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2 p The Uniqueness of Experimental Research
Experimental research is unique in that it is the only type of research that directly attempts to
influence a particular variable, and it is the only type that, when used properly, can really test
hypotheses about cause-and-effect relationships Experimental designs are some of the
strongest available for educational researchers to use in determining cause and effect

B p Essential characteristics of experimental research


Experiment differs from other types of research in two basic ways-comparison of treatments
and the direct manipulation of one or more independent variables by the researcher
C p Randomization
Random assignment is an important ingredient in the best kinds of experiments It means that
every individual who is participating in the experiment has an equal chance of being assigned
to any of the experimental or control conditions that are being compared

D p Control of extraneous variables


-p The researcher in an experimental study has an opportunity to exercise far more control
than in most other forms of research
-p Some of the most common ways to control for the possibility of differential subject
characteristics (in the various groups being compared) are randomization, holding certain
variables constant, building the variable into the design, matching, using subjects as their
own controls, and using analysis of the covariance

E p eak experimental designs


-p Three weak designs that are occasionally used in experimental research are the one shot
case study design, the one-group pretest-posttest design, and the statistic-group
comparison design They are considered weak because they do not have built-in controls
for threats to internal validity
-p In a one-shot case study, a single group is exposed to a treatment or event, and its effects
are assessed
-p In the one-group pretest-posttest design, a single group is measured or observed both
before and after exposure to a treatment
-p In the statistic-group comparison design, two intact groups receive different treatments

F p True Experimental design


-p The essential ingredient of a true experiment is random assignment of subjects to
treatment groups
-p The randomized posttest-only control group design involves two groups formed by
random assignment
-p The randomized pretest-posttest control group design differs from the randomized
posttest-only control group only in the use of a pretest
-p The randomized Solomon four-group design involves random assignment of subjects to
four groups, with two being pretested and two not
G p atching
-p To increase the likelihood that groups of subjects will be equivalent, pairs of subjects may
be matched on certain variables The members of the matched groups are then assigned to
the experimental and control groups
-p atching may be either mechanical or statistical
-p echanical matching is a process of pairing two persons whose scores on a particular
variable are similar
-p Two difficulties with mechanical matching are that it is very difficult to match on more
than two or three variables, and that in order to match , some subjects mush be eliminated
from the study when no matches can be found
-p Statistical matching does not necessitate a loss of subjects

H p uasi-experimental design
-p The matching-only design differs from random assignment with matching only in that
random assignment is not used
-p In a counterbalanced design, all groups are exposed to all treatments, but in a different
order
-p 2 time-series design involves repeated measurements or observation over time, both
before and after treatment

I p Factorial design
Factorial designs extend the number of relationships that may be examined in an
experimental study
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©p The term M   
refers to studies that investigate the quality of the
relationships, activities, situations, or materials
©p The natural setting is a direct source of data, and the researcher is a key part of the
instrumentation process in qualitative research
©p ualitative data are collected mainly in the form of words or pictures and seldom
involve numbers Content analysis a primary method of data analysis
©p ualitative researchers are especially interested in how things accur and particularly in
the perspectives of the subjects of a study
©p ualitative researchers do not, usually formulate a hypothesis beforehand and then seek
to test it Rather they allow hypotheses to emerge as a study develops
©p ualitative and quantitative research differs in the philosophic assumptions that underlie
the two approaches
Ô   
©p The steps involve in conducting a qualitative study are not as distinct as they are in
quantitative studies They often overlap and sometimes are even conducted concurrently
©p 2ll qualitative studies begin with a foreshadowed problem; the particular phenomenon
the researcher is interested in investigating
©p Researchers who engage in a qualitative study of some type usually select a purposive
sample Several types of purposive sample exist
©p There is no treatment in qualitative study, nor is there any manipulation of variables
©p The collection of data in a qualitative study is ongoing
©p Conclusion are drawn continuously throughout the course of a qualitative study
2    
©p 2 biographical study tells the story of the special events in the life of a single individual
©p 2 researcher studies an individual¶s reactions to a particular phenomenon in a
phenomenological study He or she attempts to identify the commonalities among
different individual perceptions
©p In a grounded theory study, a researcher forms a theory inductively from data collected as
a part of the study
©p 2 case study is a detailed study of one or (at most) a few individuals or other social units,
such as a classroom, a school, or a neighborhood It can also be a study of an event, an
activity, or an ongoing process
^      
©p Generalizing is possible in qualitative research, but it is of a type different from that
found in quantitative studies ost likely it will be done by interested practitioners

    


©p The identities of all participants in a qualitative study should be protected, and they
should be treated with respect
       
©p 2spects of both qualitative and quantitative research often are used together in a study
Increased attention is being given to such mixed- method studies
©p hether qualitative or quantitative research is the most appropriate boils down to what
the researcher wants to find out


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THE N2TURE OF 2CTION RESE2RCH
©p 2ction research is conducted by a teacher, administrator, or other education professional to
solve a problem at the local level
©p Each of the specific methods of research can be used in action research studies, although on
a small scale
©p 2 given research question may often be investigated by any one of several methods
©p Some methods are more appropriate to a particular research question and/or setting than
other methods
2SSUTIONS UNDERLYING 2CTION RESE2RCH
©p Several assumptions underlie action research studies These are that the participants have
the authority to make decisions, want to improve their practice, are committed to
continual professional development, and will engage in systematic inquiry
TYES OF 2CTION RESE2RH
©p ractical action research addresses a specific local problem
©p articipatory action research, while also focused on addressing a specific local problem,
attempts to empower participants or bring about social change
LEVEL OF 2RTICI2TION IN 2CTION RESE2RCH
©p articipation can range from giving information to increasingly greater involvement in
the various aspects of the study
STES IN 2CTION RESE2RCH
©p There are four steps in action research: identifying the research question or problem,
gathering the necessary data, analyzing and interpreting the data and sharing the results
with the participants, and developing an action plan
©p In participatory research, every effort is made to involve all those who have a vested
interest in the outcomes of the study ± stakeholders
2DV2NT2GES OF 2CTION RESE2RCH
©p There are at least five advantages to action research It can be done by just about anyone,
in any type of school or other institution, to investigate just about any kind of problem or
issue It can help to improve educational practice It can help education and other
professionals to improve their craft It can help them learn to identify problems
systematically; and it can build up a small community of research-oriented individuals at
the local level
©p 2ction research has both similarities to and differences from formal quantitative and
qualitative research
S2LING IN 2CTION RESE2RCH
©p 2ction researchers are most likely to choose a purposive sample
THRE2TS TO THE INTERN2L V2LIDITY OF 2CTION RESE2RCH
©p 2ction research studies suffer especially from the possibility of data collector bias,
implementation, and attitudinal threats ost others can be controlled to a considerable
degree
EXTERN2L V2LIDITY 2ND 2CTION RESE2RCH
©p 2ction research studies are weak in external validity Replication is, therefore, essential
in this studies

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