Professional Documents
Culture Documents
healthy environment.
Stephen F. Greb
Cortland F. Eble
Douglas C. Peters
Alexander R. Papp
Cortland F. Eble is a coal and energy geologist at the Kentucky Geological Survey; he also is an
adjunct faculty member of the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at the University
of Kentucky. Dr. Eble is a past-Chair of the Coal Division of the Geological Society of America and has
won awards for coal research. He has numerous publications concerning palynology, the chemical and
physical characteristics of coal, coal and its importance to the energy mix in the United States, and
the fate of minerals and elements in coal from mining through utilization.
Douglas C. Peters is the owner of Peters Geosciences, a remote sensing and GIS consultancy in
Golden, Colorado. He formerly was a Principal Investigator for the U.S. Bureau of Mines Denver
Research Center, specializing in remote sensing and GIS applications for coal mining, abandoned
mines, and environmental topic areas. Mr. Peters received M.Sc. degrees in Geology and Mining
Engineering from the Colorado School of Mines. He is the author of more than 70 publications on
coal geology, remote sensing, caving, mining, ground control, computer-aided geoscience, and
GIS technology.
Alexander R. Papp has worked as a coal geologist for 25 years, both domestically and internationally,
and held corporate, operations, and consulting firm positions. He has been involved in many phases
of the "mining cycle" but principally in the collection of baseline environmental data, permitting
activity, compliance assurance, and reclamation activities at exploration sites and mining operations.
He received a M.Sc. degree from Eastern Kentucky University and is currently an independent
consultant in Denver.
The American Geological Institute (AGI) is a nonprofit federation of 44 scientific and professional associations
that represent more than 120,000 geologists, geophysicists, and other earth scientists. Founded in 1948, AGI
provides information services to geoscientists, serves as a voice of shared interests in our profession, plays
a major role in strengthening geoscience education, and strives to increase public awareness of the vital role
the geosciences play in mankind’s use of resources and interaction with the environment. The Institute also
provides a public-outreach web site, www.earthscienceworld.org.
To purchase additional copies of this book or receive an AGI publications catalog please
contact AGI by mail or telephone, send an e-mail request to pubs@agiweb.org, or visit the online bookstore
at www.agiweb.org/pubs.
1
Foreword 4
4
Preface 5
2
How Coal Forms 10 Mercury and Hazardous Air Pollutants 48
5
Resources and Reserves 11 Carbon Dioxide 49
Solid Waste Byproducts 51
3
Safety and Disturbance Concerns 30 Index 64
Miners’ Health and Safety 32
4
Preface
Coal, our most important domestic fuel resource, accounts for nearly 25% of our country’s
total primary energy production and produces half of our electric power. Annual U.S. coal
production is 1.1 billion short tons, which equates to 20 pounds of coal per person, per day.
On average you will use 3 to 4 tons of coal this year, probably without even knowing it.
That said, the U.S. Department of Energy indicates that because of the shear volume
of energy our country needs to sustain economic growth and our standard of living, the
use of coal as a fuel will likely increase in the future — even if the percentage of coal as a
whole in the energy mix decreases. Increasing coal use is also expected in world markets as
both China and India have large populations, rapidly expanding industrial economies and
energy needs, and large coal resources of their own. The use of coal, like nearly all human
activities, has environmental impacts. Recognizing these impacts has led to greater scrutiny
in the way coal is mined, processed, and used.
Our objective in writing about coal is to relate the mining and use of this vital energy
resource to the environmental concerns that affect our society. Coal and the Environment
covers issues related to coal mining and combustion, as well as the methods, technology,
and regulation currently in use, or planned for the future, to meet our nation’s energy
needs, while caring for the environment around us.
The authors gratefully acknowledge the many individuals who helped in putting this
publication together. Special thanks to Travis Hudson and Julie Jackson for coordination
and editing, and to Julie DeAtley for her phenomenal layout and design. Joe Galetovic,
Office of Surface Mining, provided information and sources of images; Mark Carew
and Ben Enzweiler, Kentucky Division of Abandoned Mine Lands, were also a great help
in providing images. Thanks to all of the colleagues who provided technical expertise and
images for use in the manuscript. We especially thank the principal reviewers for their
time and efforts including James C. Cobb, Kentucky Geological Survey; Bob Finkelman,
U.S. Geological Survey; Travis Hudson, American Geological Institute; Bob Kane, U.S.
Department of Energy; Philip LaMoreaux, P.E. LaMoreaux & Associates; David Morse,
Illinois State Geological Survey; Alma Paty, American Coal Foundation; John Rupp and
Nelson Shaffer, Indiana Geological Survey; Gary Stiegel, U.S. Department of Energy;
Steve Trammel, Kennecott Energy; and Dave Wunsch, New Hampshire Geological Survey.
Stephen F. Greb
Cortland F. Eble
Douglas C. Peters
Alexander R. Papp
June 2006
5
Global Sources
of Energy
8% Coal 24% Global Sources
6%
of Electricity
38%
18% Coal 39%
24% 17%
Coal
Natural gas
Petroleum 8%
18%
Nuclear
Renewables & others U.S. Sources
of Energy
13% Coal 31% U.S. Sources
11%
of Electricity
9%
17% 20%
28%
3%
17% Coal 51%
6
Coal, the rock that burns, is an important source of global energy
(Fig. 1). This fossil fuel formed from accumulations of plants under
swampy conditions. The energy in coal originally came from the Sun,
(through the plants) and when coal burns, energy is released.
8
Fig. 4. The painting
wetland conditions,
coal formation.
W H E R E C O A L F O R M S
Modern peat bog, Alaska
Coal’s Role in
However, it takes a great amount of carbon- the Carbon Cycle
rich plant material, time for that material Carbon is cycled through the earth in
to form peat, and special geological and several forms — for example, as part of
chemical conditions that protect the peat the atmosphere, or in living organisms
from degradation and erosion to make a as part of the biosphere (Fig. 5). Plants
mineable coal seam. Peat and the buried absorb carbon dioxide (CO2) from the
coal that eventually forms from it are part atmosphere during photosynthesis,
C
of our planet’s carbon cycle.
Fig. 5. Generalized
and exchanged
in which humans
Human removal influence the cycle.
of carbon from the
biosphere and lithosphere
9
and release CO2 back into the atmos- faster than would occur naturally.
Fig. 6
phere during respiration. Carbon from Greenhouse gases, such as carbon diox-
arbon dioxide is photosynthesis is stored in the plants. ide and methane, act as an insulating
considered a “greenhouse If the plants die and accumulate as blanket around the Earth, allowing
gas” and increased levels of peat, the precursor of coal, the carbon incoming solar radiation to warm the
CO2 and other greenhouse becomes part of the geosphere. Peat Earth’s surface and reducing radiation
gases in the atmosphere may that is buried and transformed into of heat back into space (Fig. 6). Because
contribute to global warming. coal is a vast carbon sink or reservoir. CO2 is a greenhouse gas, there is
According to the U.S. Coal deposits store carbon in the concern that man-made increases in
Environmental Protection geosphere for millions of years and carbon emissions are rising, and con-
Agency’s inventory of green- are long-term carbon sinks. When coal tributing to global climate change.
house gas emissions (2004),
and other long-term carbon sinks are The role of coal combustion’s possible
the major greenhouse gases
removed from the geosphere through influence on global climate is discussed
put into the air by human
mining or other human activities in Chapter 4.
acitvities (in carbon dioxide
we disrupt the natural carbon cycle.
equivalents) are
Burning coal or other fossil fuels How Coal Forms
carbon dioxide (CO2) 85% oxidizes carbon, produces heat, and Large amounts of plant materials
methane (CH4) 8%
releases byproduct carbon dioxide accumulate in widespread peat-forming
nitrous oxide (N2O) 5%
and other gases 2% (CO2) into the atmosphere at a rate wetlands (called mires). When mires
accumulate within geologic basins, they
can be deeply buried long enough for
the peat to be converted to coal (Fig. 7).
Basins are broad, subsiding (sinking)
depressions in the Earth’s crust in
which sediments accumulate.
When peat is buried, pressure
In
Coal
from the overlying sediments and heat
cr
ea
sin
tim
g
e,
pre
ssu re & temperature
Fig. 7. Coal "rank"
11
Northern Alaska
Fields
Healy-Nenana
Bighorn Basin
Fields North Central
Region Powder River
Basin
Wind River
Matanuska Region
Valley Fields
Green River
Kenai Fields Region
Uinta Region
Denver Region
12
Fort Union Region
Pennsylvania
Anthracite Region
Illinois
Basin
Western
Interior
Region
Central
Appalachian Basin
Southern
Appalachian Basin
Southwestern
Interior
Region
13
EXPLORATION PLANNING E X C AVA T I O N RECL AMATION
14
The “mining cycle” describes how coal is found, produced,
and lands are restored in the United States (Fig. 9). The cycle
Fig. 10. Drilling into
starts with exploration and continues through mine planning, the earth is generally
permitting, and production to closure and reclamation. required in coal explo-
ration. Rock core is
Exploration recovered from drilling
Exploration provides the foundation for mine planning and and analyzed during
design. The first step in an exploration program is to define exploration.
the extent of the exploration area and prepare an
exploration plan. After the plan has been estab-
lished, permission from landowners and permits from
appropriate regulatory agencies are required to
conduct drilling operations. Drilling confirms the
thickness and depth of the coal underground and
allows cores to be collected for physical and chemical
testing (Fig. 10). The quality of the coal, such as btu
heating value, mineral content, and sulfure content,
and its rank are established from lab analyses. Rock
cores are also examined for data needed for mine
designs, such as strength of roof and floor rock.
Chemical analyses of the core assess the rock’s poten-
tial for producing acids if mined. Data are also
collected to define the pre-mining
character of the groundwater,
surface water, rock strata, soil,
archeology, vegetation, and wildlife,
which are required in the mine permit.
Leases are made with landowners and mineral
rights owners (which are sometimes different) for the
15
Fig. 11
M I N I N G M E T H O D S
The diagram illustrates
various methods of
area mines.
address environmental and safety regula- surface methods depending on the depth
tions through all phases of the mining and thickness of the deposit (Fig. 11).
report on the condition of the area to be vary depending upon mining methods
mined prior to mining, how the land is employed, specific deposit characteristics,
going to be mined and the sequence in coal and rock strata chemistry, and the
which it will be mined, and how the land geography of the region.
16
Underground Mining United States. In 2003, 17 of the largest
Underground mines can be classified based 20 mines were area mines. The top 10 pro-
on coal seam access as drift, slope, or shaft ducers were all areas mines in the Powder
mines. Drift mines enter a coal seam at the River Basin, in Wyoming.
level of the coal, whereas slope mines access Contour mines are located in steep,
tunnel. Shafts are vertical openings that mining, a narrow wedge of coal and over-
use elevators to reach an underground coal burden is mined around the outside of a
seam. Shafts in excess of 2,000 feet deep hill at the elevation or “contour” of the
Fig. 12. The largest
have been used in some U.S. coal mines, coal. The excavation creates a steep cut
surface mines in the
although most mines are much shallower. or highwall on the uphill-side of the
United States are area
excavation.
mines of the Powder
Auger mining uses large drills to
River Basin in Wyoming,
mine into the side of a hill from a highwall.
where coal can be
After mining, the excavated overburden in
100 feet thick and is
contour and auger mines is pushed back
near the surface.
against the highwall and graded to approx-
Surface Mining imate the original slope and contour of
Typical surface mining methods include the hillside.
area (open pit), contour, highwall (auger)
mining, and mountaintop removal.
Area or open pit mines remove coal
over broad areas where the land is fairly
flat or where there is a relatively uniform
thickness of soil and rock above the coal
(Fig. 12). Rock material between the
surface and the coal, called overburden,
is removed to get to the underlying coal.
Excavated overburden is called spoil,
tailings, castings, or mine refuse. Much
of this excavated material is used during
reclamation to recontour the post-mining
land surface. Area mines are the largest
and most productive mines in the
17
flat land, because flat land is valuable in
many parts of Appalachia where this min-
Fig. 13.
ing method is used. But, the change in the
Mountaintop
resultant topography and infilling of stream
removal mining in
headwaters is permanent and is one of the
West Virginia.
reasons there is public concern about this
method of mining.
Environmental Concerns
In the east, some of the largest- The environmental concerns associated
producing surface mines are mountaintop with finding and mining coal vary depend-
removal and multiple seam mines. These ing on the type of mining, geology of the
are special types of surface mines where coal and overburden, topography of the
large quantities of overburden are removed landscape, and climate of the mining area.
from the top of a ridge or mountain, expos- Some of the impacts are not unique to coal
ing several closely-spaced coal seams (Fig. mining and can occur with any large-scale
13). Although many people think of the excavation and construction; other impacts
western United States when they think of are more typical of coal mining. The princi-
18
Fig. 14
From P H Y S I C A L D I S T U R B A N C E
through P O S T M I N E L A N D U S E
Physical disturbances
to the landscape
occur during surface
mining and remain
until the mined area
is reclaimed. Since
1977, strict regula-
tions have guided the
reclamation process.
Before
After
Regrading disturbed land
20
Fig. 15. Care is
taken in choosing
sedimentation, and potential for surface
species tolerant of
water quality changes in the streams that
climate conditions
drain the mine. During mountaintop
in reclamation, like
removal, valleys are filled with the rock that
these native Kayenta
is excavated to get at the coal. Several law
pinon pines in
suits have claimed that valley filling during
Arizona.
mountaintop removal violates sections pro-
tecting streams in the 1972 Clean Water Act
and the 1977 Surface Mining Control and
Reclamation Act. These sections prohibit habitats. Planting forests also provides
disturbing land within 100 feet of intermit- future, renewable timber resources and
tent or perennial streams unless a variance offers the added attraction of removing car-
is granted. Legal issues involving mountain- bon dioxide from the atmosphere at a time
21
Fig. 17
was extracted. Where room- and pillar-
L A N D S L I D E S
extraction is used, large blocks or “pillars”
of coal are left between “rooms” where the
coal was removed. If subsidence occurs,
it will be localized above rooms and may
occur at any time after mining. In contrast,
longwall extraction methods remove coal in
long panels and the overlying roof rock is
designed to collapse in safe, controlled
collapses behind the advancing panels.
With longwall extraction, subsidence effects
are more immediate and predictable.
Subsidence can also occur as a result of
underground mine fires regardless of min-
ing methods or in the absence of mining
(see p. 28).
It is estimated that nearly 2 million
acres (8,000 km2) of land have been
affected by subsidence above abandoned
(pre-1977) coal mines in the United States.
Recognition of past subsidence problems
led to federal and state guidelines that
restrict underground mining, and generally
limit or prohibit mining beneath towns,
existing slumps during mining and road construction site including surface
groundwater in ways that saturate naturally can degrade water quality, smother
unstable slopes (Fig. 17). The Surface Mine fauna at the bottom of streams and
Control and Reclamation Act (1977) set lakes, fill lakes and ponds, act as
standards for surface mining that include a carrier of other pollutants, and
returning mined areas to near their natural clog stream courses, which can lead
the U.S. Department of the Interior’s Office tation is controlled through better
of Surface Mining and associated state reg- forest harvesting practices prior to
ulatory agencies have reclaimed 800 known mining, ongoing reclamation that
slope failures on more than 3,400 acres of limits the amount of disturbed Fig. 18. Sediment ponds
mined lands. Mitigation of mine-induced material at any one time, construction of are constructed at surface
slope failures generally involves redirecting roads with culverts and buffers to limit or mines to trap sediment-
water away from slump-prone areas. direct runoff, and the use of terraces and laden waters and prevent
Disturbed areas are then graded and reveg- grading to reduce steep slopes, which limits sediment from leaving
etated. In some cases, retaining walls are erosion and controls or directs runoff. the mine site. The rock
built to protect structures, such as roads Sediment ponds are required at all mine drain in the upper photo
sites to trap sediment and prevent it from directs the flow of mine
and houses, which are located downslope
leaving the site (Fig. 18). Once the waters to sediment ponds
from known landslides.
sediment settles out, the water can be at a mine in Indiana.
Reclamation of highwalls in active
The pond and wetland
or abandoned surface mines involves back- discharged into downstream waterways.
in the lower photo were
filling rock against the highwall, and com- During mining, settling ponds are routinely
created during reclama-
pacting and grading the fill material to dredged and the dredged material is
tion of a surface mine
minimize future slumping and sliding. added to the mine spoil.
in Texas to provide flood
Backfilled slopes are then revegetated to Sedimentation concerns are different
storage.
prevent slope failures. in arid western states. Thin vegetative
cover, flash floods, and wind erosion make
23
Fig. 19. The water
quality of surface
streams on mine sites
is analyzed before, dur-
ing, and after mining.
The scientists in the
arid landscapes especially susceptible to ! Acidity, pH;
photo are counting fish
in a stream on aban- erosion. In such areas, the goal of inhibit- ! Sediment load;
doned mine land as a ing erosion must be coupled with retaining ! Total suspended solids; and
measure of the stream’s available moisture if sedimentation is going ! Salinity (total dissolved solids)
health. The sample to be limited and revegetation successful.
of the water passing through the disturbed
shown is being tested to Some of the practices used to prevent
material. In order to track potential water
determine its pH, the erosion and sedimentation from western
quality changes resulting from mining,
degree of acidity or mining include digging furrows, construct-
coal companies must monitor all surface
alkalinity. ing check dams, contour terracing, lining
and groundwater on their sites before,
drainage channels with rock and vegeta-
during, and after mining. Water standards
tion, and mulching.
are set by federal, state, and tribal authori-
ties. Some of the parameters tested to
Water Quality
determine if mining is altering off-site
Mining results in large increases in the
water quality include pH, conductivity,
amount of rock surfaces exposed to the air
dissolved oxygen, total suspended solids,
and water. In spoil piles or backfill, the
total dissolved solids, including bicarbon-
newly exposed rock surfaces reacting to air
ate, nitrate-nitrite, phosphate, and varied
and water may lead to changes in the
elemental (iron, manganese, etc.)
concentrations (Fig. 19).
24
Mine-related, surface-water quality ! Regrading and complex slope design
issues depend in part on climate. In the to limit erosion and runoff;
Fig. 20. The orange-
arid western states, production of alkaline ! Mulching to increase infiltration and
colored water leaking
(high pH) waters with increased total retain water; and from an abandoned
dissolved solids is a potential consequence ! Roughening, pitting and, contour mine opening is
of disturbing surface materials naturally plowing, to increase infiltration and characteristic of acidic
rich in sodium and calcium sulfates. aid in revegetation. (acid rock) drainage.
Likewise, leaching of trace elements that Pyrite, oxygen, and
Acidic Drainage
are soluble in alkaline waters, such as bacteria are the main
Acidic (low pH) waters are a particular con- ingredients that
boron and selenium, is a concern, because
cern in the eastern United States, where a combine in nature to
high concentrations of these elements can
longer unregulated mining history, climate, make the sulfuric acid
be toxic to plants and animals. To prevent
and rock characteristics plus the population that acidifies soil
these consequences, regulatory agencies
density around impacted waters make acidic and water. Acidic
developed a series of best practices to limit
drainage a major environmental issue. drainage results from
the production and downstream migration
Water from mined lands with increased mines located in areas
of alkaline waters from western coal mines.
acidity, and higher concentrations of that contain strata
Some of these practices include
dissolved metals, especially iron, aluminum, and coal with high
! Computer modeling to better implement and manganese (Fig. 20) can be a problem. pyrite and low carbon-
site-specific sedimentation and erosion ate concentrations.
Oxygen
Sulfuric
Acid
Pyrite Bacteria
(iron sulfide)
25
Acidic drainage does not result from ! treatment to reduce acidity in runoff
every mining operation, but rather, from (where needed); and
mines located in strata and coal with high ! covering with sealants (such as clays)
pyrite and low carbonate concentrations.
in order to prevent interaction with
Acidic drainage also occurs from un-mined
groundwater and surface water.
exposures as a natural consequence of
Although modern mining companies
weathering. Pyrite, commonly called “fool’s
spend great effort preventing acidic
gold,” is an iron-sulfide mineral, which
drainage, there is an unfortunate legacy
may be present in high concentrations in
of acid-rich, rust-colored, and biologically
coal beds and organic-rich shale. The
impaired streams resulting from past min-
reaction of pyrite with oxygen in soil, air,
ing. The U.S. Environmental Protection
or water is the principal cause of acidic
Agency estimates that acidic drainage has
drainage.
polluted 17,000 km (10,874 miles) of
Acidic drainage can result in
streams in Appalachia. Many methods
depleted oxygen levels, toxicity, corrosion
have been developed to mitigate this legacy.
and precipitates that can degrade water
No single method is appropriate for all
quality, damage aquatic habitats, and can
situations (Fig. 21). The most common
make surface and groundwater unusable
method for treating mine-caused acidic
for post-mine land uses.
waters are so called “active” techniques in
Modern surface mining techniques
which neutralizing material, such as lime-
have greatly reduced the amount of acidic
stone, is continuously added to affected
drainage produced by mining. If neutral-
waterways through a water treatment facility
izing materials (such as limestone) occur
or similar procedure. Engineered structural
within the material that will be mined, they
techniques are also common and include
are mixed with potentially acidic rock strata
various methods of water management to
to neutralize acidic water produced. Rock
redirect or divert water from potentially
layers identified as containing high per-
acid-producing material. Other remedia-
centages of pyrite are removed selectively
tion methods include “passive” treatments
and disposed of in a manner that limits fur-
that do not require chemical additions, but
ther oxidation or surface runoff. Selective
use natural chemical and biological process-
handling is combined with
es to reduce acidic drainage. Examples
! spoil placement above the water table; of passive treatments include
! diversion of waters away from the
! Constructed wetlands;
material;
! Anoxic limestone drains; and
! Successive alkalinity producing systems.
26
Fig. 21
A C I D I C D R A I N A G E
R E M E D I A T I O N
Limestone is alkaline
and is a common
“active treatment” used
to neutralize acidic
drainage.
Vertical flow ponds
Analyzing drainage
Limestone drains
Directing drainage
Constructed wetland
28
meters per year), but they can burn for reactions of coalification. The amount
decades. Coal fires can cause unsafe heat, of methane in a coal depends on the coal’s
forest fires, noxious emissions, and surface rank, composition, age, burial depth, and
subsidence (Fig. 23). Subsidence can occur other factors. When coal is mined, the gas
when the coal and surrounding rocks are trapped within it is released.
baked by the fire, which causes the strata Methane has long been a concern
to compress or compact, and results in in terms of miner safety. Some of the
collapse of the overlying material. worst U.S. mining disasters are caused by
It is difficult to determine the extent methane explosions in underground mines.
of underground coal fires, and such fires Fugitive methane can also be a hazard at
are very difficult to extinguish. To extin- the surface if it leaks from underground
guish an underground mine fire you have mines (active or abandoned) through
to eliminate the fuel (the coal), heat, or fractures into buildings and water wells.
oxygen. Several fire control techniques In order to prevent explosions
are used and the determination of which of methane (or methane and coal dust
technique is used depends on the risk to combined) methane concentrations are
adjacent property, original mining type, constantly monitored and large exhaust
local geology and hydrology. Eliminating fans are used to circulate fresh air from the
the fuel requires complete excavation of surface into the mine. Methane becomes
the coal or digging a trench or constructing part of the exhaust air and is generally
a barrier to prevent the spread of the fire. vented to the atmosphere. Coal that is left
Eliminating the heat usually involves flood- exposed underground (for example, pillars
ing or flushing the fire area with water. in room-and-pillar mines) is covered with
Eliminating the flow of air and oxygen to powdered limestone (called “rock dust”) or
the fire generally requires flushing mine other non-combustible material to keep a
voids with a slurry of water and fine blast from spreading, and to keep coal dust
particles to plug pore spaces, cleats, and from becoming suspended in the mine air
fractures, and surface sealing of abandoned (coal dust in the air is explosive). If
mine openings to eliminate ventilation of methane leaks to the surface during or
the fire farther underground. after mining, remediation generally focuses
on mitigation at the point of concern by
Fugitive Methane redirecting, venting, or sealing the path
Fugitive methane is the uncontrolled of the escaping gas.
release of methane to the atmosphere. Because methane is a greenhouse
Methane (CH4) is a naturally occurring gas, there is also concern that anthro-
gas in coal that forms from anerobic pogenic emissions of methane may
methanogenic bacteria and chemical contribute to global climate change.
29
Anthropogenic Safety and Disturbance
Methane Sources Concerns
Several of the environmental issues related
to coal mining are also related to public
disturbance, welfare, and safety. Blasting
and dust are probably the most common
nuisance or disturbance issues. Surface
mines use explosives to break rock layers
above the coal, and sometimes the coal
itself (Fig. 25). Blasting is a safety issue
Landfills and agriculture account for most because fatalities, injuries, and property
Fig. 24. This geologist of the anthropogenic methane released in damage have occurred from coal-mine
is sealing a coal core the United States; coal mining accounts for blasting accidents. Blasting and vehicle
that has just been 10% (Fig. 24). Shifts in U.S. production to movement at mines also produces dust.
drilled in a canister western surface-mined coals and recovery of Dust can limit visibility and is a health
for measuring the methane as a fuel have led to decreases in concern because long-term (chronic)
coal’s methane gas fugitive methane from mining of more than exposure to high levels of mine dust can
content. The chart 30% since 1990. Unlike other greenhouse cause respiratory problems.
shows human-related gases, methane can be used as a clean, Regulations set limits on dust and
sources of methane in hydrogen-rich fuel source. Therefore the vibration levels in modern mines. To limit
the United States. principal method for mitigating methane dust, mines spray water (from special water
releases from underground coal mines is tank trucks) on all active road surfaces.
to drill into the coal in advance of mining Mining companies also revegetate dis-
and collect the methane. New capture turbed areas and exposed spoil piles to
technologies to harness ventilation methane prevent dust formation. To limit damage
are being researched and developed. from blasting, all dwellings within a half-
Use of these technologies is not practical mile of proposed mine sites are identified
or economic in all coal basins. In some prior to mining and appropriate blasting
cases, coal-bed methane is a primary energy levels are calculated to prevent damage to
resource, produced from coal beds that dwellings. Notices of blasting schedules,
cannot be mined. In fact, one method signs and warning sirens are required dur-
being investigated to decrease the amount ing blasting and all blasting must be done
of anthropogenic carbon dioxide released by state-certified blasters. Noise levels and
is to store it in deep, unmineable coal beds vibrations are monitored by the mining
(also called sequestration, see p. 50) and companies and must meet State and
use the carbon dioxide to drive out the Federal regulations. If mine blasts cause
coal-bed methane for use as fuel. damage to property, the mining company
30
Fig. 25
P U B L I C S A F E T Y H A Z A R D S
31
must repair the damage or otherwise settle resulting in catastrophic flooding down-
with the property owner. stream. State laws have resulted in better
An array of potential dangers are seals and barriers that significantly reduced
associated with abandoned mines. Some the number of blowouts, but they still occur.
of the features that can pose dangers are In April of 2005, a blowout in eastern
abandoned highwalls, impoundments and Kentucky flooded and damaged part of a
water bodies, open portals (mine openings) major state highway, causing the highway to
and shafts, hazardous equipment and facili- be shut down for several days, until water
ties, and illegal dumps. Old mine openings levels from the mine decreased (Fig. 25).
are usually sealed or barricaded, but sealed
mine openings are sometimes reopened by Miners’ Health and Safety
those seeking adventure or those looking Mining is a difficult and potentially
for a local coal supply. Such adventures are dangerous profession. In a single year,
inherently dangerous, as abandoned mines 1907, 3,242 coal miners were killed in U.S.
are no longer ventilated and therefore may coal mines. Increasing use of technology,
have low-oxygen areas, poisonous or explo- improved mining methods, increased miner
sive gas concentrations, flooded sections, education and training, and regulatory
Abandoned mine sites are also poten- safety of U.S. coal mines. In 2005, 22 fatal-
tially dangerous, especially to the curious, ities were reported (Fig. 26). There is still
water in abandoned surface pits and old fatalities, injuries, and illnesses in coal
rusted mining equipment and building mines but the progress U.S. mines have
structures. Likewise, water can accumulate made in safety stands in dramatic contrast
The size of the mine (and open space), thousands of miners are still killed
entering the mine determine how much Although black lung and silicosis
water can accumulate. If large abandoned are declining in the United States, these
mines are above drainage (above the lowest diseases still impact coal miners. Black
potential hazard from blowouts (breakouts). caused from prolonged inhalation of coal
Blowouts occur when the water pressure dust. The disease mostly affects miners
in flooded mines exceeds the strength of over the age of 50 who have had long-term
the seals placed at old mine openings or exposure to excessive mine dust. Silicosis is
barrier pillars. Such blowouts were once a lung disease resulting from the long-term
32
Fig. 26
or during loading and transport of rock
materials.
M I N E S A F E T Y
In order to decrease the occurrence
of both of these dust-related diseases,
stringent regulations on the amount of
inhalable dust are placed on underground
mining operations. All dust control plans
are approved by the Mine Safety and
Health Administration before mining
begins, and dust levels must be monitored
and verified throughout mining.
developed to travel
800
1,000
Coal Production
thousands of miners
(millions of tons)
800 600
still die in coal mines
600 each year. This pro-
Coal Production 400
400 gress must continue
200 as our nation pro-
200
duces increasingly
0 0
31 40 50 60 70 80 90 97 more coal.
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19
Year 33
Fig. 27. Coal may be moved by
rail, barge, conveyor, and truck.
Sixty to 70% of the coal mined
in the United States annually
is shipped by rail.
34
Once coal is mined, it must be transported to the user.
In many cases, the coal is processed to remove impurities prior
to shipping. Understanding the way coal is transported and
processed is important to anticipating, mitigating, or prevent-
ing potential adverse environmental impacts.
Transportation
Coal is primarily shipped by rail, truck, barge, and ship
(Fig. 27). In underground mines, conveyor belts are used to
transport coal to the surface, and in some cases, power plants
are near-enough to mines that conveyor belts bring the coal
directly to the plant. In most cases, however, multiple modes
of transportation are used. Coal is commonly transported from
different mines by conveyor or truck to a centralized loading
facility where the coal is shipped by rail or barge. Sixty to 70%
of the coal mined in the United States is transported by rail.
Rail is especially important for shipping western U.S. coal to
power plants in the Midwest and East. States regulate river and
rail transport, including loading facilities. In the eastern United
States, much of the coal mined is transported by trucks for at
least part of its journey to the power plant. Roads used by
trucks hauling coal are termed “coal haul roads” and are
designated as acceptable transportation routes by individual
states. Weight limits for trucks using those roads are also
set by individual states. For example, in Kentucky the
legal weight limit is 120,000 pounds.
35
In the arid west, competing uses “run-of-mine” coal may be processed or
for water are a local public concern where “cleaned” to control particle size, increase
water is used to transport coal as slurry. the relative heating value of the coal and
Some coal in the southwest is mixed with remove the mineral components from the
water and piped as slurry from the mine organic combustible components. This pro-
or preparation facilities to power plants. cessing is referred to as coal preparation,
Fig. 28. In preparation
The Black Mesa pipeline in northeastern beneficiation, cleaning, or washing, and is
plants, coal is processed
Arizona is the longest coal pipeline in the accomplished in special facilities called
in multiple stages to
United States; each year 4.8 million tons preparation plants. Approximately half of
remove impurities, such
of coal travel through the 273-mile long the U.S. bituminous coal mined annually
as the pyrite shown in
pipeline en route to a power plant in is processed.
the microscopic image
Nevada. Because this pipeline passes
of a high-sulfur coal.
through Native American reservations and Coal Processing
Slurries of magnetite are Coal processing has become increasingly
it crosses state lines, it is regulated by state
commonly used to adjust important in coal fields with medium-
and federal statutes.
the density of liquid to and high-sulfur coals since the enactment
remove impurities, like Coal Preparation of the Clean Air Act Amendments (1990);
pyrite, in the coal. The During the mining process, some rock and the amendments required markedly lower
magnetite is recovered clay from above and below the coal seam sulfur dioxide emissions from power
as part of the coal may be recovered along with the coal. The plants.
cleaning process. coal itself also contains rock and mineral
impurities (ash) that will not burn. This
Coal matrix
Pyrite
36
Several levels of coal processing are The coarse-grained waste
available, depending on the quality of the material produced by processing
run-of-mine coal and needs of the end user. is called refuse or gob. Gob piles
Initially, raw coal is crushed to separate are regulated similar to other
large particles of unwanted mineral matter non-hazardous solid waste under
from combustible organic matter. Next, the Federal Resources Conserva-
crushed coal is sized into coarse and fine tion and Recovery Act of 1976,
coal fractions. Various types of screens and and much of the material is
sieves may be used to size particles prior to used during reclamation as fill.
cleaning. Coarse material is put through Fine-grained waste material that
density (heavy media) separators to clean remains partly suspended in
the coal (Fig. 28). Dense (“heavy”) liquid water is called slurry. On average,
flotation tanks and cyclones are the most 70 to 90 million tons of coal
common methods of density separation. preparation slurry are produced
These devices are designed to separate less annually in the United States.
dense, “light” coal particles from dense, Shallow ponds called impound-
“heavy” minerals, such as pyrite that con- ments or slurry ponds hold the
tains sulfur, and inorganic rock. However, slurry (Fig. 29). In the slurry
Fig. 29. Slurry
not all of the inorganic impurities can be impoundments, the fine waste
consists of fine
removed from coal in this manner. Some sediment falls out of suspension and clean
particles of sediment
mineral matter and minerals filling cell- water can be recycled through the plant. In
(in this case coal
sized voids in the coal (including tiny sul- 2001, there were 713 fresh-water and coal
and impurities)
fur-rich pyrite particles) will remain. In waste impoundments in the United States.
suspended in water.
some instances, the fine sizes are further
separated into intermediate and still finer Environmental Impacts
size classes and cleaned. It is much more The primary environmental concern with
from the fine size fractions. ! Road damage and public safety.
Cleaned coal is sized, dewatered,
dried, tested to assure that it meets quality The potential environmental concerns
parameters, and shipped to the end user. associated with processing coal (and in
In many areas, different coals may be some cases loading facilities associated with
blended as part of the preparation process. transport or processing coal) include
In this way, coals that meet or exceed
! Water quality issues and acidic drainage;
parameters specified by the end user can
! Slurry impoundment stability; and
be formulated by blending coals of varying
! Physical disturbances and gob fires.
qualities.
37
Fig. 30
K E T C H U P L A K E
R E M E D I A T I O N Road Damage and Public Safety
Road damage can result from the trans-
portation of coal from mines and coal
processing facilities. Road damage from
coal trucks is a concern in many coal-
mining states. Overweight trucks are a
WATER TREATMENT contributing factor, especially in the eastern
United States where coal trucks sometimes
exceed legal limits by more than 50,000
pounds. State enforcement of legal limits
ensures public safety and reduces damage
and costly repair to busy haul roads.
Fatalities have occurred on coal haul roads
REGRADING & DEWATERING involving coal trucks, and at railway
crossings involving coal trains and thus,
public safety is an issue.
Dredge
S L U R R Y P O N D
R E C L A M A T I O N
Runoff is managed to control erosion and al lime or other soil amendments, and
sediment. This surface is then revegetated then seeded. Limestone channels and
other methods for mitigating acidic
according to permit requirements (Fig. 33).
drainage may be used when acidic
The reclamation process occurs in phases
leachates are present. The red areas in
and regulatory authorities oversee all
the top photo are acidic leachate.
stages.
40
Physical Disturbances of the gob produced by processing plants is
and Gob Fires used onsite as fill. In some cases, lime is
At a preparation facility, the processing mixed into gob to decrease surface acidity.
plant, piles of unprocessed coal, processed Because coal refuse has a low average fertil-
coal, gob, and slurry impoundments are ity, fertilizers may be applied to ensure the
visible disturbances. Likewise, coal piles, success of revegetation. Federal surface
and the dust and noise associated with mining regulations mandate that refuse
transporting coal are common disturbances disposal areas must support self-sustaining
at coal-loading facilities. Both active and vegetation for a minimum of 5 years after
abandoned (pre-1977), coal waste piles are closure in the East, and 10 years in western
potential sources of fugitive dust, sediment, arid climates. During this time, leachate
and leachates (Fig. 34). Sediment runoff and runoff must meet water quality
from abandoned, unreclaimed piles has standards and there must be evidence that
caused clogged streams and acidic water quality will not degrade over time.
drainage. Aside from standard reclamation practices,
Some abandoned, unreclaimed gob some old gob piles can also be remined for
piles can also be a potential fire hazard. the coal they contain, and in some cases,
The oxidation of pyrite in a gob pile pro- the gob (and fine coal particles it contains)
Fig. 34. Gob piles,
duces heat, which can lead to spontaneous can be used as a feedstock for a new type of
like this old pile in
combustion of coal left in the gob. Some power generator, called a fluidized bed
central Illinois, are
piles burn for decades. The primary physi- combustor (see Chapter 5). Fluidized bed
composed of waste rock
cal hazards in such fires are the possibility combustion and gasification technologies
from the processing
of the fire spreading, possibly igniting can both turn gob piles into energy.
and mining of coal.
vegetation or structures, as well as noxious For example, the Seward Plant, a 521 MW
smoke and fumes. Fortunately, improved Circulating Fluidized Bed combustion unit
preparation techniques, which leave less in Pennsylvania, started operation in 2004
coal in the gob to potentially burn, have and consumes 3.5 million tons
greatly reduced the occurrence of gob pile of gob per year
fires. Techniques for extinguishing gob fires for fuel.
are similar to those for mine fires discussed
in the previous chapter.
Modern preparation and loading
facilities are regulated to prevent dust,
sediment, and leachate from leaving
the site, similar to surface coal mines as
previously discussed. Likewise all processing
and loading areas must be reclaimed. Much
41
U.S. Coal Usage
Coke plants 2%
Home heating <1%
Other industry 6%
42
Coal combustion accounts for a little more than a third (36%) of global electric
power generation, and approximately half of U.S. electric power generation.
More than 90% of the coal used in the United States is for electric power
generation (Fig. 35). In fact, all but two states, Rhode Island and Vermont,
produce some electricity from coal, and seven states produce more than 90%
of their electricity from coal. Coal is also used for industrial purposes (6%),
to make coke for steel production (2%), and for residential or commercial
heating. In addition, coal can be converted to a clean synthesis gas (syngas)
through the process of gasification to make chemicals and fuels. The Eastman
Chemical Company has gasified coal for more than 20 years to produce
carbon monoxide and hydrogen, which are used as chemical building blocks
for a wide range of consumer products including Tylenol®, Nutrasweet®,
plastics for toothbrush handles, and the celluloid of photographic film.
43
the inside walls of the furnace; the heat Impacts of Coal Use
generated from the combustion of the The combustion of coal in pulverized coal
coal converts the water to steam. The high- power plants and in other industries, occurs
pressure steam turns giant turbines that at very high temperatures (>2000° F). When
drive a generator (a magnet that rotates burned, many of the elements in coal are
inside a jacket of copper wires) to produce converted to gaseous or solid “oxides.”
electricity. Other methods for producing Airborne emissions of these oxides, along
electricity from coal, such as gasification, with solid byproducts are the principle envi-
are discussed in the next chapter. ronmental concerns with coal combustion.
In traditional coal-fired power plants The amount and type of coal used, the size
it takes on average one ton (2,000 pounds) and type of electric-generating technology
of coal to produce 2,500 kilowatt hours used at the plant, and the area in which the
(kWh) of electricity. The actual amount power plant is located determine the types
of coal needed varies with coal heating of environmental concerns that may be
value and power plant design. An average associated with airborne emissions and
U.S. home uses between 900 and 1000 solid byproducts. The impacts of the
kWh/month, equating to 720 to 1000 various emissions from coal-fired power
pounds of coal a month or four to six tons plants include
of coal per year. Another way to look at our
! Sulfur oxides — acid rain;
coal use is on a per capita basis. In 2004,
! Nitrogen oxides — acid rain, ozone,
we produced 1.1 billion short tons of
and smog;
coal, or 3.7 short tons of coal per person.
! Particulates — haze;
Ninety percent of that, or 3.3 short tons
! Mercury — health effects;
per person was used to generate electricity!
! Carbon dioxide — climate change; and
Coal is also used to heat and power
! Solid byproducts — waste disposal issues.
foundries, cement plants, and other
industrial and manufacturing facilities.
Steel mills use coal to make a carbon-rich
Sulfur Oxides and Acid Rain
Electric power generation currently
material called “coke”, which serves as a
accounts for two thirds (67%) of U.S. sulfur
heat source and oxygen-reducing agent
dioxide (SO2) emissions. Sulfur dioxide
for smelting iron to make steel. In addition,
forms when sulfur in the coal combines
the coking process yields numerous
with oxygen in the furnace. In the atmos-
useful byproducts. Coal tar, light oils, and
phere, SO2 can react with water vapor to
ammonia are among the many coal-derived
form sulfurous acid (H2SO3) which oxidizes
materials, which are used as chemical feed
to sulfuric acid (H2SO4), components of
stocks to make a variety of chemicals. In the
“acid rain” (Fig. 37). Sulfates in the
past, coal was widely used for home heat-
atmosphere, both wet and dry, contribute
ing, but now this use accounts for less then
to sulfur deposition. Crop damage, forest
1% of annual U.S. coal consumption.
44
A C I D R A I N
degradation, impaired visibility, chemical
weathering of building stones and monu-
ments, increased acidity of lakes and
streams, and increased human health risks
from asthma and bronchitis have been
attributed to acid rain. In the United
States, sulfate precipitation is greatest in
the Northeast, which has been attributed to
coal-fired power plants in the Midwest and
Northeast (Fig. 38).
Because of these environmental issues,
the federal government passed the Clean
Fig. 37. To reduce
Air Act Amendments, which mandated the
acid rain, restrictions
lowering of SO2 emissions from power
were placed on sulfate
plants. The Acid Rain Program (Title IV of
emissions at power
the 1990 Clean Air Act) called for SO2 and 1989-1991 plants.
NOx reductions in two phases, primarily
through a cap and trade program that
allowed utilities marketable allowances and
choice of compliance methods. Marketable
Wet SO4
allowances mean that utilities can buy and (kg/ha)
0
trade emissions credits to meet regional 5
10
emissions goals rather than enforcing one 15
limit on all plants at the same time. Thus, 20
25
utilities may meet new standards through a 30
35
variety of mechanisms so that total regional 1999-2001 40
emissions are lowered without significant >45
sions of nearly 40% from 1980 levels. It is Fig. 38. After imple- 35
40
mentation of Phase 1 of
important to note that this decrease was >45
ide and nitrogen oxides in 28 eastern states demonstrating Fluidized Bed Combustion
(where concentrations are the greatest). and Integrated Gasification Combined
The regulation is expected to further Cycle technology in partnership with sever-
reduce sulfur dioxide emissions more al power plants in the United States. These
than 70% from 2003 levels by 2015. technologies, which will result in substantial
Several methods are used to decrease decreases in sulfur dioxide emissions (in
sulfur emissions: combination with other emissions), are
Fig. 39. SO2 emissions discussed on pp 55-56.
! Switching to low-sulfur coals;
decreased following
! Increased processing of higher sulfur
enactment of the Clean NOx, Acid Rain, Smog, and
coals;
Air Act Amendments Ozone
! Retiring old (less efficient) power plants;
while coal production Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are a group of
and
and use increased. reactive gases that contain nitrogen and
! Using clean-coal technologies.
oxygen. NOx emissions from coal-fired
power plants are an environmental concern
The most common clean-coal
because they contribute to the formation
technology used to capture SO2 is flue-gas
of acid rain by combining with atmospheric
desulfurization, commonly called “scrub-
water to form nitric acid. NOx emissions
bing.” Scrubbers have been required on
also contribute to the formation of ground-
conventional coal power plants built since
level ozone (O3). Ground-level ozone is an
1978, and many have been added to
important ingredient of urban smog, which
grandfathered plants built prior to 1978.
is a respiratory irritant. Increased ground-
Scrubbers work by injecting either dry or
level ozone can also lead to reduction in
slurried (wet) alkaline material into the
agricultural crop and commercial forest
path of the flue gas leaving the furnace
yields.
(Fig. 40). A reaction occurs that converts
Electric utilities were responsible
gaseous SO2 in the flue gas to wet byprod-
for 22% of NOx emissions, second behind
ucts that oxidize into solid calcium sulfate
the transportation sector (cars, trucks, etc.),
(gypsum), which falls to the bottom of the
which produced 55% of NOx emissions in
scrubber where it is removed as a solid or
Fig. 40. Diagram of 2003. In order to decrease NOx emissions,
slurry or is collected as dust in a baghouse
a “wet” spray tower Phase 1 of the 1990 Clean Air Act
or electrostatic precipitator. Both wet
scrubber showing how Amendments mandated decreases in NOx
and dry scrubbers can remove more than
SO2 is removed from emissions for 239 coal-fired power plants
90% of the SO2 in flue gas. The gypsum
the flue gas. built since 1978. Older grandfathered
byproduct can be used to make wallboard
plants were exempted from the ruling.
for the construction industry. In fact,
46
In 2003, further reductions in NOx choice for many conventional pulverized
emissions were required in the eastern coal plants. IGGCs also have demonstrated
United States (where NOx concentrations very low NOx emissions.
are the greatest) as part of the Ozone
Transport Rule. In 2005, the U.S. Particulate Emissions and Haze
Environmental Protection Agency issued Particulate matter is solid particles or liquid
the Clean Air Interstate Rule, which particles in the air. Such material is an envi-
set caps for nitrogen oxides (and other ronmental concern because it contributes
emissions) in the eastern United States. to smog. Although particulate matter is
The regulation is expected to further formed from a wide variety of natural and
reduce NOx emissions 60% from 2003 man-made sources, emissions from fossil-
levels by 2015. fuel power plants are a particular concern.
To meet NOx levels for Phase 1 of The U.S. National Park Service has attrib-
the Clean Air Act, more than half of the uted decreased visibility at Great Smokey
affected utilities chose to reduce NOx Mountains, Shenandoah, Mammoth Cave,
emissions with advanced burner technology. and Grand Canyon National parks to
Rather than capturing emissions after smog produced upwind by fossil-fuel power
combustion, as with SO2 scrubbers, plants, exhaust from automobiles, and
advanced burner technology reduces NOx other sources. Increased particulate matter
by using staged combustion; the air is is also a health concern because it may
mixed with the fuel in stages, which lowers contribute to respiratory illnesses.
the combustion temperature and reduces Fig. 41. NOx emis-
(Fig. 41), and can achieve 35 to 55% between the boiler and
decrease in NOx emissions. Other technolo- the stacks with tech-
gies that are being used to reduce NOx nology like SCR.
emissions include
47
Fig. 43. PM2.5
size compared to
the width of a
human hair.
48
lakes where high levels of mercury are a powdered “activated carbon” into the flue
concern, advisories are issued by regulatory gas. Activated carbon is carbon that has
agencies. been treated to alter its surface properties Anthropogenic
Mercury Sources
Power plants are currently the largest so that it will act as a sorbent and bind to
4.4%
emitters of mercury into the atmosphere in mercury. The mercury-containing particles 3.1% 4.5%
32.6% 18.7%
the United States. The emitted mercury is can then be captured by a particulate
non-hazardous elemental mercury, but it control device. Mercury removal rates of
can be transformed into methylmercury if more than 90% have been achieved using
18.7%
26.6%
deposited in an aquatic environment. Total this technology in large-scale field demon-
annual emissions of mercury from power strations on coal-fired power plants. Utility boilers
Municipal waste combustors
plants in the United States are estimated to Medical waste incinerators
Chlorine plants
be 48 tons. Although that amount is less Carbon Dioxide Hazardous waste incineration
Cement plants
Other
than 1 percent of global mercury emissions, When coal burns, carbon in the coal
it accounts for a third of our country’s oxidizes forming carbon dioxide (CO2),
total anthropogenic (man-made) mercury a greenhouse gas. Greenhouse gases are Fig. 45. Power
emissions (Fig. 45). gases capable of absorbing infrared radia- plants account
In order to decrease the amount of tion as it is reflected from the Earth back for approximately
mercury being deposited in our nation’s towards space, trapping heat in the atmos- one third of U.S.
lakes and streams, the U.S. Environmental phere (Fig. 46). Many naturally occurring mercury emissions.
Protection Agency issued the Clean Air gases exhibit “greenhouse” properties.
Mercury Rule in March, 2005. This regula- Water is the most abundant greenhouse gas.
tion makes the United States the first coun- The concern in recent years has been that
Fig. 46. Carbon
try in the world to regulate mercury emis- atmospheric concentrations of several
dioxide is a green-
sions from power plants. The rule targets important greenhouse gases, such as carbon
house gas. Greenhouse
mercury emissions from coal-fired power dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide, have
gases are produced
plants through a market-based cap-and- increased since large-scale industrialization
naturally and by man,
trade program (similar to that used success- began 150 years ago. These increases are
but increased man-
fully for reductions of sulfur emissions). thought to be contributing to global
made emissions may
Phase 1 sets a cap of 38 tons of mercury in climate change.
influence climate.
2010, which can be met with projected
installation of technologies designed for
reduction of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen
oxides, and particulate matter.
Phase 2 of the Clean Air Mercury
Rule caps total national mercury emissions
at 15 tons in 2018, which will require the
installation of mercury-specific control
technologies. One of the most promising
technologies is called activated carbon
injection. This process works by injecting
49
Because coal contains more carbon sources to less carbon-rich fuels, such as
per unit of energy than other fossil fuels, natural gas, nuclear energy, solar, wind, and
it will produce more carbon dioxide per bioenergy, (2) increasing the efficiency of
unit of electric power production than electrical power production so less CO2 is
CO2 by Fuel Type in
the Electricity Sector petroleum or natural gas. Electrical utilities, emitted per unit energy produced, (3) retro-
being the largest consumers of coal, are the fitting old plants with new, more efficient
largest sources of CO2 emissions from coal technology, and (4) developing ways to
(Fig. 47). capture and sequester (permanently store)
In December 1997 at a meeting CO2 to prevent its emissions to the atmos-
in Kyoto, Japan, many of the developed phere. Three general types of storage
nations agreed to limit their greenhouse options are being investigated.
Fig. 47. Coal’s com- gas emissions, relative to the levels emitted Terrestrial sequestration involves
bustion is responsi- in 1990. The United States, the largest optimizing agricultural processes, soil
ble for most of the producer of CO2, did not ratify the treaty, reclamation with coal combustion byprod-
CO2 produced by citing potential harm to our economy. ucts, and increased forestry (tree planting) to
electric power China and India, the second and third offset greenhouse emissions. Oceanic seques-
plants. largest producers of CO2, and many tration would involve the injection of CO2
developing countries were excused from into ocean-bottom sediments or ice-like gas
adherence to the CO2 emission limits. hydrates, but there are concerns about
Both China and India have large coal impacts to the ocean ecosystem. Geologic
resources and use coal to generate electrical sequestration involves pumping captured
power, as well as for industrial and CO2 gas under pressure into a suitable rock
residential uses. layer deep under the ground (Fig. 48).
Although scrubbers exist that can For geologic sequestration, depleted
remove CO2 from flue gas, they are not oil and gas fields, unmineable coal beds,
currently economically feasible. There is organic-rich shales, and saline water-bearing
a large global effort to improve existing formations have all been identified as poten-
technology and develop new processes for tial repositories for CO2. In depleted oil and
capturing CO2 from flue gas, so that CO2 gas fields, the CO2 could be used to enhance
capture from pulverized coal-fired power oil recovery, which would provide an eco-
plants may be economic in the future. Some nomic incentive for sequestration.
strategies that might be used to reduce CO2 In enhanced (or secondary) recovery
emissions include (1) changing fuel CO2 is injected into an oil-bearing reservoir
and displaces or mixes with the oil it con-
tacts in the reservoir, reducing its viscosity
so that it can be more readily recovered.
Fig. 48. Carbon Carbon dioxide is already used for second-
dioxide can be ary recovery in Texas and other parts of the
injected into rock United States so that the technology is
units deep under- available and tested. Approximately 5,000
ground.
50
tons/day of nearly pure CO2 produced at byproducts from conventional coal-fired
the Great Plains Coal Gasification Plant combustion, as well as slag and ash from
in North Dakota are shipped through a gasification processes.
204-mile pipeline to the Weyburn oil field Increased sulfate and trace element
in Canada. This project hopes to add concentrations from leachate are a
another 20 years and recover as much as potential concern because elements such
130 million barrels of oil from a field that as barium, boron, iron, manganese, and
might otherwise have been abandoned. selenium can be concentrated in fly ash
In unmineable coal beds, injected and might be mobilized under certain
CO2 can displace methane adsorbed conditions in leaching waters. Electric
(bound) to the coal surface. The methane utilities monitor the pH of ash disposal
could be produced as a secondary energy areas specifically for this reason. Although
resource. In this way coal beds could be a potential concern, research suggests that
used to produce a useful gas, while less than 1% of coal combustion byproduct
sequestering a waste gas. wastes have potential to leach hazardous
The U.S. Department of Energy elements. Careful design of impoundments
has established a Carbon Sequestration and landfills, with placement in areas where
Program to develop advanced technologies the geology and hydrology are favorable
to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, for containment of any potential leachates,
including carbon dioxide. To help reach are key elements to preventing or limiting
this goal, the Department of Energy has future environmental impacts. Fig. 49.
established seven Regional Carbon EPA has encouraged the use of coal Wallboard is made
Sequestration Partnerships, consisting of combustion byproducts to reduce solid from gypsum, which
governmental, industrial, educational, and wastes. Byproducts, such as fly ash or is a byproduct of
other entities, to determine the most suit- scrubber waste have been used in the scrubber waste.
able technologies, regulations, and infra- making of construction materials such
structure needs for carbon capture, storage, as wall board, concrete
and sequestration in different parts of the block, and bricks,
United States. A suite of commercially where this can be done
ready sequestration technologies and in an environmentally
options are being investigated because no safe manner. Currently,
one method or option will suit all needs. about one third of the
coal ash and just over
Solid Waste Byproducts one fourth of the
The combustion of coal by electrical scrubber waste pro-
utilities produces several solid waste duced in coal-fired
byproducts, referred to as coal combustion power plants are recy-
byproducts or coal combustion wastes. cled for commercially
These materials include fly ash, bottom beneficial uses
ash, and flue-gas desulfurization (Fig. 49).
51
Fig. 50. Coal is our most
plentiful energy resource.
It is imperative that
society develop the appro-
priate balance of policies
for maximizing the use of
our country’s resources,
meeting energy needs,
and providing a healthy
environment.
52
Our country requires a lot of energy, and coal is our most
plentiful energy resource (Fig. 50). As such, coal will remain
the backbone of the nation’s electrical power generation for the
foreseeable future. The challenge is to mine, transport, and use
coal in an environmentally acceptable manner. Meeting this
challenge involves Fig. 51. This wildlife
! Sound reclamation methods that restore mined lands rally and is used for
and allow beneficial post-mine land uses (Fig. 51); hunting, fishing, and
! Effective regulations based on scientific data (Fig. 52); recreation.
! Increased use of clean-coal technologies to decrease
harmful emissions; and
! Continued research and development of
new technologies that allow coal to be
used in an enviromentally acceptable
way.
53
Fig. 52
R U L E S & R E G U L A T I O N S
54
to understand the underlying mechanisms program of the
of the impacts and develop mitigation U.S. Department
strategies. Many innovations have been of Energy’s Office
developed from cooperative research of Fossil Energy
between federal agencies such as the U.S. (and its predeces-
Department of Energy, U.S. Environmental sors). In fluidized
Protection Agency, and the Office of bed combustion, coal is ground into small
Surface Mining, and private industry (min- particles, mixed with limestone, and inject-
ing companies, power plants, steel mills, ed with air into the boiler, which is filled
cement plants, etc.), state agencies, and with spent bed material (primarily ash, free
universities. This research is ongoing. limestone, and calcium sulfate). Air is
The U.S. Department of Energy’s injected at the bottom of the boiler and sus-
Clean Coal Technology Program is a part- pends and mixes the bed material, so that
nership between the federal government, it behaves much like a boiling liquid, hence
industry, and universities; the objective is to the name "fluidized" bed. Combustion
develop, test, and demonstrate technologies gases, along with entrained solids, leave the
at commercial scale that utilize coal for top of the boiler and enter a cyclone, where
energy production. Among other achieve- solids are separated and enough of them
ments, the program helped demonstrate returned to the bed to maintain the bed
and lower the cost of effective scrubbers inventory. The flue gas is further cleaned
for sulfur dioxide emissions. Numerous and sent to the stack.
promising technologies have been devel-
oped and tested including Fluidized Bed
Combustion and Integrated Gasification
Combined Cycle plants. Another important
cooperative program is the FutureGen
initiative. FutureGen will not only limit
emissions, but will also produce a wide
range of products, including liquid fuels,
chemical feedstocks, and hydrogen. Fig. 53. Diagram
of a Fluidized Bed
Future Electricity from Combustor unit.
Clean Coal Technologies
Fluidized Bed Combustion
Fluidized bed combustion is a type of
clean coal technology that is being used
in electrical power generation because
of its increased efficiency and decreased
emissions (Fig. 53). This combustor was
developed largely through the technology
55
In a fluidized bed combustor, sulfur in Gasification Technology
the coal reacts with lime from the limestone The next generation of electric power gen-
to form calcium sulfate, resulting in more eration using coal will probably use gasifica-
than 90% sulfur capture. Because of the tion technology. Gasification technology
complete and rapid mixing in the bed, allows for the possibility of combining elec-
boiler temperature is lower (about 1,500°F tric power generation with the production
vs. 3,000°F for a pulverized coal boiler) of synfuels and chemical products (Fig. 54).
which decreases NOX production. Steam, In an Integrated Gasification Combined
generated in tubes embedded in the flu- Cycle (IGCC), a gasifier uses intense heat
idized bed, is sent to a steam turbine to and pressure to convert coal and other solid
generate electricity. carbon-based feedstocks (petroleum coke,
Aside from the benefits of reduced refining liquids, biomass, solid waste, tires,
emissions, another advantage of fluidized etc.) into a synthetic gas, also called syngas.
bed combustors is that they can handle In a gasifier, coal is fed into a chamber
a wide range of carbon-based feedstocks, together with an amount of oxygen (or air)
from coal to municipal waste. Currently, that is insufficient to achieve complete com-
27 fluidized bed combustors beneficially bustion and steam at high temperature and
use 12.8 million tons of gob in the United moderate pressure. Under these condi-
States (mostly in Pennsylvania and West tions, the coal is gasified (rather than com-
Virginia) annually. More information busted) to produce a mixture of gases,
about this technology can be found at including carbon monoxide, hydrogen,
the U.S. Department of Energy website, methane, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide,
www.energy.gov/.
of a Integrated
Gasification
Combined Cycle.
56
and ammonia. Because of the reducing both a steam and combustion turbine are
conditions, that is, the presence of hydro- used to generate electric power, the effi-
gen in the gasifier, sulfur and nitrogen ciency of the plant is increased. Because
impurities are bound to hydrogen to form efficiency is increased, less CO2 is produced
hydrides, rather than to oxygen to form per kilowatt hour than a standard pulver-
oxides, as occurs in a pulverized coal-fired ized coal combustion plant.
boiler. The fuel gas leaving the gasifier is In addition to reducing the relative
cooled, cleaned of particulates and ammo- amount of CO2 produced, the carbon
nia and hydrogen sulfide (hydrides), and monoxide (CO) in an IGCC's fuel gas can
sent to a gas turbine. The ammonia can be be converted to carbon dioxide (CO2) and
recovered and sold as a fertilizer, and the hydrogen. The hydrogen can be used for
hydrogen sulfide can be converted to sulfur refinery applications. As fuel cell technolo-
or sulfuric acid for chemicals and other gy and efficiency increases, it is also possi-
uses. ble that the hydrogen could be used to run
More than 99% sulfur removal is pos- hydrogen fuel cells for electric power gen-
sible with gasification technology. Because eration, which would further increase the
gasifiers breakdown carbon-rich fuels in a efficiency of these plants. The CO2 can be
reducing (low oxygen) environment, NOx recovered and injected into geologic forma-
is significantly reduced. IGCCs use a tions deep underground for permanent
combination of cyclones and ceramic or storage or use for enhanced oil and gas
metal-filter elements to remove particulate recovery, if desired, permitting the produc-
emissions, achieving removal efficiencies of tion of power from coal with very low
99.9% or greater. Likewise, in excess of 95% greenhouse gas emissions. Also, recovering
of mercury can be removed from syngas in CO2 in an IGCC system should be much
IGCCs using activated carbon beds (see p. cheaper than in a pulverized coal plant,
48 in Mercury section). Mercury removal which is why gasification technology is
from syngas generated from coal gasifica- planned for the power plants of the future,
tion has been demonstrated for more than including the FutureGen initiative.
20 years at the Eastman Chemical
Company. FutureGen
In an integrated combined cycle FutureGen is a 10-year, $1 billion, DOE-
a combustion turbine. The turbine drives When operational, the prototype will be the
an electric generator to produce electrical cleanest fossil fuel-powered plant in the
energy. Heat from the turbine exhaust is world. FutureGen will be able to burn coal
used to generate steam, which is then or any carbon-based feed stock with near-
used to drive a steam-turbine; hence two zero emissions. Gasification technology
turbines for a combined cycle. Some of the will be integrated with combined cycle
steam is also used for the gasifier. Because electricity generation and the sequestration
57
of carbon dioxide emissions. The plant will including the possibility that U.S. coal-
establish the technical and economic basis sourced FT fuels would be used by the U.S.
for producing electricity and hydrogen military.
from our nation’s vast coal resources, while
limiting the emissions of environmental The Future of Coal
concern discussed in the preceding chapter. Because coal is our country’s most
Because hydrogen is produced as a product abundant energy resource, it will remain
of gasification, the plant will provide a important to our energy mix. We need to
cost-effective way to produce hydrogen understand the environmental impacts
for use in transportation, fuel cells, and of coal use, and prevent or mitigate those
other applications. More information on impacts while still providing secure and
FutureGen, gasification, and sequestration inexpensive energy. To some it may
can be found at the U.S. Department of seem that our use of coal is at odds with
Energy’s website, www.energy.gov/. environmental protection. The science and
economics behind various sides of the argu-
Liquid Fuels from Coal ments that arise between the energy sector
In the near-future, coal may also be used and environmentalists are complicated,
to generate liquid fuel that is sulfur, nitro- and, unfortunately, sometimes emotional.
gen, and mercury free. Coal-derived liquid In some cases, incomplete understanding
fuel is an excellent diesel fuel and can be of the science and economics further
used directly or blended with refinery complicates these issues. Yet reasoned
streams to produce diesel fuel with reduced approaches by all concerned can provide
emissions. Coal is already used to make balanced solutions to our country’s energy
liquid fuels in South Africa. Several coun- needs, while still protecting our environ-
tries, including China and Australia, are ment.
investing in coal-to-liquids technology to Prevention and mitigation of environ-
meet their rising energy needs. This tech- mental problems regarding coal use can
nology is not new. The process for convert- be achieved through responsible mining,
ing coal to a liquid fuel, uses a gasifier to preparation, and utilization, in concert with
convert the coal to a syngas, and then the oversight by industry, citizens groups, and
syngas is converted to a liquid through the state and federal regulatory agencies. These
Fischer-Tropsch (FT) process. FT synfuels issues cannot be solved by any one sector
were developed in the 1920’s in Germany, of our society. Government should provide
and helped power the German war incentives and initiatives to help energy
machine during World War II. Research and utilization industries implement new
continued in many countries following the environmental technologies, while keeping
war, but low oil prices kept the process from the costs of energy low for consumers.
being economical in most countries. Higher Individual citizens can help by reasonably
petroleum prices and increased energy limiting their energy use to what is
needs have renewed interest in FT fuels, necessary and by recycling materials. Even
if paper, plastic, and other recyclables do
58
not directly use coal in their manufacture, will be built that gasify, rather than burn
the power to manufacture many everyday coal, producing fewer emissions and oper-
items comes from electricity generated in ating more efficiently. Continued research
coal-fired power plants. In the end, the into carbon sequestration and FutureGen
amount of coal mined is proportional to will result in power plants that can use
our energy demands, which everyone coal with near-zero emissions. The U.S.
helps determine. Government dedicated more than $9
New technologies and mitigation billion for near-term coal-related energy
strategies continue to be developed to meet projects and research in the 2005 Energy
higher environmental standards. For exam- Bill. This funding shows the strong commit-
ple, research continues into finding eco- ment the government has to our nation’s
nomic and environmentally safe techniques use of domestic coal for energy purposes.
for gasifying coal in the ground, called in Because coal’s use as a fuel will likely con-
situ gasification. In some areas this would tinue and even grow, it is imperative that
reduce the need to mine coal, and therefore society develop the appropriate balance
many of the environmental impacts of policies for maximizing the use of our
associated with mining and processing coal. country’s resources, meeting energy needs,
Research also continues into finding alter- and providing a healthy environment
native uses for coal combustion byproducts, both here and abroad.
which would decrease the amount of solid
wastes. Research into technologies and
strategies that will decrease anthropogenic
carbon emissions are being investigated
and tested. As old coal-fired plants
are retired, plants with new
gasification technologies
59
References and Web Resources
N umerous references were used in the compilation of this manuscript. A complete listing by subject
can be found at the Kentucky Geological Survey website, www.uky.edu/KGS under coal. Many of the
references are available from the Internet, including those from federal agencies such as the U.S.
Department of Energy, Environmental Protection Agency, and Office of Surface Mining. State geologi-
cal surveys, www.stategeologists.org/, environmental agencies, and organizations such as the American
Geological Institute, www.agiweb.org, commonly provide educational resources. Organizations with
educational resources on the Internet about coal and the environment are highlighted here.
61
Credits
Front Cover — Cincinnati skyline (Corbis,); Blue Marble Page 17 — Underground mining, Continuous miner cutting
Earth (NASA); Coal (Digital Vision). heads (J.Ferm Collection, Kentucky Geological Survey);
Surface mining, Dragline shoveling at dusk (J. C. Cobb,
Inside front cover and Title page — Blue Marble Earth Kentucky Geological Survey); Fig. 12, Large surface mine
(NASA); Coal (Digital Vision). Powder River Basin, Wyoming (R. M. Flores, U.S.
Geological Survey).
Foreword and Preface — Mazonia-Braidwood Fish and
Wildlife area in central Illinois (S. Greb, Kentucky Page 18 — Fig. 13, Mountain-top removal mining in West
Geological Survey). Virginia (M. Blake, West Virginia Geological and
Economic Survey).
Page 6 — Fig. 1, Energy sources: Power lines (Arch Coal, Inc);
Charts (U.S. Data-Energy Information Administration, Page 19 — Fig. 14, Sediment pond and mine in Kentucky
U.S. Department of Energy, 2003, World data from 2002); (B. Davidson, Kentucky Geological Survey); Before and
Pie charts- (S. Greb, C. Rulo, Kentucky Geological Survey). After in Virginia (Virginia Department of Mines, Minerals
and Energy from the Office of Surface Mining);
Page 7 — Coal (Digital Vision); Fig. 2, World Coal Reserves: Recontouring a highwall in eastern Kentucky (C. Eble,
Earth (Digital Vision); Chart (Data-Energy Information Kentucky Geological Survey); Planting along Porcupine
Administration, U.S. Department of Energy, 2004, Chart- Creek at North Antelope Rochelle Mine, Wyoming
S. Greb, Kentucky Geological Survey). (Peabody Energy); Returning mine land to grazing,
Kentucky (C. Meyers, Office of Surface Mining).
Page 8 — Fig. 3, Coal, atomic structure: Coal (R. Busch);
Molecule (S. Greb and C. Eble, Kentucky Geological Page 21 — Fig. 15, Restoration of native pine on mine lands,
Survey). Black Mesa, Arizona (Peabody Energy); Fig. 16,
Subsidence damage to a church, western Kentucky
Page 9 — Fig. 4, Coal formation: Fern fossil, Painting of (J. Kiefer, Kentucky Geological Survey).
swamp with arthropods, Alaska peat bog, Florida sunset
swamp (S. Greb, Kentucky Geological Survey). Fig. 5, Page 22 — Fig. 17, Landslide at pre-1977 abandoned mine,
Carbon cycle: (S. Greb, Kentucky Geological Survey). eastern Kentucky, photo at top (J. Kiefer, Kentucky
Geological Survey); Diagram (S. Greb, Kentucky
Page 10 — Fig. 6, Greenhouse gases (Data- U.S. Geological Survey); Returning highwall to original con-
Environmental Protection Agency Greenhouse Gas tour and building a retaining wall to prevent landslide
Inventory, 2004); Fig. 7, Peat to Coal (S. Greb, Kentucky damage (C. Meyers, Office of Surface Mining).
Geological Survey).
Page 23 — Fig. 18, Rock drain into sediment pond, Indiana;
Page 12-13 — Fig. 8, Coal fields Map (Enhanced version Ponds built during reclamation to provide flood storage
of USGS map from GIS database); Coal Production in Texas (C. Meyers, Office of Surface Mining).
Map & Coal Reserves Map (Data- Energy Information
Administration, U.S. Department of Energy, State Page 24 — Fig. 19, Scientists counting fish in a stream
electricity profiles, 2003). on abandoned mine land (Kentucky Dept. of Natural
Resources, Division of Abandoned Mine Lands); Water
Page 14 — Fig. 9, Surface mine, Powder River basin, large testing for pH in cup (S. Greb, Kentucky Geological
photo (Peabody Energy, St. Louis, MO); Below ground- Survey); Water background (Digital Vision); Recontouring
Twenty mile longwall mine, Colorado (Peabody Energy); arid lands after mining in New Mexico (State of New
Continuous miner cutting head (J. Ferm Collection, Mexico, Energy, Minerals and Natural Resources
Kentucky Geological Survey). Thumbnails- Soil measure- Department, Mining and Minerals Division).
ment in Texas (C.Meyers, Office of Surface Mining); Mine
planning (S. Greb, Kentucky Geological Survey); Blasting, Page 25 — Fig. 20, Acidic drainage, acidic water background
West Virginia (M. Blake, West Virginia Geological and (S. Greb, Kentucky Geological Survey); Sulfide mineral
Economic Survey); Reclamation of prime farm land, oxidation cycle (DeAtley Design, photos, USGS).
Indiana (C. Meyers, Office of Surface Mining).
Page 27 — Fig. 21, Acidic drainage remediation, large photo
Page 15 — Fig. 10, Drill rig (J. Cobb, Kentucky Geological (J. Skousen, West Virginia University).Thumbnails-
Survey); Cores from a West Virginia mine (M. Blake, West Analyzing drainage (J. Skousen, West Virginia University);
Virginia Geological and Economic Survey). Directing acidic drainage in rock-lined ditch (Office of
Surface Mining press release); Constructed wetland, Iowa
Page 16 — Fig. 11, Mining Methods (Enhanced version of (C. Meyers, Office of Surface Mining); Constructing a
diagram by S. Greb, Kentucky Geological Survey). limestone drain (J. Skousen, West Virginia University);
Vertical flow ponds (Office of Surface Mining press
release). Fig. 22, Groundwater monitoring (D. Cumby,
Kentucky Geological Survey).
62
Page 28 — Fig. 23, Coal mine fires, Smoke from underground Page 42 — Fig. 35, Large photo of power plant (Corbis);
coal fire coming through road, Centralia, Pennsylvania Coal Usage pie chart (Data- Energy Information
(M. Nolter); Warning sign, Centralia, Pennsylvania (J. Administration, 2004 Annual Report); Electricity from
Hower, Center for Applied Energy Research, University coal map (Data- Energy Information Administration,
of Kentucky); Coal fire diagram (S. Greb, Kentucky 2003 State electricity profiles, map-S.Greb, Kentucky
Geological Survey, modified from U.S. Bureau of Mines). Geological Survey).
Page 30 — Fig. 24, Collecting core for coalbed methane Page 43 — Fig. 36, Power plant diagram (Modified by S. Greb
analyses (C. Eble, Kentucky Geological Survey); Methane from Tennessee Valley Authority).
pie chart (Data- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Emissions Inventory, chart-S. Greb and C. Rulo, Kentucky Page 45 — Fig. 37, Acid rain diagram (Modified by S. Greb
Geological Survey). from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and other
sources). Fig. 38, Sulfate maps (U.S. Environmental
Page 31 — Fig. 25, Public safety hazards, Kentucky surface Protection Agency: Trends in Wet Sulfate Deposition
mine next to house (C. Eble, Kentucky Geological Following Implementation of Phase I of the Acid Rain
Survey); Abandoned building at mine, Alaska (State of Program).
Alaska Dept. of Natural Resources Abandoned Mine Land
Program); Flooding mine waters from blowout along Page 46 — Fig. 39, SO2 graph (SO2 data-U.S. Environmental
Daniel Boone Parkway Kentucky (Kentucky Dept. of Protection Agency, graph-S. Greb, Kentucky Geological
Natural Resources, Division of Mine Reclamation and Survey). Fig. 40, Scrubber diagram (Modified by S. Greb
Enforcement); Diagram (S. Greb, Kentucky Geological from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency).
Survey); Dangerous highwall at abandoned mine, Alaska
(State of Alaska Dept. of Natural Resources, Abandoned Page 47 — Fig. 41, NOx burner diagrams (Modified by
Mine Land Program); Mine safety sticker (Mine Safety S. Greb from U.S. Dept. of Energy).
and Health Administration).
Page 48 — Fig. 42, Baghouse and ESP diagrams (Modified
Page 33 — Fig. 26, Mine safety, Surface mine, eastern by S. Greb from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Kentucky (B. Davidson, Kentucky Geological Survey); diagrams). Fig. 42, Particle matter size diagram (U.S.
Continuous miner cutting head (J.Ferm Collection, Dept. of Energy). Fig. 44, Mercury bioaccumulation
Kentucky Geological Survey); Robot (Mine Safety and diagram (S. Greb, Kentucky Geological Survey).
Health Administration press release); Fatalities chart
(Data-Mine Safety and Health Administration, chart- Page 49 — Fig. 45, Mercury sources pie chart (Redrafted
modified from S. Greb, Kentucky Geological Survey, from U.S. Dept. of Energy). Fig. 46, Greenhouse effect
from a graph in Goode, 2002, The Cutting Edge). diagram (Modified from Environmental Protection
Agency diagram by S. Greb).
Page 34-35 — Fig. 27, Large aerial photo of train in Wyoming
(Peabody Energy). Thumbnails- Train (Digital Vision); Page 50 — Fig. 47, CO2 Pie chart (Data-U.S. Dept. of Energy,
Loading barge, Loading conveyors (S. Greb, Kentucky chart-S. Greb). Fig. 48, CO2 Injection well diagram
Geological Survey); Truck at Wyoming surface mine (S. Greb, Kentucky Geological Survey).
(Peabody Energy). Silo and train- Jacobs Ranch Mine in
Wyoming’s Powder River Basin (Kennecott Energy). Page 51 — Fig. 49, Wallboard and diagram of gypsum
byproduct production (S. Greb, Kentucky Geological
Page 36 — Fig. 28, Preparation plant (C. Meyers, Office of Survey).
Surface Mining); Microscopic pyrite (C. Eble, Kentucky
Geological Survey); Diagram (S. Greb, Kentucky Page 52-53 — Fig. 50, Miner at Spring Creek Mine in
Geological Survey); Magnetite recovery equipment, Montana (Kennecott Energy). Mazonia-Braidwood Fish
Heavy medium tanks (T. Miller, East Fairfield Coal Co., and Wildlife area in central Illinois (S. Greb, Kentucky
Ohio). Geological Survey).
Page 37 — Fig. 29, Slurry discharge into impoundment in Page 54 — Fig. 52, Mountains (Digital Vision); Coal texture
West Virginia (M. Blake, West Virginia Geological and background (Corbis).
Economic Survey).
Page 55 — Power lines (Corbis). Fig. 53, Fluidized Bed
Page 38 — Fig. 30, Pleasant View mine (Ketchup Lake) Combustor unit diagram (Modified from U.S. Dept. of
reclamation project, Kentucky, sequence of photos Energy diagram by S.Greb).
(Kentucky Dept. of Natural Resources, Division of
Abandoned Mine Lands). Page 56 — Fig. 54, Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle
diagram (Modified from U.S. Dept. of Energy by S. Greb).
Page 39 — Fig. 31, Martin County, Kentucky, slurry images
(Kentucky Dept. of Natural Resources). Page 59 — Blue Marble Earth (NASA); Coal (Digital Vision).
Page 40 — Fig. 32, Dredging slurry to recover coal in Inside back cover — Background photo (Digital Vision).
western Kentucky (S. Greb, Kentucky Geological Survey).
Fig. 33, Slurry pond reclamation sequence of photos Back cover — Wetland, Iowa (C. Meyers, Office of Surface
(Kentucky Dept. of Natural Resources, Division of Mining); Coal (Digital Vision).
Abandoned Mine Lands).
63
Index
a abandoned mine lands, 22, 27-28, 31-32 k Ketchup Lake remediation, 38-39
acidic drainage, 25-27, 37-38
acid rain, 44-47 l landslides, 18-19, 22-23
auger mining, 17 limestone drains, 25-27
liming, 38-39
b black lung disease, 32-33 longwall mining, 22
blasting, 30-32
blowouts, 31-32 m mercury, 44, 48-49
methane, 10, 29-30
c carbon, 8-10 mine safety, 18, 32-33
carbon cycle, 8-9 mires, 10
carbon dioxide, 9-10, 30, 49-51 mining cycle, 14-15
clean air legislation, 45-47, 49, 54 mining methods, 16
clean-coal technology, 46, 55 mountaintop removal, 18, 20-21
Clean Water Act, 21, 54
cleats, 11 n nitrogen oxides, 8, 44-47
coalfields, 12-13
coal-fired power plants, 42-44 p particulate emissions, 47-48
coal formation, 7-11 peat, 8-11,
coal mine fires, 18,28-29 permits, 15-16, 20
coal swamp, 8 physical disturbance, 18-21, 37, 41
contour mines, 17 post mine land use, 19
coring, 15, 30 power and heat generation, 7, 42-44
processing, 34-41
d dewatering, 28, 37 production, 7, 11-12, 17
distribution, 12-13 public safety, 18, 30-32, 37
drilling, 15 pyrite, 25-26, 36-37
dust control, 30-33
r rail transport, 34-35
e electrostatic precipitators, 48 rank, 10-11
emissions, 8, 10, 28-29, 44-49 reclamation, 19-21, 23, 37, 40-41
energy sources, 6 regrading, 19, 38
environmental concerns/impacts, 7-8, 16, 18-33, regulations, 21-23, 30, 54
37-41 remediation, 26, 38-39
environmental protection, 54 resources and reserves, 7, 11-13, 52-53, 58-59
erosion, 23-24 revegetation, 19-21, 38
exploration, 15-16 road damage, 37-38
room- and pillar-mining, 22
f fatalities, 32-33 runoff, 23-24, 39-40
filter baghouse, 48
flue-gas desulfurization, 46 s scrubbers, 46-47, 53, 55
fluidized bed combustion, 41, 46-47, 55-56 sediment ponds, 23
flooding, 18-19, 23-24 selective catalytic reduction, 47
fossil fuel, 7-9 sequestration, 50-51, 59
FT synfuels, 58 silicosis, 32-33
fugitive methane, 18, 29-30 slurry ponds, 37, 39-41
FutureGen, 57-58 solid waste byproducts, 46, 51
spoil, 24, 26
g gasification, 43, 47, 50-51, 56-58 subsidence and settlement, 18, 21-22, 28-29
geologic basins, 10-13 sulfur, 8
gob, 37 sulfur dioxide, 8, 44-46
gob fires, 37, 41 surface mining, 17-21
greenhouse gases, 9-10, 29, 46-47, 49-51 Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act, 21, 54
groundwater protection, 27-28, 39-40 surface water protection, 20-21, 24-27
syngas, 43
h hazardous air pollutants, 48-49
health and safety, 18, 30-33, 47-49 t transportation, 34-38
highwall mining, 17-23, 31
u underground mining, 16-17, 20
i impoundments, 23, 37-41 usage, 7, 42-51
impurities, 25-26, 34-35
integrated gasification combined cycle, 56-57 w water quality and protection, 18, 20-21, 24-28, 37-40
64
Through the Environmental Geoscience Advisory Committee, the
American Geological Institute (AGI) Environmental Affairs Program
develops and guides projects that • increase public awareness
and understanding of environmental issues and the control of
Earth systems on these issues • communicate societal needs for
AGI managing resources, protection from Earth hazards, and evalua-
tion of risks associated with human activities related to Earth
Environmental processes and resources • increase dissemination of information
related to environmental programs, projects, research, and
oal, our most important domestic fuel resource, accounts for nearly
25% of our country's total primary energy production and produces half
of our electric power. Current annual U.S. coal production is 1.1 billion
short tons, which equates to 20 pounds of coal per person, per day.
On average you will use 3 to 4 tons of coal this year, probably without
even knowing it. The U.S. Department of Energy indicates that because
of the shear volume of energy our country needs to sustain economic
growth and our standard of living, the use of coal as a fuel will likely
increase in the future. It is imperative that society develop the appropri-
ate balance of policies for maximizing our country's resources, meeting
energy needs, and providing a healthy environment. Coal and the
Environment, the 10th publication in this series, provides an introduction
to the major environmental concerns associated with coal mining and
combustion, production, transportation, and use.
ISBN 0-922152-77-2
Recycled paper