SEMINAR REPORT

ON

TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

Submitted To: Submitted By:

Dr. N.D. Das Vijay Kumar
Mr. B.R. Bundel 7-ME-131-L

LINGAYA’S INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT & TECH.

FARIDABAD
2011

Introduction

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The word temper was used in the seventeenth century to describe the quality of steel. It seems,
after the invention of crude from of thermometer, the word temperature was coined to
describe the degree of hotness or coolness of a material body. It was the beginning of
seventeenth century when the thermometer – a temperature measuring instrument was first
developed. Galileo Galilei is credited with the construction of first thermometer, although a
Dutch scientist Drebbel also made similar instrument independently. The principle was simple.
A bulb containing air with long vertical tube was inverted and dipped into a basin of water or
coloured liquid. With the change in temperature of the bulb, the gas inside expanded or
contracted, thus changing the level of the liquid column inside the vertical tube. A major
drawback of the instrument was that it was sensitive not only to variation of temperature, but
also to atmospheric pressure variation.

Successive developments of thermometers came out throughout seventeenth and eighteenth

century. The liquid thermometer was developed during this time. The importance of two
reference fixed temperatures was felt while graduating the temperature scales. Boiling point of
water and melting point of ice provided two easily available references. But some other
references were also tried. Fahrenheit developed a thermometer where, it seems, temperature
of ice and salt mixture was taken as 0°Fand temperature of human body as 96°F

. These two formed the reference points, with which, the temperature of melting ice came as
32°and that of boiling water as 212°

. In Celsius scale, the melting point of ice was chosen as 0°and boiling point of water as 100°

. The concept of Kelvin scale came afterwards, where the absolute temperature of gas was
taken as 0° and freezing point of water as 273°

The purpose of early thermometers was to measure the variation of atmospheric or body
temperatures. With the advancement of science and technology, now we require temperature
measurement over a wide range and different atmospheric conditions, and that too with high
accuracy and precision. To cater these varied requirements, temperature sensors based on
different principles have been developed. They can be broadly classified in the following
groups:

1. Liquid and gas thermometer

2. Bimetallic strip

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3. Resistance thermometers (RTD and Thermistors)

4. Thermocouple

5. Junction semiconductor sensor

6. Radiation pyrometer

Within the limited scope of this course, we shall discuss few of the above mentioned
temperature sensors, that are useful for measurement in industrial environment.

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 Temperature Measurement Methods
Temperature cannot be measured directly but must be measured by observing the effect that
temperature variation cause on the measuring device. Temperature measurement methods can
be broadly classified as follows:

Mechanical or Non-Electric method

 Liquid-in-glass thermometer-Change in pressure

 Constant-volume gas thermometer
 Bimetallic Thermometer
 Pressure thermometer

Electric method

 Resistance-Temperature Detectors
 Thermistors
 Thermocouples

Radiation Method

 Total radiation Pyrometer

 Selective Radiation Pyrometer
 Infrared(IR) Pyrometer

Mechanical or Non-Electric method

Liquid-in-Glass Thermometer
Although nearly three hundred years old, the ‘thermometer’ (more properly called a ‘liquid-in-
glass thermometer’) is still a common fixture in numerous applications ranging from
measuring a sick patient’s temperature to measuring the temperature of a pot of molten
candy.

The basis of the thermometer’s operation is the thermal expansion of a working fluid. The
volume of a liquid will change as a function of temperature. In general, as the temperature of
a sample of liquid increases, that sample’s volume will also increase. The relative change in
volume versus change in temperature for most liquids is relatively small, typically characterized
in hundreds of part-per-million per degree C, and referred to as the liquid’s Coefficient of
Thermal Expansion (CTE). Because most liquids’ CTE‘s are small, it is generally impractical to fill

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a tube of uniform cross section (such as a graduated cylinder) with liquid and use this
arrangement as a thermometer. To observe small changes in volume requires the combination
of a relatively large reservoir of working fluid connected to a long, thin capillary tube. This
combination results in the familiar thermometer form of Figure 1.

Figure 1. - Liquid Thermometer

Because the total reservoir’s volume is much greater than that of the capillary tube, a small
change in the total working fluid volume will result in a large change in the level of liquid in the
capillary. For example, consider the case where the reservoir has 50 times the volume of the
capillary. If the liquid’s volume expands by just 1% (roughly the expansion experienced by
mercury over a 55C temperature change), this will be sufficient to move the fluid level halfway
up the capillary. By controlling the ratio of capillary volume to reservoir volume it is possible to
control the thermometer’s sensitivity. If the working fluid’s volume increases too much,
however, there is the danger that the thermometer could burst. As most liquids are essentially
‘incompressible’, they are capable of exerting tremendous pressures on their containers when
they expand, an effect often seen by unfortunate homeowners when freezing water bursts
pipes during cold weather. For this reason thermometers often incorporate an expansion
chamber at the top of the fluid column. If the working fluid expands beyond the length of the
capillary, it can overflow into the expansion chamber.

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Another feature on many thermometers is the ‘immersion line’. As most of the expansion
effects result from the working fluid in the bulb, it is important that this fluid be exposed to a
uniform temperature. For example, if one attempts to take a measurement by contact with
just the bottom of the bulb, the temperature within the bulb’s working fluid is almost certain to
vary - resulting in measurement error. By defining the portion of the thermometer which must
be exposed to the temperature being measured, a defined immersion line is an important aid in
making repeatable measurements.

In certain applications it is desirable to be able to record the peak temperature that occurred.
One such case is when a doctor or nurse measures a patient’s body temperature. A peak
temperature reading is desirable because when the thermometer is removed from the patient
to be read, it will rapidly cool, potentially resulting in measurement errors. Although virtually
every liquid experiences changes in volume in response to temperature changes, not all are
desirable for use as working fluids in thermometers. The suitability of a working fluid also is
dependent on the application for which the thermometer is intended. Some important
characteristics of potential working fluids are:

Melting Point - A thermometer becomes ineffective and may be damaged at temperatures

below which the working fluid freezes.

Boiling Point - A thermometer also becomes ineffective and may be damaged at temperatures
above which the working fluid begins to boil and become a gas.

Magnitude of CTE - A high thermal expansion coefficient means a large change in volume
versus change in temperature. This can makes it easier to make highly sensitive thermometers.

Consistency of CTE - While a large CTE can be useful, it is also important that it be consistent
over the temperature range of interest.

A CTE that is relatively constant over a wide temperature range makes it possible to use a
capillary of constant cross section and a scale with a uniform spacing. While CTE varies as a
function of temperature, some materials show more variability than others. It is possible to
realize thermometers using working fluids with highly variable CTEs, but using a material with
less variability results in a simpler design. In applications such as consumer window
thermometers, where a high degree of accuracy is not very important, organic working fluids
such as alcohols have been popular because they are inexpensive and can be dyed to make the
liquid columns easy to see. For more exacting applications that may require accurate
measurements or measurements over a wider temperature range, mercury has traditionally
been the working fluid of choice. Mercury’s combination of low melting point, high boiling
point, and consistent CTE over a wide range of working temperatures make it suitable for many

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thermometric applications. One major drawback of mercury, however, is its toxicity. For this
reason, alternatives such as Galinstan (a trademark of Geratherm Medical AG) have been
developed. Like mercury, Galinstan is a metallic material that is liquid at room temperature.
Unlike mercury, which is an elemental metal, Galinstan is an alloy of gallium, indium and tin.
Galinstan’s melting point of -19C, although higher than that of mercury (-39C) still makes it
useful for many thermometric application in which mercury is currently employed. The primary
advantage of Galinstan over mercury is that Galinstan’s component metals all have much lower
levels of toxicity than mercury. For this reason a major application for Galinstan is in medical
diagnostic thermometers where one does not want to risk exposing patients or clinical staff to
mercury in the event that a thermometer should break.

Advantages of mercury as a thermometric liquid:

 It is a good conductor of heat and therefore the whole liquid reaches the temperature
of the surroundings quickly.
 It does not wet (cling to the sides of) the tube.
 It has a high boiling point.
 It expands uniformly (linear expansion) and responds quickly to temperature changes,
hence is sensitive.
 It has a visible meniscus.

Disadvantages

 Mercury is very poisonous.

 its expansively is fairly low.
 it is expensive.
 It has a high freezing point therefore it cannot be used in places where the temperature
gets very low.

Gas Thermometer
Like liquids, gasses also experience changes in mechanical properties in response to changes in
temperature. Unlike a liquid, a gas has no fixed volume and will expand to fill whatever
container is holding it. When a gas is confined to a fixed volume, however, its pressure will
increase in response to increasing temperature, or decrease in response to decreasing
temperature. This effect can be readily observed by putting an empty, but sealed plastic soda
or water bottle in the refrigerator. As the air inside cools, the volume of the bottle shrinks
because the internal pressure drops.

While the coefficient of thermal expansion for a liquid is highly dependent on that particular
liquid, the relationship between pressure and temperature for a gas is largely independent of

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the particular gas in question. The behavior of most gasses conforms substantially to the ideal
gas law:

PV = nRT

Where P is the pressure (Pa), V is the volume (m3), n is the number of moles of gas, R is the gas
constant (8.314 Pa*m3/mole*K), and T is the absolute temperature (K). If one solves for P, it
becomes clear that pressure is a linear function of absolute temperature, and that pressure
becomes zero at absolute zero.

Figure 2.- Manometric Gas Bulb Thermometer

An important feature of the ideal gas law is that it doesn’t require any special constants that
are dependent on the exact nature of the gas, and the relation is substantially linear over a
wide temperature range. The key to exploiting the ideal gas law for temperature measurement
is in being able to either hold pressure constant and measure volume, or hold volume constant
and measure pressure.

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A sealed bulb of the gas sample to be used for the temperature measurement is attached to a
manometer (a pressure measuring instrument). The heart of this device is a column of fluid
with a vacuum at the top. The height to which the column rises, is read off on an associated
scale to indicate pressure. Unlike a typical manometer, this instrument also provides an
auxiliary adjustment tube attached by a flexible coupling. The adjustment tube is moved up or
down so that the level of the manometer’s working fluid at the point which it interfaces with
the gas bulb is maintained at a uniform level. This ensures that the gas sample in the bulb is
maintained at a constant volume. Although a manometric temperature sensor like the one
shown above can provide significant advantages, its use is also subject to a number of
limitations.

For example, if a real gas is cooled to the point very close to absolute zero, its volume will not in
actuality shrink to zero. At sufficiently low temperatures the gas will liquefy or even solidify,
below which points it will contract much more slowly with decreasing temperature - as the
material is no longer in its gaseous phase, it no longer obeys the ideal gas law. Also, under
conditions where the ’gas’ simultaneously exists in both gaseous and liquid phases, the ideal
gas law no longer predicts pressure. Instead, pressure is determined by the material’s vapor
pressure, which is strictly a function of temperature. If one operates a gas-law based
thermometer under a suitable set of conditions, it can provide a high degree of linearity.

Bimetallic Strip Thermometers

Bulb thermometers are good for measuring temperature accurately, but they are harder to use
when the goal is to control the temperature. The bimetallic strip thermometer, because it is
made of metal, is good at controlling things.

Figure 3. - Bimetal Thermometer

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The principle behind a bimetallic strip thermometer relies on the fact that different metals
expand at different rates as they warm up. By bonding two different metals together, you can
make a simple electric controller that can withstand fairly high temperatures. This sort of
controller is often found in ovens. A bimetallic strip is used to convert a temperature change
into mechanical displacement. The strip consists of two strips of different metals which expand
at different rates as they are heated, usually steel and copper, or in some cases brass instead of
copper. The strips are joined together throughout their length by riveting, brazing or welding.
The different expansions force the flat strip to bend one way if heated, and in the opposite
direction if cooled below its initial temperature. The metal with the higher coefficient of
thermal expansion is on the outer side of the curve when the strip is heated and on the inner
side when cooled.

Solids, like liquids and gasses, also expand and contract in response to temperature changes.
When temperature increases, most solids expand in all dimensions. For amorphous materials,
such as glass and metals, the change in dimension is equal along all axis. For materials which
have different properties along different axis, such as crystalline materials or materials with a
grain structure such as wood, the degree of thermal expansion can differ significantly
depending on the dimension along which it is measured. Whereas the coefficient of thermal
expansion for a liquid is normally characterized by changes in volume, the corresponding
coefficient for a solid is normally characterized as change in length, or a linear coefficient of
thermal expansion.

As is the case for CTEs of liquids, the CTEs of solids also vary based on the solid’s composition
and over temperature. Note that even when one considers the geometric relationship between
linear and volumetric characterization , the CTEs for solids tend to be much lower than those
for liquids.

Figure 4. - Bimetal Strip

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While CTEs for solids are normally only a few tens of parts-per-million/C, they can manifest
themselves quite noticeably. One familiar example can be seen when attempting to open a
tight lid on a glass jar. By running hot tap water over the lid the resulting expansion of the lid is
often enough to loosen it to the point where it can be easily removed. If the thermal expansion
effect in solids is so small, how can it be used to create useful sensors? The most common
means of exploiting thermal expansion is through the bimetallic strip, where two strips of
metals with differing CTEs are bonded together along their lengths, as shown in Figure 3.

Because the two materials have differing CTEs, their lengths will change by differing amounts in
response to temperature changes. While these changes in length may be small, and the
difference between them smaller yet, these small differences will be reflected in a more
noticeable change in the curvature of the bonded strip.

To implement a practical thermometer, the amount of curvature realizable with a short strip of
material may not be sufficient. For this reason bimetallic strips are typically fashioned into a
coil. One end of the coil is fixed, and an indicating pointer is affixed to the free end, as shown in
Figure 3. This type of bimetallic thermometer is popular for many applications, one common
example being the cooking thermometers used to determine whether meat is sufficiently ‘well-
done‘. Another common application for bimetallic thermometers is in temperature controls.
For example, if one replaces the indicator dial with electrical contacts, one can realize a
temperature-sensitive switch. Another way to exploit the bimetallic principal is to use a
bimetallic disk rather than a strip. The disk is manufactured so that it has a slight convex bias to
one side.

Advantages:
 Simple, robust and inexpensive.
 It has good accuracy.
 It can measure temperature in the range of (-40 to 550) in Celsius.
 It can withstand 50% overage temperature measurement.

Disadvantages:

 Not recommended for measurement of temperature above 550 degree Celsius.

 The metals undergo permanent warp distortion.
 Usage is limited to local mounting.

Phase-Transition Temperature Measurement

Solids and liquids typically experience relatively small changes in length and volume as a result
of temperature changes. Many materials, however, experience substantial changes in volume

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either during the transition between solid and liquid phases or close to the transition point.
Water, for example, expands significantly just before it freezes into ice. Another example,
familiar to anyone who has made candles or sealed canning jars with hot paraffin wax is that
the wax shrinks substantially as it cools and solidifies from its molten state. The dramatic
changes in volume of waxes near their solid-liquid transition points is the basis of the wax-pellet
thermostat (Figure 5a.). When the device is cold (Figure 5a), the wax pellet inside a canister is
at minimum volume. This allows a pin to enter the canister to a maximal degree, resulting in the
canister being forced into a valve-closed position by a return spring.

Figure 5. - Wax Pellet Thermostat in closed (a) and open (b) states

When the assembly heats up, the wax begins to melt and expand. This forces the pin out of the
wax canister (Figure 5b), moving the canister against the return spring and opening the valve.

The trip-temperature of a wax thermostat is determined both by the device’s mechanical

design and by the temperature at which the wax experiences its greatest change in volume.
This temperature, in turn, can be controlled to within a range of a few degrees to tens of
degrees by careful formulation of the wax. Currently available thermostat waxes can provide
volumetric changes in the range of 10%-20%, with transition temperatures ranging from
approximately 20C to over 100C, depending on the formulation.

Although wax thermostats can be used in a wide range of applications where one needs to
obtain a mechanical motion in response to temperature changes over a relatively narrow range,
perhaps the common application of wax pellet thermostats is in automotive cooling systems.
When an engine is below its operating temperature, the thermostat remains in the closed
position, preventing water from circulating through the radiator and being cooled. When the
engine reaches operating temperature, the thermostat valve begins to open and allow water
circulation, cooling the engine.

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Electric method
THE RTD
The electrical conductivity of a metal depends on the movement of electrons through its crystal
lattice. Due to thermal excitation, the electrical resistance of a conductor varies according to its
temperature and this forms the basic principles of resistance thermometry.

The effect is most commonly exhibited as an increase in resistance with increasing

temperature, a positive temperature coefficient of resistance. When utilizing this effect for
temperature measurement, a large value of temperature coefficient (the greatest possible
change of resistance with temperature) is deal; however, stability of the characteristic over the
short and long term is vital if practical use is to made of the conductor in question.

Metal Film RTD’s

In the newest construction technique, a platinum or metal-glass slurry film is deposited or
screened onto a small flat ceramic substrate, etched with a laser-trimming system, and sealed.
The film RTD offers substantial reduction in assembly time and has the further advantage of
increased resistance for a given size. Due to the manufacturing technology, the device size itself
is small, which means it can respond quickly to step changes in temperature. Film RTD’s are
presently less stable than their hand-made counterparts, but they are becoming more popular
because of their decided advantages in size and production cost. These advantages should
provide the impetus for future research needed to improve stability.

Metals - All metals produce a positive change in resistance for a positive change in
temperature. This, of course, is the main function of an RTD.As we shall soon see, system error
is minimized when the nominal value of the RTD resistance is large. This implies a metal wire
with a high resistivity. The lower the resistivity of the metal, the more material we will have to
use. Because of their lower resistivity’s, gold and silver are rarely used as RTD elements.
Tungsten has a relatively high resistivity, but is reserved for very high temperature applications
because it is extremely brittle and difficult to work.

Copper is used occasionally as an RTD element. Its low resistivity forces the element to be
longer than a platinum element, but its linearity and very low cost make it an economical
alternative. Its upper temperature limit is only about 120ºC. The most common RTD’s are made
of platinum, nickel, or nickel alloys. The economical nickel derivative wires are used over a
limited temperature range. They are quite non-linear and tend to drift with time. For
measurement integrity, platinum is the obvious choice.

Resistance Measurement

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The common values of resistance for a platinum RTD range from 10 ohms for the bird-cage
model to several thousand ohms for the film RTD. The single most common value is 100 ohms
at 0ºC. Both the slope and the absolute value are small numbers, especially when we consider
the fact that the measurement wires leading to the sensor may be several ohms or even tens of
ohms. A small lead impedance can contribute a significant error to our temperature
measurement. Ten ohm lead impedance implies 10/.385 ≅ 26ºC error in measurement. Even
the temperature coefficient of the lead wire can contribute a measurable error. The classical
method of avoiding this problem has been the use of a bridge.

Resistance to Temperature Conversion

The RTD is a more linear device than the thermocouple, but it still requires curve-fitting. The
Callendar-Van Dusen equation has been used for years to approximate the RTD curve:

Where:

RT = Resistance at Temperature T

Ro = Resistance at T = 0ºC

α = Temperature coefficient at T = 0ºC (typically +0.00392Ω/Ω/ºC)

δ =1.49 (typical value for .00392 platinum)

β =0T > 0

0.11 (typical) T < 0

The exact values for coefficients α , β , and δ are determined by testing the RTD at four
temperatures and solving the resultant equations. This familiar equation was replaced in 1968
by a 20th order polynomial in order to provide a more accurate curve fit.

Thermistors
Like the RTD, the thermistor is also a temperature-sensitive resistor. While the thermo-couple is
the most versatile temperature transducer and the PRTD is the most stable, the word that best
describes the thermistor is sensitive. Of the three major categories of sensors, the thermistor
exhibits by far the largest parameter change with temperature. Thermistors are generally
composed of semiconductor materials. Although positive temperature coefficient units are
available, most thermistor have a negative temperature coefficient (TC); that is, their resistance

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decreases with increasing temperature. The negative TC can be as large as several percent per
degree C, allowing the thermistor circuit to detect minute changes in temperature which could
not be observed with an RTD or thermocouple circuit. The price we pay for this increased
sensitivity is loss of linearity. The thermistor is an extremely non-linear device which is highly
dependent upon process parameters. Consequently, manufacturers have not standardized
thermistor curves to the extent that RTD and thermocouple curves have been standardized

Measurement
The high resistivity of the thermistor affords it a distinct measurement advantage. The four-wire
resistance measurement may not be required as it is with RTD’s. For example, a common
thermistor value is 5000 Ω at 25°C. With a typical TC of 4%/°C, a measurement lead resistance
of 10 Ω produces only .05°C error. This error is a factor of 500 times less than the equivalent
RTD error.

Disadvantages - Because they are semiconductors, thermistors are more susceptible to per-
manent decalibration at high temperatures than are RTD’s or thermocouples. The use of
thermistors is generally limited to a few hundred degrees Celsius, and manufacturers warn that
extended exposures even well below maximum operating limits will cause the thermistor to
drift out of its specifi ed tolerance.

Thermistors can be made very small which means they will respond quickly to temperature
changes. It also means that their small thermal mass makes them especially susceptible to self-
heating errors. Thermistors are a good deal more fragile than RTD’s or thermocouples and they
must be carefully mounted to avoid crushing or bond separation.

The IC Sensor
An innovation in thermometry is the IC (Integrated Circuit)temperature transducer. These are
available in both voltage and current-output configurations. Both supply an output that is
linearly proportional to absolute temperature. Typical values are 1 μA/K and 10 mV/K F. Some
integrated sensors even represent temperature in a digital output format that can be read
directly by a microprocessor. Except that they offer a very linear output with temperature,
these IC sensors share all the disadvantages of thermistor. They are semiconductor devices and
thus have a limited temperature range. The same problems of self-heating and fragility are
evident and they require an external power source.

These devices provide a convenient way to produce an easy-to-read output that is proportional
to temperature. Such a need arises in thermo-couple reference junction hardware, and in fact
these devices are increasingly used for thermocouple compensation.

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THERMOCOUPLE
A thermocouple is a junction between two different metals that produces a voltage related to a
temperature difference. Thermocouples are a widely used type of temperature sensor for
measurement and control and can also be used to convert heat into electricity. They are
inexpensive and interchangeable, are supplied fitted with standard connectors, and can
measure a wide range of temperatures. The main limitation is accuracy: system errors of less
than one degree Celsius (C) can be difficult to achieve.

Any junction of dissimilar metals will produce an electric potential related to temperature.
Thermocouples for practical measurement of temperature are junctions of specific alloys which
have a predictable and repeatable relationship between temperature and voltage. Different
alloys are used for different temperature ranges. Properties such as resistance to corrosion may
also be important when choosing a type of thermocouple. Where the measurement point is far
from the measuring instrument, the intermediate connection can be made by extension wires
which are less costly than the materials used to make the sensor. Thermocouples are usually
standardized against a reference temperature of 0 degrees Celsius; practical instruments use
electronic methods of cold-junction compensation to adjust for varying temperature at the
instrument terminals. Electronic instruments can also compensate for the varying
characteristics of the thermocouple, and so improve the precision and accuracy of
measurements.

Thermocouples are widely used in science and industry; applications include temperature
measurement for kilns, gas turbine exhaust, diesel engines, and other industrial processes.

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Principle of operation

In 1821, the German–Estonian physicist Thomas Johann Seebeck discovered that when any
conductor is subjected to a thermal gradient, it will generate a voltage. This is now known as
the thermoelectric effect or Seebeck effect. Any attempt to measure this voltage necessarily
involves connecting another conductor to the "hot" end. This additional conductor will then
also experience the temperature gradient, and develop a voltage of its own which will oppose
the original. Fortunately, the magnitude of the effect depends on the metal in use. Using a
dissimilar metal to complete the circuit creates a circuit in which the two legs generate
different voltages, leaving a small difference in voltage available for measurement. That
difference increases with temperature, and is between 1 and 70 microvolts per degree Celsius
(µV/°C) for standard metal combinations.

The voltage is not generated at the junction of the two metals of the thermocouple but rather
along that portion of the length of the two dissimilar metals that is subjected to a temperature
gradient. Because both lengths of dissimilar metals experience the same temperature gradient,
the end result is a measurement of the temperature at the thermocouple junction.

Cold junction compensation

Thermocouples measure the temperature difference between two points, not absolute
temperature. To measure a single temperature one of the junctions normally the cold junction
is maintained at a known reference temperature, and the other junction is at the temperature
to be sensed.

Having a junction of known temperature, while useful for laboratory calibration, is not
convenient for most measurement and control applications. Instead, they incorporate an
artificial cold junction using a thermally sensitive device such as a thermistor or diode to
measure the temperature of the input connections at the instrument, with special care being
taken to minimize any temperature gradient between terminals. Hence, the voltage from a
known cold junction can be simulated, and the appropriate correction applied. This is known as
cold junction compensation. Some integrated circuits such as the LT1025 are designed to
output a compensated voltage based on thermocouple type and cold junction temperature.

Extension wire

Extension grade wires made of the same metals as a higher-grade thermocouple are used to
connect it to a measuring instrument some distance away without introducing additional
junctions between dissimilar materials which would generate unwanted voltages; the
connections to the extension wires, being of like metals, do not generate a voltage. In the case
of platinum thermocouples, extension wire is a copper alloy, since it would be prohibitively
expensive to use platinum for extension wires. The extension wire is specified to have a very

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similar thermal coefficient of EMF to the thermocouple, but only over a narrow range of
temperatures; this reduces the cost significantly

Laws for thermocouples

Law of homogeneous material

A thermoelectric current cannot be sustained in a circuit of a single homogeneous material by

the application of heat alone, regardless of how it might vary in cross section. In other words,
temperature changes in the wiring between the input and output do not affect the output
voltage, provided all wires are made of the same materials as the thermocouple. No current
flows in the circuit made of a single metal by the application of heat alone.

Law of intermediate materials

The algebraic sum of the thermoelectric emfs in a circuit composed of any number of dissimilar
materials is zero if all of the junctions are at a uniform temperature. So If a third metal is
inserted in either wire and if the two new junctions are at the same temperature, there will be
no net voltage generated by the new metal.

Law of successive or intermediate temperatures

If two dissimilar homogeneous materials produce thermal emf1 when the junctions are at T1
and T2 and produce thermal emf2 when the junctions are at T2 and T3 , the emf generated
when the junctions are at T1 and T3 will be emf1 + emf2,provided T1<T2<T3.

Temperature Range

Thermocouples provide measurement over a large temperature range--from 200 to 2600

degrees Celsius. This allows thermocouples to be used in a variety of circumstances in different
industries. Their vast temperature range also allows them to be used at high temperatures
where most temperature gauges do not work.

Applications

Thermocouples are suitable for measuring over a large temperature range, up to 2300 °C. They
are less suitable for applications where smaller temperature differences need to be measured
with high accuracy, for example the range 0–100 °C with 0.1 °C accuracy. For such applications
thermistors and resistance temperature detectors are more suitable. Applications include
temperature measurement for kilns, gas turbine exhaust, diesel engines, and other industrial
processes.

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Advantages of thermocouples:

 Capable of being used to directly measure temperatures up to 2600 oC.

 The thermocouple junction may be grounded and brought into direct contact with the
material being measured.
 They are quit rugged type, i.e. they can withstand rough handling.
 Output Signal is electrical and they can be used for indicating, recording or
microprocessor based control system.
 Output signal, i.e. emf is independent of length or diameter of wire.
 They have excellent stability for a long period of time.

Disadvantages of thermocouples:

 Temperature measurement with a thermocouple requires two temperatures be

measured, the junction at the work end (the hot junction) and the junction where wires
meet the instrumentation copper wires (cold junction). To avoid error the cold junction
temperature is in general compensated in the electronic instruments by measuring the
temperature at the terminal block using with a semiconductor, thermistor, or RTD.
 Thermocouples operations are relatively complex with potential sources of error. The
materials of which thermocouple wires are made are not inert and the thermoelectric
voltage developed along the length of the thermocouple wire may be influenced by
corrosion etc.
 The relationship between the process temperature and the thermocouple signal
(millivolt) is not linear.
 The calibration of the thermocouple should be carried out while it is in use by
comparing it to a nearby comparison thermocouple. If the thermocouple is removed
and placed in a calibration bath, the output integrated over the length is not reproduced
exactly.

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Noncontact Temperature Measurement
Noncontact temperature measurement is the preferred technique for small, moving, or
inaccessible objects; dynamic processes that require fast response; and temperatures <1000°C.

Radiation Thermometers (RTs)

Radiation Thermometers (Pyrometers) are non-contact temperature sensors that measure

temperature from the amount of thermal electromagnetic radiation received from a spot on
the object of measurement. This group of sensors includes both spot or "point" measuring
devices in addition to line measuring radiation thermometers, which produce 1-D and, with
known relative motion, can produce 2-D temperature distributions, and thermal imaging, or
area measuring, thermometers which measure over an area from which the resulting image can
be displayed as a 2-D temperature map of the region viewed.

A pyrometer is a non-contacting device that intercepts and measures thermal radiation, a

process known as pyrometry. This device can be used to determine the temperature of an
object's surface. The word pyrometer comes from the Greek word for fire, "πυρ" ( pyro), and
meter, meaning to measure. Pyrometer was originally coined to denote a device capable of
measuring temperatures of objects above incandescence (i.e. objects bright to the human eye).

Principle of operation

A pyrometer has an optical system and detector. The optical system focuses the thermal
radiation onto the detector. The output signal of the detector (Temperature T) is related to the
thermal radiation or irradiance j* of the target object through the Stefan–Boltzmann law, the
constant of proportionality σ, called the Stefan-Boltzmann constant and the emissivity ε of the
object.

This output is used to infer the object's temperature. Thus, there is no need for direct contact
between the pyrometer and the object, as there is with thermocouple and Resistance
temperature detector (RTDs).

Types of Pyrometer

Brightness/Single-Color Pyrometer.

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These devices measure and evaluate the intensity, or brightness, of the intercepted thermal
radiation. Intensity, or, more generally, spectral radiance, is measured in a narrow wavelength
band of the thermal spectrum. Band selection is dictated by the temperature range and the
type of material to be measured. The oldest brightness pyrometers compared optical
brightness in the visible (red) spectrum at 0.65 µm by matching the glowing object to a hot
“disappearing” filament. The term “single-color” derives from the single narrow wavelength
band of red seen by the user. Instruments sensitized to measure in the IR region are also called
spectral radiation pyrometers or spectral radiation thermometers.

Ratio/Two-Color Pyrometer.

This radiation thermometer measures temperatures on the basis of two (or more) discrete
wavelengths. The ratio of the brightness’s in separate wavelengths corresponds to color in the
visible spectrum. The use of two distinct, visible colors typically red and green – has long been
popular to infer color temperatures. More recently, the term has broadened from its initial
usage to include wavelengths in the infrared. The advantage of ratio measuring is that
temperature readings are greatly independent of emissivity fluctuations and/or sight path
obscurations. The technique is generally used for temperatures above incandescence
(700°C,1300°F ), but measurements down to 200°C (400°F) are also possible.

Optical Pyrometers

Optical Pyrometers work on the basic principle of using the human eye to match the brightness
of the hot object to the brightness of a calibrated lamp filament inside the instrument. The
optical system contains filters that restrict the wavelength-sensitivity of the devices to a narrow
wavelength band around 0.65 to 0.66 microns (the red region of the visible spectrum).

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Other filters reduce the intensity so that one instrument can have a relatively wide temperature
range capability. Needless to say, by restricting the wavelength response of the device to the
red region of the visible, it can only be used to measure objects that are hot enough to be
incandescent, or glowing. This limits the lower end of the temperature measurement range of
these devices to about 700 °C. Some experimental devices have been built using light amplifiers
to extend the range downwards, but the devices become quite cumbersome, fragile and
expensive.
 
Modern radiation thermometers provide the capability to measure within and below the range
of the optical pyrometer with equal or better measurement precision plus faster time response,
precise emissivity correction capability, better calibration stability, enhanced ruggedness and
relatively modest cost.

Total radiation pyrometer

The total radiation pyrometer receives all the radiation from a particular are of hot body. The
term total radiation includes both the visible and invisible radiations. It consists of radiation
receiving element and a measuring device.

The mirror type radiation pyrometer is shown in figure below. Here, the diaphragm unit along
with a mirror is used to focus the radiation on a thermocouple. The distance between the
mirror and the thermocouple is adjusted for proper focus.

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Here, the image of the front diaphragm is focused on the thermocouple by the mirror.
Therefore, the temperature measurements are independent of the distance of the target If
there is any smoke, dust in the space between the tarhet and transducer, it reduces the
radiation. Hence negative errors. If there are any heat sources like hot gases and flames, then
the meter reading will be high.

                  The characteristic of this pyrometer is non-linear. It has poor sensitivity. This device is
not used for temperature lower than 600 to 1200 degree Celsius. Output from this pyrometer is
taken to pmmc instrument.

Advantages:

 Used to measure very high temperature.

 High output signal and moderate cost.
 No need to have contact with measuring system.
 Fast response.

Disadvantage:

 Non-linear scale.
 Error will occur.
 Emmissivity of target material affects the measurements.

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Application:

 Used to measure temperature of moving target.

 Used to measure temperature of a target where physical contact is impossible.
 Used to measure temperature in corrosive environment.
 Used to measure invisible rays from radiations

Infrared thermometer

IR Radiation. Infrared is that portion of the electromagnetic spectrum beyond the visible (blue
to red, 0.4-0.75 µm) response of the human eye. IR wavelengths extend from 0.75 µm to 1000
µm, where the shortest microwaves (radar) begin. Because IR radiation is predominantly
generated by heat, it is called thermal radiation.

Infrared thermometers infer temperature using a portion of the thermal radiation sometimes
called blackbody radiation emitted by the object of measurement. They are sometimes called
laser thermometers if a laser is used to help aim the thermometer, or non-contact
thermometers to describe the device’s ability to measure temperature from a distance. By
knowing the amount of infrared energy emitted by the object and its emissivity, the object's
temperature can be determined most of the time. They are a subset of devices more precisely
called "Thermal Radiation Thermometers" or Radiation Thermometer for short.

The most basic design consists of a lens to focus the infrared thermal radiation on to a detector,
which converts the radiant power to an electrical signal that can be displayed in units of
temperature after being compensated for ambient temperature. This configuration facilitates
temperature measurement from a distance without contact with the object to be measured. As
such, the infrared thermometer is useful for measuring temperature under circumstances
where thermocouples or other probe type sensors cannot be used or do not produce accurate
data for a variety of reasons.

Some typical circumstances are where the object to be measured is moving; where the object is
surrounded by an electromagnetic field, as in induction heating; where the object is contained
in a vacuum or other controlled atmosphere; or in applications where a fast response is
required, an accurate surface temperature is desired or the object temperature is above the
recommended use point of a contact sensors, or contact with a sensor would mar the object or
the sensor, or introduce a significant temperature gradient on the object's surface.

Infrared thermometers can be used to serve a wide variety of temperature monitoring

functions. A few examples provided to this article include:

 Detecting clouds for remote telescope operation

 Checking mechanical equipment or electrical circuit breaker boxes or outlets for hot
spots

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  Checking heater or oven temperature, for calibration and control purposes
 Detecting hot spots / performing diagnostics in electrical circuit board manufacturing
 Checking for hot spots in fire fighting situations
 Monitoring materials in process of heating and cooling, for research and development
or manufacturing quality control situations

The most common infrared thermometers are the:

 Spot Infrared Thermometer or Infrared Pyrometer, which measures the temperature at

a spot on a surface (actually a relatively small area determined by the D:S ratio).

Emissivity. This quality defines the fraction of radiation emitted by an object as compared to
that emitted by a perfect radiator (blackbody) at the same temperature. Emissivity is
determined in part by the type of material and its surface condition, and may vary from close to
zero (for a highly reflective mirror) to almost 1 (for a blackbody simulator). Emissivity is used to
calculate the true temperature of an object from the measured brightness or spectral radiance.
Because an object’s emissivity may also vary with wavelength, a radiation thermometer with
spectral response matching regions of high emissivity should be selected for a specific
application. Emissivity values are listed in the literature for a variety of materials and spectral
bands, or these values can be determined empirically.

RADIATION DETECTION

Emissivity Adjustment. Temperature reading accuracy depends on the correct adjustment of

the instrument to the target emissivity. Preset emissivity values can be used for on-line sensors
to monitor targets of constant emissivity. Measurements on those materials with changing
emissivities require an accurate and reproducible emissivity adjustment.

Surrounding Area Temperature. Thermal target radiation always contains stray radiation
emitted by the environment surrounding the target area and reflected by the target’s surface.
In practice, the ambient temperature is frequently presumed to be the same as the
temperature of the sensor. If the target is exposed to a different thermal environment, e.g.,
inside a heated furnace, inside a cooled chamber, or outdoors facing the open sky, adjustments
are necessary for accurate measurement. Separate sensors for the area surrounding the target
may be used for automatic temperature calculation.

Sight Path Obscuration. Gases, water vapor, dust, and other aerosols in the sight path of a
sensor may affect the temperature reading. Using one of the “atmospheric windows” in the IR
region greatly reduces measurement errors. Since both optical channels are equally attenuated,
ratio pyrometers are generally immune to sight path obscuration, and the signal color ratio
remains unaffected.

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Ambient Temperature Drift. By the nature of their design, radiation detectors are strongly
affected by ambient temperature changes. To maintain high measurement accuracy, precise
compensation of this temperature drift is required. Temperature drift is specified in error/°C or
error/°F of ambient temperature change.

Summary
Reliable temperature measurements require a great deal of care in selecting and using the
transducer, as well as choosing the right measurement system. With proper precautions
observed for self-heating, thermal shunting, transducer deceleration, specifications and noise
reduction, even the most complex temperature monitoring project will produce repeatable,
reliable data. Today’s data acquisition system assumes a great deal of this burden, allowing us
to concentrate on meaningful test results.

Conclusion
Temperature is the most important process variable that requires continuous measurement
and monitoring in a process industry. Among the different types of temperature transducers,
the most commonly used ones are RTDs and thermocouples. Their popularity is mainly due to
their ruggedness, repeatability and wide range of operation. Bare RTDs and thermocouples are
rarely used in practice; instead, they are put in protective metallic sheaths. The signal
conditioning circuits should be properly designed, so as to avoid the errors due to lead wires in
RTDs and variation of cold junction temperatures in thermocouples. There are several cases
where the temperature to be measured is more than 2000°C, the conventional measuring

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techniques fail to measure the high temperature. Instead, the measurement is carried out from
a distance. Radiation pyrometers are used in these situations.

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