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Global Tourism Higher Education—The British Isles Experience

Tom Bauma
a
International Tourism and Hospitality Management, The Scottish Hotel School, University of
Strathclyde, Glasgow, Glasgow, Scotland

To cite this Article Baum, Tom(2006) 'Global Tourism Higher Education—The British Isles Experience', Journal of
Teaching in Travel & Tourism, 5: 1, 27 — 38
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 Global Tourism Higher Education–
The British Isles Experience
Tom Baum

SUMMARY. The British Isles includes five educational and tourism

environments and jurisdictions which have much in common, particu-
larly in terms of their underpinning tourism products. Their higher edu-
cational provision likewise exhibits some common features but also
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significant diversity. This paper addresses the development of tourism

education within the colleges and universities of the British Isles, taken
to cover the United Kingdom (England, Scotland, Wales and Northern
Ireland) as well as the Republic of Ireland. The paper demonstrates the
impact of jurisdictional autonomy on educational programmes, their un-
derlying philosophy and structure. [Article copies available for a fee from
The Haworth Document Delivery Service: 1-800-HAWORTH. E-mail address:
<docdelivery@haworthpress.com> Website: <http://www.HaworthPress.com>
© 2005 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.]

KEYWORDS. British Isles, Ireland, vocational education, tourism edu-

cation, universities, colleges, certification

Tom Baum is Professor, International Tourism and Hospitality Management, The

Scottish Hotel School, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, Curran Building, 94 Cathe-
dral Street, Glasgow G4 0LG, Scotland (E-mail: t.g.baum@strath.ac.uk).
[Haworth co-indexing entry note]: “Global Tourism Higher Education–The British Isles Experience.”
Baum, Tom. Co-published simultaneously in Journal of Teaching in Travel & Tourism (The Haworth Press,
Inc.) Vol. 5, No. 1/2, 2005, pp. 27-38; and: Global Tourism Higher Education: Past, Present, and Future (ed:
Cathy H. C. Hsu) The Haworth Press, Inc., 2005, pp. 27-38. Single or multiple copies of this article are avail-
able for a fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Service [1-800-HAWORTH, 9:00 a.m. - 5:00 p.m.
(EST). E-mail address: docdelivery@haworthpress.com].

Available online at http://www.haworthpress.com/web/JTTT

© 2005 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1300/J172v05n01_02 27
 28 Global Tourism Higher Education: Past, Present, and Future

INTRODUCTION

This paper addresses the development of tourism education within the

colleges and universities of the British Isles, taken to cover the United
Kingdom (England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland) as well as the
Republic of Ireland. The scope is deliberate in that the five jurisdictions
have common elements in both their tourism products and the higher edu-
cation systems to provide for them. They also, however, exhibit consider-
able diversity and demonstrate cogently how external environmental
factors in both the tourism sector environment and the educational con-
text shape the current delivery of learning and programmes of study
within this field.
Tourism education (taken here to include elements of hospitality)
when set alongside more traditional and perhaps less “synthetic” disci-
plines such as law and history, has a relatively recent history within aca-
demia. However, the origins of this field of study, in the European
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context, can be traced back to the late 19th century (EURHODIP, 2003;
Gillespie & Baum, 2000, 2001). European Hotel Diploma (EURHODIP)
identified the first formally recognised training programmes in education
for tourism-related subjects in the late 18th and early 19th centuries with
the post-unification apprenticeship schemes in Germany after 1870.
Lausanne Hotel School, founded in 1893, is identified as the first special-
ist school of its kind in Europe and was followed by a number of other
colleges in the early years of the 20th Century in countries as diverse as
Portugal, France and the United Kingdom. Programmes in different Eu-
ropean countries adopted very different educational models according to
local practice, with diversity in terms of duration, level, content and struc-
ture, particularly in terms of the role played by the tourism industry in
programme delivery.
The development history of tourism management education varied ac-
cording to the character of the sponsoring institution and the educational
and tourism industry framework within which it is located. In many coun-
tries, tourism education has developed from training at the practitioner
level, designed to meet the skills needs of the local hotel and restaurant
industries through a process of academic and professional evolution
whereby new and higher tiers were added to existing provision in re-
sponse to both industry and student demand. Thus, both the Dublin Col-
lege of Catering in Ireland and Westminster College in London started as
professional culinary schools in the early years of the 20th century. Both
have maintained this tradition but have extended their range of courses in
both horizontal and vertical terms, offering a range of allied programmes
 Tom Baum 29

in tourism and leisure at operational through to management degree lev-

els. Similar patterns can be found in the development of a number of
Asian schools, notably Singapore Hotels Association Technical Educa-
tion Centre (SHATEC) and the National Khaosiung Hospitality College
in Taiwan. In a minority of instances, programmes were established with
a focus on higher-level management education from their foundation,
what might be styled the Cornell model. My own institution, The Scottish
Hotel School, was established as a specialist management college in 1944
as the oldest university provider of tourism education in Europe and the
first to offer both degree and postgraduate courses in this area.
Tourism education programme diversity is, in many respects, one of
the real strengths of provision at an international level. This strength
comes from the manner in which programmes are able to respond flexi-
bly to industry needs at a local level or in terms of the specialist sub-sec-
tors that they aspire to support. There has been ongoing debate about the
extent to which such diversity is, indeed, a virtue (Baum, 1997). Attempts
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to achieve harmonisation of training and qualifications in tourism, within

countries and at a trans-national level, have been relatively unsuccessful
despite support from international organisations such as The European
Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (CEDEFOP) and
EURHODIP in Europe. Within this diverse environment, therefore, the
issue of internationalisation is of particular interest. This paper explores
key features of the internationalisation of programmes and curricula in
tourism and considers these in the light of experience in the United King-
dom and Ireland.

INTERNATIONALISING TOURISM EDUCATION

Notwithstanding the global nature of the tourism industry, educa-

tional provision in this area remains remarkably parochial (Baum,
2000). This can be attributed largely to structural factors within educa-
tion and training at a national level and the dominating imperative in
most countries to conform to wider policies and practice in the voca-
tional development sector. Educational systems at a national level ap-
pear to be innately conservative and major changes do not take place
without debate and resistance. When change does occur within the sys-
tem, it is generally on the basis of a universal model that is applied
across vocational sectors without necessary adaptation to specific in-
dustry requirements. Thus, recent changes to vocational qualifications
in the Republic of Ireland have imposed structural modifications on
 30 Global Tourism Higher Education: Past, Present, and Future

tourism programmes which, it could be argued, run contrary to local in-

dustry needs (Connelly, 2000). Such factors generally act against the
ability of tourism education providers to take an instrumental role in
creating common parameters for programmes across national bound-
aries, one legitimate interpretation of the concept of internationalised
tourism education. The fragmented nature of public policy development
in the area of tourism education in most countries (Amoah & Baum,
1997) also mitigates against effective change in this area.
The debate about internationalising tourism education goes beyond
structural impediments at a national level. A major consideration relates
to the nature of the tourism sector in most countries. Tourism, unlike
most other sectors of the economy, brings its workforce at all levels into
frequent and sustained contact with its consumer base, the international
tourist (Baum, 1993). Thus, an imperative for students at all levels in
tourism education is an understanding of the international nature of
tourism products and markets. This translates into a need for skills that
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reflect internationalised and gobalised services–for example, foreign

languages, cultural acumen and skills for the preparation of interna-
tional culinary products. In many cultures, these can represent sophisti-
cated skills considerably beyond the normal description of tourism
work as “low skills” (Baum, 1996, 2002). Educational programmes,
therefore, need to reflect the need to prepare students for work on a
global stage within their home industry. Internationalisation, however,
extends beyond the needs of local hotels and restaurants. Tourism is an
industry that encourages and facilitates vocational mobility across na-
tional and cultural boundaries to an extent that is unusual within the ser-
vices sector. Expatriatism in tourism has a long history in Europe, North
America and Asia and applies to skilled craft areas, such as chefs, as
well as to all levels of management (Baum, 1995). Today, opportunities
to work at an international level provide one of the main attractions to
those recruited onto hospitality programmes and this aspiration needs to
be fully recognised within curriculum design and delivery. Finally,
there is growing student demand to complete all or part of their studies
in tourism aboard, whether at a skills level, as a part of their undergradu-
ate studies, or in order to undertake masters or doctoral programmes.
UK and Irish providers have been particularly successful in attracting
international students to study in the tourism area, both in-country and
as part of off-shore provision across the globe. The internationalisation
of tourism education programmes is, in many institutions, driven by the
need to meet the pedagogic, professional and personal needs of a global
student population.
 Tom Baum 31

TOURISM EDUCATION IN THE UK

Tourism education in the UK is extensive and well established within

both the vocational/technical college sector and within higher/univer-
sity education (Cooper et al., 1994). Programmes are offered from ini-
tial skills training at apprenticeship level, to diploma and undergraduate
degree level, as well as through masters and doctorates. Provision is of-
fered through a combination of full-time, part-time, and distance learn-
ing modes, and industry involvement is considerable at all levels.
Tourism education also has a growing place within secondary/high
schools through the establishment of school-level qualifications in tour-
ism-related subjects to English General Certificate for Secondary Edu-
cation (GCSE) and Scottish Higher levels.
Tourism education in England, Wales and Northern Ireland is offered
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on the basis of a five-level framework (EURHODIP, 2003). (In Scot-

land, a comparable framework exists but has ten levels.) The five levels
are:

Level 1 provides students with a range of competencies which in-

volve the application of skills in the execution of a varied range of
vocational activities, most of which are routine or predictable.

Level 2 equips students with competencies which involve the ap-

plication of skills in the execution of a series of significant activi-
ties which are complex or non-routine and which require a certain
level of responsibility or autonomy. Working with others, as part
of a team, for example, is a frequent requirement.

Levels 1 and 2 equate to qualified work status and lead to the award
of a Certificate.

Level 3 is a specialist qualification and leads to the award of a Di-

ploma. Level 3 offers students competencies which involve the ap-
plication of skills in the execution of a wide range of varied
professional duties, executed in a wide-ranging series of different
contexts, most of which are complex and non-routine. A consider-
able amount of responsibility and autonomy is required, as well as
frequently involving team management and supervision of other
workers.
 32 Global Tourism Higher Education: Past, Present, and Future

Level 4 provides training for the advanced specialist and leads to

the award of a Degree. Level 4 brings students competencies
which involve the application of skills in the execution of com-
plex, technical or professional activities, performed in a wide-
ranging field of different contexts and involving a substantial level
of personal responsibility and autonomy. Responsibility for the
work of others and the allocation of resources are often involved.

Level 5 is designed for the education of senior executives through

postgraduate courses for MBA and equivalent qualifications. Level
5 provides students with competencies which involve the applica-
tion of a series of fundamental principles in a variety of extensive
and often unpredictable contexts. A very substantial level of per-
sonal autonomy and often significant responsibility for the work
performed by others and the allocation of substantial resources are
often characteristic of work at this level. There will also be per-
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sonal responsibility for the analysis, diagnosis, design and execu-

tion of planning and assessment.

The UK tourism education system has, at its core, the notion that indi-
vidual levels are attained on the basis of the achievement of competence
in specified areas for that level and not necessarily on the completion of
specific programmes or periods of training. Some approaches build their
credit value and structure of assessment on the completion of prescribed
hours of training within a recognised training environment (generally a
college). The UK system does not generally stipulate how or where a stu-
dent should gain training and experience in order to meet the competency
requirements for each level or parts thereof. Therefore, a student or tour-
ism worker may demonstrate competence in a specified area at any level
on the basis of training that may have taken place in a college, within a
formal industry-based programme (a company scheme) or as a result of
professional practice in the workplace over a number of years. Thus cer-
tification for skills at the five levels of National Vocational Qualifica-
tion (NVQ) (or Scottish Vocational Qualifications, SVQ, in Scotland)
may be gained in the workplace or in college or through a combination
of the two, depending upon individual and organisational circum-
stances.
The UK tourism education system is designed to be flexible and pro-
gressive, providing opportunities for students and industry employees
to progress through the five levels at the initial training stage as well as
within subsequent continuous professional development (CPD). Col-
 Tom Baum 33

leges and universities, therefore, also tend to provide courses at a range

of differing levels in order to meet diverse student needs at entry but
also to provide a progression ladder for those within the system who as-
pire to enhance their qualifications at various stages in their career. In-
stitutions, such as the Birmingham College of Hospitality, Tourism and
Creative Studies, offer programmes at all five levels, and some students
do progress through the full range of provision.
The Higher Education Funding Council for England (HEFCE, 2001)
gives formal recognition to the value of higher-level qualifications in
tourism in a report which states that:

• Qualifications have a strong impact on the career development of

managers in the corporate industry. There are a number of points
in the management hierarchy that are difficult to pass without a de-
gree level qualification, currently in the area of senior manage-
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ment.
• As the industry continues to develop and managerial roles and
companies become more complex, the nature of the unit manage-
ment role will increasingly require the skills and knowledge that
graduates bring.
• While in-house programmes will continue to offer internal devel-
opment, qualifications will be increasingly important in career
progression, especially in larger companies.

HEFCE notes that the tourism industry favours specialist graduates

over those from other disciplines. They are preferred for a number of
reasons, including their understanding of the way that the industry
works, the fact that they were more likely to “stay the course” and in
general for their passion for and commitment to the industry.
Tourism education in the UK is subject to widespread evaluation and
reflection through pedagogical research (see, for example, Baum &
Nickson, 1998). The national Learning and Teaching Support Network
(LTSN) for Hospitality, Leisure, Sports and Tourism (recently reconsti-
tuted as The Higher Education Academy Network–Hospitality, Leisure,
Sport & Tourism) provides a link between the work of many educators
in tourism and allied disciplines. As such, LTSN supports pedagogic re-
search as well as provides the opportunity to showcase best practice in
the area. As an example, LTSN recently supported an evaluation re-
search project which looked at the international curriculum delivered
off-shore by The Scottish Hotel School in Iran and Hong Kong.
 34 Global Tourism Higher Education: Past, Present, and Future

TOURISM EDUCATION IN THE REPUBLIC OF IRELAND

The educational culture of tourism education in the Irish Republic

has similarities to that in the UK but also exhibits clear differences. The
majority of formal vocational programmes are offered within a national
system of Institutes of Technology (IT) and this provision ranges from
initial craft or skills programmes through to management diplomas, de-
grees and masters courses. Outside of the IT system is the quasi-private
Shannon College of Hotel Management, which is operated by the
state-owned airport operator, Aer Rianta. Shannon has strong interna-
tional brand recognition and has attracted a significant number of inter-
national students since its foundation some 50 years ago. The major
university provider of tourism education is the University of Limerick,
which is also the location of the National Centre for Tourism Studies. In
addition to IT and university programmes, a number of secondary
schools offer programmes in tourism, leading to recognised certifica-
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tion at Intermediate and Leaving Certificate level.

What is of particular interest in the Irish Republic’s tourism educa-
tion system is the overarching role played by the public agency Failte
Ireland (formerly CERT) for tourism education and training. Founded
in 1962, this agency has played a central and, arguably, pivotal role in
the development of Irish tourism. The success and growth of the sector
since 1987 is in part attributable to the quality of the workforce at all
levels available within the industry, and public investment in skills en-
hancement has been a key element in achieving this. The country’s in-
vestment in integrated human resource development over an extended
period (Connelly, 2000; Dineen & Deegan, 1996; Walsh, 1993) has
been closely linked to its wider economic growth, particularly invest-
ment through European Regional and Social Development funding.
This European support has now substantially been replaced by national
government funding with relatively little change in the value of invest-
ment.
The key role of Failte Ireland is, on behalf of government, to co-ordi-
nate inputs into human resource development within the tourism sector
at all levels. At a policy level, Failte Ireland advises government on in-
vestment decisions with respect to human resource development in
tourism and provides a key link between wider tourism policy objec-
tives and the contribution that human resource development makes in
their achievement. The Failte Ireland role also involves, in operational
terms, extensive research into the tourism labour market in Ireland;
skills and training needs assessments; development of national educa-
 Tom Baum 35

tion programmes at all levels from craft skills to management and exec-
utive development; funding of student training in a network of colleges
(ITs) across the country; delivery of training programmes in support of
social inclusion objectives for the long-term unemployed; and the deliv-
ery of training needs assessments and on-site training within tourism
enterprises.
This proactive coordination and operational role which the Irish gov-
ernment delegates to Failte Ireland is probably unique in the experience
of international tourism education and training. It is designed to ensure
that all initiatives in the field of tourism education and training are con-
sistent with wider tourism policy and that such initiatives are responsive
to changing tourism priorities, labour market developments, and devel-
opments in terms of market opportunities.
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INTERNATIONALISATION OF TOURISM EDUCATION

IN THE UK AND IRELAND

Early influences on tourism education in the UK and Ireland were

strongly international as many of the fledgling schools employed emi-
nent directors with experience of the international, generally European
industry. Therefore, there has been long-standing recognition of the
need to place the teaching of tourism in an international and, increas-
ingly, a global context. This influence, in turn, led graduates of UK tour-
ism programmes to seek work experience and employment elsewhere in
Europe, in North America and further afield with major international
companies.
Tourism schools sought to internationalise their curricula in order to
ensure that the programmes on offer reflected the needs of graduates
working within an international tourist market at home and for interna-
tional companies abroad. This challenge was and continues to be ad-
dressed by means of a variety of curriculum-related means:

• Inclusion of a range of foreign language modules as core and elec-

tive subjects (French, German, Japanese and other languages);
• A focus on key business subjects in the international context (e.g.,
international marketing, international human resources manage-
ment) within the curriculum;
• Recognising the importance of comparative studies in areas of
tourism (e.g., law, human resources management);
 36 Global Tourism Higher Education: Past, Present, and Future

• Addressing the international tourism industry context, especially

the globalisation policies of major companies and the role of major
international organisations in the development of the tourism sec-
tor; and
• Considering issues relating to multi-cultural management within
the domestic industry and internationally.

The internationalisation of the curriculum is complemented by many

schools through collaborative arrangements with international partner
schools. Such arrangements can involve student exchanges for some or
all of a class group, as well as innovative degree programmes that in-
volve study at colleges and universities in a number of different coun-
tries, leading to joint awards and qualifications.
Another driver of internationalisation of tourism education in the UK
is the long-standing tradition of attracting and catering for the needs of
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students from a wide variety of countries and cultures. Universities in

the UK were among the first to offer degree and master’s programmes
which were designed to reflect the needs of international students. Irish
universities have only more recently entered this international market,
in part because national demographics have, until recently, meant that
there was little by way of spare capacity for other than local students.
The Strathclyde and Surrey master’s courses date from 1972 and they
have consistently recruited about 60% of each cohort from outside of
the UK. This diverse student body imposes clear demands on teachers
and on institutions in terms of:

• The context and content of teaching and learning–cases and exam-

ples are drawn from a wide range of international situations;
• The delivery of teaching and learning opportunities–pedagogic
methods are employed that do not disadvantage international stu-
dents and provide support for new teaching and learning experi-
ences;
• The assessment of teaching and learning outcomes–making as-
sessment fair for all students and recognising that students come to
the programme with diverse prior experiences of assessment;
• The support of teaching and learning–ensuring that international
students have access to a range of support services and learning
opportunities, whether these are related to English or study skills;
and
 Tom Baum 37

• Career opportunities for international students–ensuring that re-

cruiters visit the school and are able to offer real opportunities to
students from a wide variety of cultural and national backgrounds.

Providing an international learning environment in tourism is not just

about a one-way flow of support and benefits. A tourism programme,
which represents a range of nationalities and cultures, provides learning
opportunities for all students (home and international) through the shar-
ing of experiences and perceptions. It also gives teachers the opportu-
nity to build upon the varied backgrounds of students in the class and to
learn from cases, examples, coursework, and dissertations/theses that
they write about hospitality in their own country.
Tourism education in the UK is also internationalised in other re-
spects. Many colleges and universities deliver their programmes off-
shore in partnership with local colleges while others offer quality
assurance for programmes offered by local partners.
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CONCLUSIONS

This paper has sought to provide an overview of the development of

tourism education and the main features of internationalisation of tour-
ism education within UK and Ireland. The response of different col-
leges and universities in the UK and Ireland to the challenges of
internationalisation are varied but the features identified here represent
best practice examples from the system in the UK and Ireland (Sigala &
Baum, 2003). There is little doubt that the tourism education in the Brit-
ish Isles represents real diversity in terms of internationalisation, meet-
ing the needs of stakeholders (e.g., the hospitality industry, students)
within both the home and overseas markets.

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