Chemistry Lecture Chapter 6- Chemical

Bonding
Section 6.1: Introduction to Chemical Bonding- 1-
2 days
Bell work: Define chemical bond, ionic bond, covalent bond,
nonpolar covalent bond, and polar covalent bond.

Types of Chemical Bonding-Ionic or Covalent?

♦ Atoms seldom exist as independent particles in nature. Why?
Because when they bond with each other, atoms are more
stable and have a lower potential energy.
♦ When atoms bond their valence electrons are redistribute in
ways that make the atoms more stable.

♦ When they do they form chemical bonds. Chemical bonds =

a mutual electrical attraction between the nuclei and valence
electrons of different atoms that binds the atoms together.

♦ The first type of bond that we will look at is the ionic bond.
Ionic bond = chemical bonding that results from the
electrical attraction between large numbers of cations and
anions. See figure 6-1.

♦ Covalent bonding results from the sharing of electron pairs

between two atoms. This is the second type of chemical
bond. Atoms with covalent bonds form independent
molecules.

♦ Remember that electronegativity is the measure of an

atom’s ability to attract electrons. The degree to which
bonding between atoms of two elements is ionic or covalent
can be estimated by calculating the difference between the
element’s electronegativities.

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♦ Bonding between atoms with an electronegativity
difference of 1.7 or less has a covalent bond. Bonds
between two atoms of the same element are also covalent
because they have no electronegativity.

♦ There are two kinds of covalent bonds. The first is a

nonpolar covalent bond = a covalent bond in which the
bonding electrons are share equally by the bonded atoms,
resulting in a balanced distribution of electrical charge. Their
electronegativities are between 0-.3.

♦ A polar covalent bond is a covalent bond in which the

bonded atoms have an unequal attraction for the shared
electrons. That means that electrons tend to spend more time
closer to one element in the compound than the other. The
electronegativity is going to be between .3-1.7.

♦ Recognize that electronegativity difference is only a general

guide for determining bonding type. There are some
exceptions. See figure 6-2 for the general rule.

Section Review, pg. 163, #1-4.

Study Guide 6.1

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Section 6.2- Covalent Bonding and Molecular
Compounds- 2 days.
Bell work- Define molecule and molecular formula.
2nd day: Define bond length, bond energy

Introduction
1. Molecule = a neutral group of atoms that are held
together by covalent bonds.
2. Molecular compound = a chemical compound whose
simplest units are molecules.
3. Chemical formula = the relative numbers of atoms of
each kind of a chemical compound by using atomic
symbols and numerical subscripts.
4. Diatomic molecule = a molecule containing only two
atoms of the same element.

I. Formation of a Covalent Bond

♦ Visualize a kick ball rolling toward a ditch. The ball rolls
down the near slope of the ditch, passes the bottom of the
ditch, and rolls part of the way up the opposite slope of the
ditch. It then rolls back down, passes the bottom, and rolls
part of the way up the near side of the ditch. This pattern
continues, each time rolling to a lesser height, until it
eventually comes to rest at the bottom of the ditch. At this
point, the ball’s potential energy is at a minimum. The
formation of a covalent bond between two atoms is like
the ball in the ditch. The atoms alternately attract and
repel each other until they reach a distance (or bond
length) at which their potential energy is minimized.

♦ See example of hydrogen on pg. 165.

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II. Characteristics of the Covalent Bond
♦ Atoms that form covalent bonds are nonmetals.
♦ The bottom of the ditch represents the balance between
attraction and repulsion in a stable covalent bond.
♦ Bond length = the distance between two bonded atoms
at their minimum potential energy, that is, the average
distance between two bonded atoms.
♦ Energy is released when the bond is formed.
♦ Bond energy = the energy required to break a chemical
bond and form neutral isolated atoms. The energy
released to form the bond is the same amount of energy
needed to break the bond.
♦ Look at table 6-1 and note that bond length decreases as
the strength of the bond increases.

III. The Octet Rule

♦ Noble gases exist in nature at independent atoms. The
reason is the stable valence electron configurations.
♦ Other main group atoms can fill their outermost s and p
orbitals by sharing electrons through covalent bonds.
♦ The octet rule = chemical compounds tend to form so that
each atom, by gaining, losing, or sharing electrons, has an
octet of electrons in its highest occupied energy level.
♦ Exceptions to the Octet Rule- Hydrogen with two
electrons, boron with its three and three others (BF3).
Others expand past 8 valence electrons usually by
involving the d orbitals as well as the s and p orbitals.

IV. Electron-Dot Notation

♦ Covalent bond formation usually involves only he
electrons in an atom’s outermost energy levels, or the
atom’s valence electrons.
♦ To keep track of these valence electrons it is helpful to use
electron-dot notation.

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 ♦ Electron-dot notation = an electron-configuration notation
in which only the valence electrons of an atom of a
particular element are shown, indicated by the dots placed
around the element’s symbol.
♦ Do sample problem 6-2 on pg. 170.

V. Lewis Structures
♦ Lewis structures = formulas in which atomic symbols
represent nuclei and inner-shell electrons, dot-pairs or
dashes between two atomic symbols represent electron
pairs in covalent bonds, and dots adjacent to only one
atomic symbol represent unshared electrons.
♦ The pair of dots between the two chemical symbols
represents the shared pair of the covalent bond. An
unshared pair or lone pair is a pair of electrons that is not
involved in bonding and that belongs exclusively to one
atom.
♦ Structural formulas indicated the kind number,
arrangement, and bonds but not the unshared pairs of the
atoms in a molecule. (F-F, H-Cl are structural formulas)
♦ See sample problem 6-3 on pg. 171.

VI. Multiple Covalent Bonds

♦ Double bond = a covalent bond produced by the sharing of
two pairs of electrons between two atoms.
• Carbon, Nitrogen, and Oxygen can share more than
one electron pair.
• Illustrate this by two side-by-side pairs of dots or
by two parallel dashes.
♦ Triple bond = a covalent bond produced by the sharing of
three pairs of electrons between two atoms.
• Nitrogen has 5 valence electrons so it is seeking
three bonds.
• Illustrate this by 3 side-by-side dots, 3 parallel lines

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 ♦ Double and triple bonds are referred to as multiple bonds
♦ Sample problem 6-4 on page 174. There are additional
sample problems on pg. 199A.

VII. Resonance Structures

♦ Resonance = bonding in molecules or ions that cannot be
correctly represented by a single Lewis structure.
♦ Ozone resonates or shifts between two Lewis structures. It
has one single and one double oxygen-oxygen bond and
ozone alternates between the two structures.

VIII. Covalent-Network Bonding

♦ Sometimes covalent bonding occurs between large
numbers of molecules.
♦ This is called a covalent network.
♦ This is similar to the network structures of ionic bonds.
♦ This will be discussed in chapter 11.

Interactive Tutor, Module 4- Covalent Bonding- How and why

covalent bonds form

Section Review, PG. 175, #1-4

Study Guide 6-2

Quiz over first two sections

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 Section 6.3- Ionic Bonding and Ionic Compounds-
2 days
Bell work: define ionic compound, formula unit, and lattice
energy
2nd day: Lab B6

Introduction:
1. Ionic compound = a compound composed of positive and
negative ions that are combined so that the numbers of
positive and negative charges are equal.
2. Formula unit = the simplest collection of atoms from which
an ionic compound’s formula can be established.

I. Formation of Ionic Compounds- Characteristics of Ionic

Bonding
♦ Most ionic compounds exist as crystalline solids.
♦ Draw blocks to demonstrate the difference between ionic
and covalent bonds. A molecule with covalent bonds
should be flush on all sides. An ionic compound looks like
a block with pieces jutting out to represent cations and
anions in a huge aggregate of ions with minimized potential
energy. Remember that the elements are looking for ways
to minimize potential energy.
+ -
♦ Example: Na becomes Na and Cl becomes Cl as they
approach each other. Now each has a noble gas
configuration.
♦ Then the attractive forces at work within an ionic crystal
come into play. There are 2 attractive forces. The first is
the one between oppositely charged ions and the second is
between the nuclei and electrons of adjacent ions.
♦ But there is also the repulsive force between like-charged
ions and between electrons of adjacent ions.

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 ♦ The distance between ions in a crystal creates a balance
between all these forces. Draw a lattice structure like figure
6-14.
♦ To compare bond strengths in ionic compounds, chemists
compare the amounts of energy released when separated
ions in a gas come together to form a crystalline solid.
♦ Lattice energy = the energy released when one mole of an
ionic crystalline compound is formed from gaseous ions.
♦ The negative energy values in table 6-3 indicate that energy
is released when bonds are formed.
♦ Teaching Tip: Lattice energy is negative because it
indicates a release of energy in the formation of a bond.
Bond energy is the amount of energy needed to break a
bond so it is a positive number. Both are measured in
kJ/mol. See table 6-2 on pg. 173 and table 6-3 on pg. 179.

II. A Comparison of Ionic and Molecular Compounds

♦ Ionic bonds are stronger than covalent bonds. This
difference in the strength of attraction between these bonds
gives rise to different properties in the two types of
compounds.
♦ Ionic compounds have a higher melting point and boiling
point than covalent molecules. This relates to the strength
of the bond and the difficulty in breaking the bond.
♦ Ionic compounds are hard but brittle. Why? If a layer in an
ionic compound is moved the repulsive forces make the
layers part completely, meaning that ionic compounds are
brittle.
♦ Ionic compounds are not conductors when solid but do
become conductors when melted or dissolved. Why?
Because ions separate from each other and are free to move
about and conduct electricity due to the charged particles
that are no longer held in neutral bonds.

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III. Polyatomic Ions
♦ Polyatomic ion = a charged group of covalently bonded
atoms.
♦ These ions have characteristics of both covalent and ionic
bonds. Certain atoms form covalent bonds with each other
but have an overall charge like an ion.
♦ The ammonium ion has nitrogen that normally has 7
electrons (5 valence electrons) and 4 hydrogens that have 4
electrons. One of the electrons is pulled away (NH4) so it
has an overall charge of +1. Nitrate (NO3) is -1, sulfate
(SO4) is -2, and phosphate (PO4) is -3.
♦ These bond with other ions to form ionic compounds.

Section Review, pg. 180, #1-4

Study Guide 6-3.

ChemFile Lab B6: Chemical Bonds. Compare properties of ionic

and covalent compounds.

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Chemistry Lecture 6.4- Metallic Bonding- 1 day
Bell work: define metallic bonding, malleability, and ductility.

The Metallic-Bond Model

 Chemical bonding is different in metals than it is in

ionic, or covalent compounds. That is why metals have
unique characteristics.
 Metals are great electrical conductors in the solid state.
 Why? Because of the highly mobile valence electrons
 Lesson Starter: Have samples of NaCl and mossy zinc.
Hip both with a hammer. The salt is brittle and shatters.
Zinc will flatten out because it is malleable.
• Metals have several empty orbitals, especially in
the d-block elements.
• The vacant orbitals tend to overlap between
metal atoms.
• This causes the electrons to become delocalized,
which means that they don’t belong to any
particular atom but move freely about the
metal’s network of empty atomic orbitals. This
is also called a sea of electrons around the metal
atoms.
• Metallic bonding = the chemical bonding that
results from the attraction between metal atoms
and the surrounding sea of electrons.

2. Metallic Properties
• This freedom of movement among electrons
account for high conductivity of metals.
• The large number of electron orbitals means that
metals absorb a wide range of light frequencies.

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 • When light is absorbed it excites the electrons to
higher energy levels.
• When they fall back to lower levels, energy is
emitted in the form of light.
• This de-excitation is why metals have shiny
surfaces.
• Metals can also be easily formed into new
shapes. The are malleable and ductile.
Malleability = the ability of a substance to be
hammered or beaten into thin sheets.
• Ductility = the ability of a substance to be
drawn, pulled, or extruded through a small
opening to produce a wire.
• The electrons can move easily and so metals can
be easily shaped.

3. Metallic Bond Strength

• The amount of heat required to vaporize the metal
is a measure of the bond strength of the metal.
• Heat of vaporization = the heat at which bonded
atoms are converted into individual metal atoms
in the gaseous state.
• Bond strength varies with the nuclear charge and
number of electrons in the particular metal. Bond
strength increases across a period and decreases
down a group.

Section Review
Study Guide 6.4
Chapter 6 test

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