniz-Filho, A.F. (2003). Camera trap, line transect
census and track surveys: a comparative evaluation. Biological Conservation 114:351-
353
Updated December 2010. ** added Phase 104 Buteo polyosoma Variable Hawk
(Brackets) = Auditory confirmation only
Leucopternis melanops Black-faced Hawk
CLASS AVES
Gruiformes
Rails, Gallinules, and
Order Falconiformes Rallidae Coots
Order Caprimulgiformes
Nightjars and
Amazona farinosa Mealy Amazon
Caprimulgidae Nighthawks
Coccyzidae Cuckoos
Thrrenetes niger Pale-tailed Barbthroat
Order Trogoniformes
Capitonidae New World Barbets
Trogonidae Trogons and Quetzals
Capita aurovirens Scarlet-crowned Barbet
Pharomachrus pavoninus Pavonine Quetzal
Capita auratus Gilded Barbet
Trogon melanurus Black-tailed Trogon
Eubucco bourcierii Lemon-throated Barbet
Amazonian White-tailed
Trogon viridis Trogon
Ramphastidae Toucans
Trogon collaris Collared Trogon
Pteroglossus azara Ivory-billed Aracari
Trogon rufus Black-throated Trogon
Pteroglossus castanotis Chestnut-eared Aracari
Trogon violaceus Amazonian Violaceous Trogon
Griseotyrannus
aurantioatrocristatus Crowned Slaty Flycatcher Turdus lawrencii Lawrence's Thrush
CLASS MAMMALIA
Tangara chilensis Paradise Tanager
Order Marsupialia
Tangara nigrocincta Masked Tanager
Didelphidae Opossums
Tangara mexicana Turquoise Tanager
Caluromys lanatus Western Woolly Opossum
Tangara schrankii Green-and-gold Tanager
Chironectes minimus Water Opossum
Southern Naked-tailed
Tachyphonus cristatus Flame-crested Tanager
Cabassous unicinctus Armadillo
Carollia castanea
Lontra longicaudis Neotropical Otter
Carollia perspicullatus Short-tailed Fruit Bat
Felidae Cat
Erethizontidae Porcupines
Anolis ortonii Amazon Bark Anole Xenedon severos Giant False Viper
Anolis punctata Amazon Green Anole Xenoxybelis argenteus Green-striped Vine Snake
Mabuya nigropunctata Black-spotted Skink Bothriopsis bilineata Western Striped Forest Pit
bilineata Viper
Dendrobates duellmani Duellmans Poison Frog Pristimantis acuminatus Green Rain Frog
Dendropsophus bifurcus Upper Amazon Tree Frog Pristimantis lanthanites Striped-throated Rain Frog
Neotropical Marbled Tree
Dendropsophus marmorata Frog Pristimantis malkini Malkini's Rain Frog
Janthecla sista
CLASS ARACHNIDA
Thecla aetolius
Araneae
Thecla mavors
Nephila clavipes Golden Silk Spider
Riodinidae
Ancylometes terrenus Giant Fishing Spider
Amarynthis meneria
Anteros renaldus
Order Hemiptera Calospila cilissa
Dysodius lunatus Lunate Flatbug Calospila partholon
Calospila emylius
Order Coleoptera Calydna venusta
Euchroma gigantea Giant Ceiba Borer Cartea vitula
Homoeotelus d'orbignyi Pleasing Fungus Beetle Emesis fatinella
Scarabaeidae Emesis lucinda
Canthon luteicollis Emesis mandana
Deltochilum howdeni Emesis ocypore
Dichotomius ohausi Eurybia dardus
Dichotomius prietoi Eurybia elvina
Eurysternus caribaeus Eurybia franciscana
Eurysternus confusus Eurybia halimede
Eurysternus foedus Eurybia unxia
Eurysternus inflexus Hyphilaria parthenis
Eurysternus plebejus Isapis agyrtus
Ithomiola floralis
Order Lepidoptera Lasaia agesilaus narses
Papilionidae Lasaia pseudomeris
Battus belus varus Leucochimona vestalis
Battus polydamas Livendula amaris
Papilio androgeus Livendula violacea
Papilio thoas cyniras Lyropteryx appolonia
Parides aeneas bolivar Mesophthalma idotea
Parides lysander Mesosemia loruhama
Parides pizarro Mesosemia latizonata
Parides sesostris Napaea heteroea
Panacea regina
Magneuptychia analis
Marpesia crethon
Magneuptychia libye
Marpesia petreus
Magneuptychia ocnus
Apaturinae
Magneuptychia ocypete
Doxocopa agathina
Magneuptychia tiessa
Catoblepia berecynthia
Cithaerias aurora
Catoblepia cassiope
Cithaerias menander
Catoblepia generosa
Cithaerias pireta
Catoblepia soranus
Haetera macleannania
Catoblepia xanthus
Haetera piera
Catoblepia xanthicles
Pierella astyoche
Opsiphanes invirae
Pierella hortona
Heliconinae Passion Vine Butterflies
Pierella lamia
Acraeini
Pierella lena
Pierella lucia
Actinote sp.
Euptychiini
Heliconiini
Caeruleuptychia scopulata
Dryas iulia
Chloreuptychia agatha
Eueides eunice
Chloreuptychia herseis
Eueides isabella
Euptychia binoculata
Eueides lampeto
Euptychia labe
Eueides lybia
Euptychia myncea
Heliconius hecale
Heliconius melponmene
Heliconius numata
Heliconius sara
Heliconius xanthocles
Heliconius doris
Philaethria dido
Danainae
Danaini
Danaus plexippus
Ithomiini
Aeria eurimidea
Ceratinia tutia
Hypoleria sarepta
Hyposcada anchiala
Hyposcada illinissa
Hypothyris anastasia
Hypothyris fluonia
Ithomia amarilla
Ithomia salapia
Mechanitis lysimnia
Mechanitis mazaeus
Mechanitis messenoides
Methone cecilia
Oleria gunilla
Oleria ilerdina
Oleria tigilla
Tithorea harmonia