UNREAL CONDITIONALS

PRESENT UNREAL CONDITIONAL

Second conditional sentences:
If + simple past, would/wouldn’t + base form
The present unreal conditional is used to express a present (or
future) condition. We call it unreal because it tells us what
would happen or how things would be if the situation were
different:
• I don't have a car. I don't visit you often.
• If I had a car, I would visit you often.
PAST UNREAL CONDITIONAL
Third conditional sentences:
If + past perfect, would/wouldn’t have + past participle
The past unreal conditional consists of two clauses, an if clause
and a would clause.
The if-clause refers to an unreal past event or condition:
• If I had arrived on time... (I didn't)
• If it hadn't rained yesterday... (it did)

The present unreal conditional is made up of an if- The would clause describes the consequence:
clause (if I had...) plus a main clause with would (I would • ...I wouldn't have missed the train.
visit). • ...we would have gone to the beach.

• You work so hard. You're tired all the time.

• If you didn't work so hard, you wouldn't be tired • It wasn't warm yesterday. We didn't go to the
all the time. beach.
• If it had been warm yesterday, we would have
• Fur coats are so expensive. I don't have one. gone to the beach.
• If they weren't so expensive, I would have one.
An unreal past condition may have a consequence in either the
The form of the verb in the if-clause is the same as the past present or the past.
tense form of the verb. There is one exception, though: the
verb be takes were for all persons: • If you had listened to my advice, you wouldn't be
I am / if I were in trouble now. (now)
You are / if you were • If it had rained an hour ago, we would have stayed
He is / if he were. inside.
• If it had rained an hour ago, the streets would be
• If I were you, I would be more careful. wet. (now)
• If you were leaving earlier, I would go with you.
• What time would we get there if we took the
subway? PAST MODALS

PAST MODALS WITH "HAVE"

Some past modals can be formed by using have + the past
participle of the main verb immediately after the modal. uncertainty
(should have, could have, would have, etc.) e.g. I guess I might have been a bit hard on her when she came
home an hour late.

annoyance at someone's failure to do something

e.g. You might have told me that you had invited all your
colleagues round for dinner!
COULD HAVE
might have known + would (idiom to ironically express that
possibility, but did not happen somebody's action was typical)
e.g. I could have passed my driving test if I'd really tried. e.g. I might have known that he would finish with me as soon
uncertainty as he found out I wasn't wealthy!
e.g. I guess it could have been Sandra on the phone.
MIGHT NOT HAVE
COULDN'T HAVE
uncertainty
possibility/ability e.g. He may not have found out yet that he has passed the
e.g. I couldn't possibly have passed my driving test, even if I'd test.
tried harder.
uncertainty MUST HAVE
e.g. It couldn't have been Sandra on the phone, could it?
with comparative adjectives certainty
e.g. I couldn't have asked for better weather on my wedding e.g. He must have known how much it was going to cost. (I'm
day. sure he knew.)
unwillingness
e.g. I couldn't have left the dog in the car for long (so I didn't). with surely in exclamations
e.g. Surely he must have known how much it was going to
MAY HAVE cost!

uncertainty SHOULD HAVE

e.g. I guess I may have been a bit hard on her when she came
home an hour late. expectation
Why is she late? She should have arrived by now!
MAY NOT HAVE
uncertainty should have + verbs of thinking
e.g. He may not have found out yet that he has passed the e.g. I should have thought you knew.
test.
with be and adjectives, describing chance
MIGHT HAVE e.g. It was weird that you should have been staying in the same
hostel last month.
possibility (didn't happen)
e.g. You might have been killed!
criticism (you didn't do something, but it would have been the
right thing to do)
e.g. The party was such fun last night! You should have come!
SHOULDN'T HAVE
criticism
e.g. You shouldn't have been so frank with him.
polite expression of thanks on receiving a gift or favour
"Here's a bottle of wine for you"
"Oh, you really shouldn't have!"
VERBS OF THE SENSES
When describing how someone (or something) looks, feels,
sounds tastes or smells, we use adjectives.
Look , feel , sound,taste and smell are all sense verbs. Here
are some examples of sense verbs in action:
“You look angry.”
“Her perfume smells nice.”
“I feel tired.”
The simple rule is: SUBJECT + SENSE VERB + ADJECTIVE.
When we want to describe a subject using a noun, we must use
like :
“She looks like a cat.”
“This shampoo smells like coconut.”
“It feels like an oven in this room! Open a window.”
More examples...
See= 'Can you see that airplane?'
Look = 'She looked at the painting carefully.'
Hear = 'I heard the phone ringing.'
Sound = 'She sounds like Madonna.'
Feel = 'Abdul felt his chair move.'
Taste= 'Can you taste this soup for me?'
Watch = 'They watched the film together.'
Smell = 'Cigarette smoke smells terrible.'
base and –ing verbs
Compare these two sentences to see the difference in meaning
between base and –ing verbs. The sense verb is ‘saw’ (see).
'I saw her play football.' = I saw the whole game of football/ I
saw the whole action.
'I saw her playing football' = When I saw her she was playing.
We assume that the speaker did not watch the whole game.
The game probably continued after the speaker stopped
watching.
Describing things using sense verbs and adjectives
We can use sense verbs with adjectives to describe our
personal opinions and thoughts about things:
'This cake tastes delicious.'
'The seawater feels warm.'
'You look tired.'
'Fresh bread smells great.'
'This new band sound original'
Describing things using sense verbs and nouns
We use subject + sense verb + like + object to compare the
similarity between two nouns. For example:
'Your father looks like Father Christmas.'
Your father (subject) + looks (sense verb) + like+ Father
Christmas (object)
'Perfume smells like flowers.'
'This tastes like dog food!'
GERUNDS AND INFINITIVES
USING GERUNDS
Many common verbs are followed by gerunds. These verbs
may be one-word verbs or two-word verbs.
Examples:
GERUND = swimming VERB TYPE INFINITIVE = to join NOUN OR PRONOUN
She investigated swimming with the She convinced him to join the team. PRONOUN him
One-word investigated
team. She convinced Bob to join the team. NOUN Bob
Two-word looked into List of Common Verbs Followed By Noun/Pronoun and
She looked into swimming with the team.
Infinitive
advise expect permit
allow forbid persuade
ask force remind
List of Common Verbs Followed By Gerunds
beg hire require
admit enjoy regret
cause instruct teach
advise finish remember
challenge invite tell
anticipate forget resent
convince need urge
appreciate keep resist
dare order want
avoid mention risk
encourage warn
complete mind stop
consider miss suggest In the negative form, the word not comes before the
delay postpone tolerate infinitive.
deny practice understand Examples:
discuss quit INFINITIVE = to cycle VERB TYPE
dislike recommend She promised to cycle up the mountain. affirmative
She promised not to cycle up the mountain. negative
USING INFINITIVES She promised us not to cycle up the
pronoun + negative
mountain.
Many common verbs are followed by infinitives.
List of Common Verbs Followed By Infinitives USING GERUNDS OR INFINITIVES - NO CHANGE IN
agree fail prepare MEANING
appear forget pretend
ask hesitate promise Some verbs can be followed by either a gerund or an
beg hope refuse infinitive, with little or no change in meaning.
care learn regret List of Common Verbs Followed By Gerunds or Infinitives -
Same Meaning
claim manage remember
afford (can't) bear
consent mean seem
begin cease
decide need threaten
commence continue
demand offer wait
dread hate
deserve plan wish
like loathe
expect prepare want
love neglect
Many verbs that are followed by an infinitive may take a prefer propose
noun or pronoun between them. (can't) stand start
Examples:
 USED TO, BE USED TO, GET USED TO
USING GERUNDS OR INFINITIVES - BIG CHANGE IN
MEANING USED TO

Some verbs can be followed by either a gerund or an Used to shows that:

infinitive, with A BIG change in meaning. • a particular thing always happened or was true in the
Examples: past.
VERB • But it no longer happens or is no longer true now:
SENTENCE MEANING
FOLLOWED BY: Examples:
I forgot to • David used to live in Madrid.
INFINITIVE I DID NOT eat lunch today.
eat lunch. • She used to exercise every morning, but since she had
I forgot I DID eat lunch today. I just did that terrible accident she doesn't exercise anymore.
GERUND eating not remember at the time you • Why don't you come and see me like you used to?
lunch. asked me.
List of Common Verbs Followed By Gerunds or Infinitives - Forms of used to
Different Meaning
attempt forget mean regret remember Here are the interrogative, affirmative and negative forms of
try used to
• Did you use to exercise regualrly?
Remember + infinitive = you remember firste; then yo do • Yes, I used to go jogging nearly everyday.
something • No, I didn't use to exercise on a regular basis.
Remember + gerund = you do something; then you remember
it USED TO, BE USED TO, GET USED TO
Remember to lock the door.
I remember going to Peru as a child. 1.Used to shows that a particular thing always happened or
was true in the past (see examples above)
Forget + infinitive = you didn’t remember to do something
(Not) forget + gerund = you did something and you (won’t) 2.Be used to is used to say that something is normal, not
forget it unusual.
Sorry, I forgot to do it. Examples:
I’ll never forget seeing the Taj Mahal. • I'm used to living alone.
• Don't worry, John is used to driving for long hours. He has
Try + infinitive = make an effort to do something worked as a professional driver for 20 years.
Try + gerund = experiment to see it something works
I tried to open the window. 3.Get used shows that something is in the process of
Try calling Su-jin on her cell phone. becoming normal.
Examples:
Need + gerund is a passive construction, e.g.,The car needs • He doesn't like that small town, but he'll get used to it.
cleaning = The car needs to be cleaned. • She found the heels too high, but she got used to them.
You need to clean the car. • Since the divorce, she has become very sad. But I think
The car needs cleaning. she'll get used to her new life.
• I got used to living in Canada in spite of the cold
weather.
4. Get used to and be used to are followed by either a noun VERB + (THAT)
or a gerund. admit, agree, decide, deny, explain, insist, promise,
Get used to + gerund recommend, suggest
Get used to + noun Sarah decided (that) the house needed cleaning.
(verb+ing)
They recommended (that) we take the bus.
I got used to waking up
I got used to the noise
early
I'm used to the cold
I'm used to working late at
weather
night

REPORTING VERBS

FORM, FUNCTIONS AND EXAMPLES

We use reporting verbs to report what someone said
more accurately than using 'say' and 'tell'.

verb + infinitive
agree, decide, offer, promise, refuse, threaten
They agreed to meet on Friday.
He refused to take his coat off.

VERB + OBJECT + INFINITIVE

advise, encourage, invite, remind, warn
Tom advised me to go home early.
She reminded me to telephone my mother.

VERB + GERUND
deny, recommend, suggest
They recommended taking the bus.
She suggested meeting a little earlier.

VERB + OBJECT + PREPOSITION (+ GERUND)

accuse, blame, congratulate
He accused me of taking the money.
They congratulated me on passing all my exams.

VERB + PREPOSITION + GERUND

apologize, insist
They apologized for not coming.
He insisted on having dinner.
 ARTICLES THE DEFINITE ARTICLE - THE

THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE - A The definite article the is the same for all genders in singular
and in plural.
The indefinite article is the a is the same for all genders. the boy, the girl, the cat, the computers
a boy, a girl, a cat
If the following word begins with a vowel, we speak [ ], if the
The indefinite article has no plural form. following word begins with a consonant, we speak [ ].
a boy - boys [ ] [ ]
the following word starts with a the following word starts with a
We use an if the following word starts with a vowel. spoken consonant spoken vowel
the following word starts with a the girl the English girl
the following word starts with a vowel
consonant the book the blue book
a boy an aunt the school the old school
a school an old school the unit the uncle
a girl an American girl Here a [ ] is pronounced at the Here a [ ] is pronounced at the
beginning of the word. beginning of the word.
Mind the pronunciation of the following word.
a unit an uncle We have listed some examples in the following table. There you
This u sounds like a consonant, This u sounds like a vowel, so can see when we use the definite article and when we don't.
so we use a. we use an. without the definite article with the definite article
GENERAL WORDS (INDEFINITE) GENERAL WORDS (DEFINITE)
USE OF THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE A/AN I've read a book on the life of
Life is too short. Bill Clinton.
- before phrases of time and measurements (per week/weekly) I like flowers. I like the flowers in your
We have English 4 times a garden.
week. NAMES OF PERSONS ON THE
FAMILY NAMES IN THE PLURAL
I go on holiday twice a year. SINGULAR, RELATIVES
Our car can do 220 kilometres Peter and John live in London.
The Smiths live in Chicago.
an hour. Aunt Mary lives in Los Angeles.
Tomatoes are $2 a kilo. PUBLIC BUILDINGS, INSTITUTIONS, PUBLIC BUILDINGS, INSTITUTIONS,
MEANS OF TRANSPORT (INDEFINITE) MEANS OF TRANSPORT (DEFINITE)
The school that Mandy goes to
- before phrases of Jobs
Mandy doesn't like school. is old.
My father is a car mechanic
We go to school by bus. The bus to Dresden leaves at
Some people go to church on 7.40.
- before phrases of nationality
Sundays. The round church in Klingenthal
Bruce Springsteen is an American
is famous.
- half/quite
We need half a pound of sugar
 NAMES OF COUNTRIES IN THE UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
SINGULAR; SUMMITS OF NAMES OF COUNTRIES IN THE PLURAL;
MOUNTAINS; CONTINENTS; MOUNTAIN RANGES; REGIONS Uncountable or mass nouns are the names of materials,
TOWNS liquids, abstract qualities, collections and other things which we
Germany, France; do not see as separate objects. Most uncountable nouns are
the United States of America, the
Mount Whitney, Mount singular with no plurals. Examples are: wheat, sand, weather,
Netherlands; the Highlands, the
McKinley; water, wool, milk
Rocky Mountains, the Alps; the
Africa, Europe;
Middle East, the west of Australia
Cairo, New York We cannot use numbers with uncountable nouns. They are also
SINGLE ISLANDS GROUPS OF ISLANDS not normally used with the article a/an.
the Bahamas, the British Isles, the
Corfu, Bermuda, Sicily
Canaries Here is a list of common words which are usually uncountable
NAME WITH OF-PHRASE; OCEANS; SEAS; in English.
PARKS; LAKES; STREETS
RIVERS
the Statue of Liberty, the Tower (of Corresponding countable expressions are given in brackets.
Central Park, Hyde Park; London), the Isle of Wight;
Lake Michigan, Loch Ness; the Atlantic (Ocean); accommodation (countable - a place to live)
42nd Street, Oxford Street the Mediterranean (Sea); advice (a piece of advice)
the Nile, the Rhine, the Suez Canal baggage (a piece of baggage; a bag, a case)
MONTHS, DAYS OF THE WEEK bread (a piece of bread; a loaf; a roll)
MONTHS, DAYS OF THE WEEK (DEFINITE)
(INDEFINITE) chess (a game of chess)
The weekend is over on chewing gum (a piece of chewing gum)
I always remember the Monday
Monday morning. equipment (a piece of equipment; a tool)
when I had an accident.
July and August are the furniture (a piece/article of furniture)
The August of 2001 was hot and
most popular months for grass (a blade of grass)
dry.
holidays. information (a piece of information)
knowledge (a fact)
We use the seasons of the year (spring, summer, autumn, lightning (a flash of lightning)
winter) with or without the definite article. luck (a bit/stroke of luck)
in summer or in the summer luggage (a piece of luggage; a bag)
money (a note; a coin; a sum)
UNCOUNTABLE, PLURAL and COLLECTIVE NOUNS; HAVE news (a piece of news)
SOMETHING DONE poetry (a poem)
thunder (a clap of thunder)
COUNTABLE NOUNS are the names of separate objects, travel (a journey/trip)
people, ideas etc which can be counted. They have plurals. work (a job; a piece of work)

Examples are: dog, tree, girl, book, occasion and link COUNTABLE OR UNCOUNTABLE
We can use numbers and the article a/an with countable
nouns. Sometimes it is not easy to see whether a noun is countable or
• a dog uncountable. For instance, travel is normally uncountable,
• two books while journey is countable. It is impossible to give complete
• three girls details. The following rules, however, should help.
 Other plural uncountable nouns include the expressions the
ILLNESSES British, the Dutch, the English, the French, the Irish, the
Spanish and the Welsh.
The names of illnesses are usually uncountable in English. • Collective nouns are considered a subset of count nouns
Examples are: chickenpox, measles, cancer, diabetes, flu etc. because they refer to a group of countable nouns as a unit.
• If you have had chickenpox, you can’t get it again. For example, there are 12 eggs in dozen, and there are 52
cards in a deck.
But note that the words for some minor ailments are
uncountable. Examples are: a cold, a headache COMMON COLLECTIVE NOUNS
• I have a bad headache.
There are many types of nouns that refer to units or groups in a
MIXED USES collective sense. Some of the most common include:
Army Array Audience Band Bevy
Many nouns have both countable and uncountable uses, Board Bunch Cabinet Cast
sometimes with a difference of meaning. Choir/Chorus Class Cloud Committee
Company Congregation Corporation Council
Words for materials are usually uncountable. But note that the Crowd Department Faculty Family
same word is often used as countable noun to refer to Firm Gang Group Jury
something made of the material. Majority Minority Navy Party
Plethora Public School Senate
• Have you got some typing paper? (uncountable) Society Staff Team Troupe
• I want a paper. (countable)
• Have you got any coffee? COMMON COLLECTIVE ANIMAL NOUNS include:
• Could I have two coffees? (= two cups of coffee)
Brood Colony Clutch Drove Flight
Many abstract nouns are uncountable when used in a general Flock Gaggle Herd Hive Litter
sense. The same noun can be countable in a particular sense. Nest Pack Plague Pride Skein
Swarm Team Tribe Troop Yoke
• She hasn’t got enough experience for the job. (uncountable)
• It was a strange experience. (countable) MINI GRAMMAR HAVE SOMETHING DONE
• Take your own time. (uncountable)
• Have a good time. (countable) FORM
Have + object + past participle -- to have something done
PLURAL UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS Have + object + bare infinitive -- to have someone do
something
Some uncountable nouns are plural. They have no singular
forms with the same meaning, and cannot be used with FUNCTIONS AND EXAMPLES
numbers. Examples are: trousers, jeans, pyjamas, pants, We use causative have when arranging for someone to
scissors, spectacles, glasses, arms, goods, customs, groceries, do something for us.
clothes and thanks They repaired their car. (they did it themselves)
• Have you bought the groceries? They had their car repaired. (they arranged for someone to
• Many thanks for your help. repair it)
I cut my hair yesterday. (I cut it myself)
I had my hair cut yesterday. (I went to the hairdresser) Note that if there is another word in the clause that makes it
We also use causative have when someone does negative, you use "any", not "no".
something to us.
Bill had his money stolen by a thief. It hasn't made any difference.
He will never do any work for me again.
QUANTIFIERS 4. "All" and "most" are also pronouns, so we can say "all of"
and "most of". "No" is not a pronoun so we must say "none of".
• We use "all" with plural count nouns and uncount nouns. We use "all" to talk
about every person or thing in the world, or in the group you are talking He spent all of the money on a new car.
about. Most of my friends live in London.
• We use "most" with plural count nouns and uncount nouns. We use "most" to None of those farmers had ever driven a tractor.
talk about nearly all of a number of people or things, or nearly all of a
quantity of something.
Note that we use "all of", "most of", and "none of" with an
• We use "no" with singular and plural count nouns and uncount nouns. We use
object pronoun.
"no" to say that something does not exist or is not present.

1. We use "all" with plural count nouns and uncount nouns to All of us were sleeping.
talk about every person or thing in the world or in the group I had seen most of them before.
that you are talking about. None of them came to the party.

Note that if the clause is already negative, we use "any of", not
All children should complete the primary course.
"none of".
All important decisions were taken by the government.
He soon lost all hope of becoming a rock star.
All luggage will be searched. I hadn't eaten any of the biscuits.

When "none of" is followed by a plural noun or pronoun, the

2. We use "most" with plural count nouns and uncount nouns to
verb is usually plural, but can be singular.
talk about nearly all of a number of people or things or nearly
None of us are the same.
all of a quantity of something.
None of them has lasted very long.
The method was suitable for most purposes.
5. We can use "all the" with a plural count noun or an uncount
Most good drivers stop at zebra crossings.
noun. There is no difference in meaning between "all the" and
Most milk is still delivered to people's houses.
"all of the".
He ignored most advice, and did what he thought best.
All the girls think it's great.
3. We use "no" with singular count nouns, plural count nouns,
All the best jokes came at the end of the programme.
and uncount nouns to say that something does not exist or is
Thank you for all the help you gave me.
not present.
WARNING: We cannot say "most the" or "none the". We must
There was no chair for me to sit on.
say "most of the" or "none of the".
They had no immediate plans to change house.
No money was available for the operation.
6. We can use "all" after a noun or pronoun to emphasize that
the noun or pronoun refers to everyone or everything that has
been mentioned or is involved. Note that we can use "all" to
emphasize the subject or the object.
The band all live together in the same house.
I enjoyed it all.
STRUCTURES AFTER WISH
wishes about the present and future
1. We use 'wish' + past simple to express that we want a
situation in the present (or future) to be different.
I wish I spoke Italian. (I don't speak Italian.)
I wish I had a big car. (I don't have a big car.)
I wish I was on a beach. (I'm in the office.)
Future: I wish it was the weekend tomorrow. (It's only
Thursday tomorrow.)
2. We use 'wish' + past continuous to express that we
want to be doing a different action in the present (or
future).
I wish I was lying on a beach now. (I'm sitting in the office.)
I wish it wasn't raining. (It is raining.)
Future: I wish you weren't leaving tomorrow. (You are
leaving tomorrow.)
wishes about the past
We use 'wish' + past perfect to express a regret, or that
we want a situation in the past to be different.
I wish I hadn't eaten so much. (I ate a lot.)
I wish they'd come on holiday with us. (They didn't come on
holiday with us.)
I wish I had studied harder at school. (I was lazy at school.)
wish + would
We use 'wish' + would + bare infinitive to express
impatience, annoyance or dissatisfaction with a present
action.
I wish you would stop smoking. (You are smoking at the
moment and it is annoying me.)
I wish it would stop raining. (I'm impatient because it is
raining and I want to go outside.)
I wish she'd be quiet. (I am annoyed because she is speaking.)
IMPORTANT POINTS
1. To simply express that you want something to happen
in the future (not talking about wanting an action or
situation to be different, and not talking about
impatience or annoyance) we use 'hope', not 'wish'.
I hope it's sunny tomorrow.
I wish it was sunny tomorrow. x
I hope she passes her exam next week.
I wish she were passing her exam next week. x
I hope the plane doesn't crash tomorrow.
I wish the plane wouldn't crash tomorrow. x
2. We can use 'wish' + infinitive or 'wish' + object +
infinitive to mean 'want' in a formal situation.
I wish to leave now. (+ infinitive)
I wish to speak to your supervisor please. (+ infinitive)
I do not wish my name to appear on the list. (+ object +
infinitive)
3. We can use '(I) wish you' in fixed expressions.
I wish you a happy birthday.
We wish you good luck in your new job.
 CLAUSES OF CONTRAST AND PURPOSE

CONTRAST

1. ALTHOUGH, THOUGH, EVEN THOUGH, WHILE,

WHEREAS PURPOSE
o Though can come at the end of a sentence,
1. SO (THAT)
although cannot: Although I asked her, she didn't
come./I asked her, (but) she didn't come, though.
o So that is usually followed by can, could, will or
o Even though is more emphatic: Even though I
would: The police locked the door so that no-one could
asked her, she didn't come. (Which was surprising.)
get on.
o While and whereas are rather formal. They
contrast opposite ideas: While United were fast and
2. INFINITIVE OF PURPOSE
accurate, City were slow and careless.
o Jack went to England to study engineering.
2. HOWEVER

o This is more common in formal speech and

3.
writing: It's cheap. However, I don't like it./I don't like it,
however.
3. NEVERTHELESS
o This is a very formal way of expressing however:
4.
Smith says he is poor. Nevertheless, he has bought a
new car.
4. DESPITE AND IN SPITE OF
o They can be followed by nouns (or gerunds), and
not by clauses: Despite losing, we celebrated. In spite
of the rain, we went out.
 Use ALTHOUGH, THOUGH, EVEN THOUGH + a clause.
They mean the same thing.
 ALTHOUGH, THOUGH, and EVEN THOUGH can be used at
the beginning or in the middle of a sentence.
 THOUGH is more informal than ALTHOUGH.
 After IN SPITE OF or DESPITE, use a noun, a
gerund, or THE FACT THAT + subject + verb.
IN ORDER TO, SO AS TO
o These are more formal ways of expressing
purpose: Scientists used only local materials, in order
to/so as to save money.
FOR
o For describes how something is used: This button
is for starting the engine.
 Use TO, IN ORDER TO, SO AS TO, FOR, and SO THAT
to express purpose.
 After TO, IN ORDER TO, and SO AS TO, use the
base form.
 Use FOR + a noun, e.g. for a meeting.
 SO THAT is often followed by a subject + modal
verb (can, could, would, etc.).
 To express a negative purpose use SO AS NOT TO
or IN ORDER NOT TO + base form NOT not to. You can
also use SO THAT + subject + won’t/wouldn’t/don’t,
e.g., I’m writing it down so that I don’t/won’t
forget.
 RELATIVE CLAUSES

A relative clause follows the noun it modifies. It is generally

indicated by a relative pronoun at the start of the clause,
although sometimes you can tell simply by word order. The
choice of relative pronoun, or choice to omit one, can be
affected by the following:-

Human or Non-human?

We make a distinction between an antecedent that is a human

— who(m) — and an antecedent which is a non-human —
which.

WHO(M) is used when the antecedent is a person.

THAT is used to refer to either a person or thing.
WHICH is used to refer to anything exept a person.

• I met a man and a woman yesterday. The woman, who had

long blonde hair, was very pretty.
• The man she was with, was the man that / who won the race.
• The race was the one that I lost.
• The man, to whom the winnings were given, was with the
woman who was very pretty.

RELATIVE CLAUSES WITH WHO/WHICH

who: when we talk about people

which: when we talk about things
whose: instead of his/her or their

We also use that for who/which.