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SAMPLING PLANT COMMUNITIES

Sample size:
- Cannot sample whole habitat
- Small representative sample is taken
- Sampling can be random or systematic

Quadrats:
- Frames marking out the area to be sampled
- Size depends on area to be studied
- A large number of small quadrats gives better results than a small number of large
quadrats
- The more quadrats you use, the more reliable your data is

Deciding how many quadrats to use:


RUNNING MEAN
- Calculate a mean for a number of quadrats
- Recalculate the mean for every additional quadrat
- When the mean changes very little for 3 consecutive quadrats, you have enough

Positioning quadrats:
- RANDOMLY, so that the results are STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT
- This eliminates bias
- Divide the area into a grid
- Generate random numbers as coordinates and position the quadrat there

SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
- Uses transects (a line along which samples are taken)
- Most useful when there is a clear change in plant communities
- Line transect is a single string stretched across an area
- Plants touching the line are recorded
- Belt transect is a second string parallel to the first
- Plants within the belt are recorded

What to record:
ABUNDANCE
- The number of individuals of a species
- Measuring by frequency gives an idea of the species present and their general
distribution
- Measuring by percentage cover estimates the area of quadrat covered by a species
- Bare land must be recorded as well
- Not useful where species overlap each other, e.g. woodland

Ethical issues:
- Damage to habitat and disturbance to organisms should be kept to a minimum
ESTIMATING ANIMAL POPULATIONS

The problem is that animals are shy and mobile

Mark-Release-Recapture:
- capture animals in traps
- mark them so you can recognise you‟ve previously caught them
- release them back into population
- reset traps to catch more animals
- record numbers

estimated population size = (N1 x N2) ÷ N3 THE LINCOLN INDEX

N1 = total no. caught and marked


N2 = total no. caught in second sample
N3 = no. caught both times

Precautions:
- non-toxic marking
- marking does not increase chance of predation
- marking does not affect re-integration into population
- marking is not lost
- sufficient time between samples to allow re-integration but not so long that another
factor affects numbers

Assumptions:
- the proportion of marked to unmarked is the same as the natural population
- no immigration or emigration between samples
- no appreciable births or deaths during sample period

Ethical issues:
- small mammals are easily scared or harmed
- animals in a trap cannot feed
- metal traps get cold

Therefore:
- must use quiet, gentle, minimal handling
- must provide food and bedding
- must release where you caught them
- don‟t keep repeating in the same area
- this minimises damage/disturbance to community
- animals may become „trap-happy‟, so you get biased results
CHANGES IN POPULATION SIZE

Growth
Slow growth:
- only a few individuals in population
- increase in numbers is slow

Rapid growth:
- as more individuals are in the population, they reproduce and produce even more

Stable state:
- environment has reached its carrying capacity
- growth declines and stabilises, followed by cyclic fluctuations

Carrying capacity:
- one or more factors will eventually limit growth rates
- these factors are called limiting factors

Abiotic factors:
- temperature – each species has an optimum temp.
In plants and cold-blooded animals, a lower temp. means metabolic rates are lower as
enzymes work slower. A higher temp. means enzymes denature and work less
efficiently. Warm-blooded animals need to use energy to warm up and cool down. This
leaves less energy to reproduce.
- light
Higher light intensity means greater rate of photosynthesis, meaning more plant
growth. This means there is more food for animals, so their population increases. This
continues along the food chain.
- water
- humidity – affects transpiration in plants and evaporation in animals
- pH
POPULATION SIZE: BIOTIC FACTORS

Competition:
Intraspecific – between members of the same species
Interspecific – between members of different species

- There is a positive correlation between resource availability and population numbers,


due to decreased competition and greater survival rates.

- When 2 different species occupy the same niche, one will have a competitive
advantage.

- The population of the better species will slowly increase while the poorer species
decreases.

- This is competitive exclusion.

- 2 species cannot occupy the same niche indefinitely.

Link a limiting factor to birth/death rates.


RESPIRATION: ENERGY & ATP

glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water [+ energy]

C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O [+ energy]

Energy:
- the ability to do work
- many different forms which can be changed from one form to another
- cannot be created or destroyed
- measured in joules (J)
- needed for:
o metabolism
o movement
o active transport
o repair and division of cells
o synthesis
o maintain body temperature

Metabolism:
- flow of energy through living systems occurs in 3 stages:
1) plants convert Sun‟s light energy into chemical energy through photosynthesis
2) chemical energy is converted into ATP during respiration in cells
3) ATP is used by cells to perform work

ATP:
- adenosine triphosphate
- made of adenosine and 3 phosphate groups
- phosphate bonds are unstable
- they have a low activation energy and can easily be broken
- when they break they release energy
- only the 3rd phosphate group is removed

Synthesis of ATP:
ATP ↔ ADP + P
ATP to ADP – hydrolysis – energy released for use by cells
ADP to ATP – condensation – energy supplied from respiration

The addition of phosphate to ADP occurs in 3 ways:


- photophosphorylation (light)
- oxidative phosphorylation (oxygen)
- substrate-level phosphorylation

Role of ATP:
- immediate source of energy
- releases energy very rapidly in a single step
- transferred directly to reaction requiring it
- each ATP molecule releases less energy than each glucose molecule
- hydrolysis of ATP is a single step process, whereas the breakdown of glucose is a
long series of reactions
- ATP cannot be stored and so must be continuously made with mitochondria

ATP is a source of energy for:


- metabolic processes, e.g. polypeptide synthesis from amino acids
- movement (muscle contractions)
- active transport
- secretion
- activation of molecules (allows enzyme-catalysed reactions to occur more readily)

GLYCOLYSIS

Conversion of glucose to ATP takes place during cellular respiration in the cytoplasm.

glycolysis
aerobic anaerobic

link reaction fermentation

krebs cycle

electron
transfer
chain

Oxidation
- loss of electrons
- loss of hydrogen
- gain of oxygen

Reduction
- gain of electrons
- gain of hydrogen
- loss oxygen
PHOTOSYNTHESIS

carbon dioxide + water + light energy → glucose + oxygen

6CO2 + 6H2O + light energy → C6H12O6 + 6CO2

Importance:
- provides all of the energy used by the vast majority of organisms
- produces the oxygen in the atmosphere

Leaves:
- larges surface area to maximise light absorption
- thin to provide short diffusion path of CO2 from underside of leaf, so diffusion is more
rapid
- darker on the upper side as there is more chlorophyll
- good transport network of xylem and phloem

transparent cuticle and upper


epidermis lets maximum
light through

palisade cells at top of leaf

spongy mesophyll – rounded


cells with spaces between to
allow diffusion

stomata to let CO2 in


and O2/H2O out

transport system made of


vascular bundles of xylem/phloem

- leaves are arranged to minimise overlapping, so each leaf can get as much light as
possible
- leaves lower down the plants (shade leaves) have a different anatomy than those
higher up (sun leaves)
- sun leaves have 2-3 layers of palisade cells and can absorb a lot of light at high
intensity
- shade leaves have 1 layer but have chloroplasts in the spongy mesophyll
CHLOROPLASTS

- small molecules (H2O + CO2) pass through the membrane; large ones don‟t
- outer membrane is unfolded, inner membrane is highly folded
- the light dependent stage of photosynthesis occurs on grana
- stroma is the fluid-filled matrix – the light independent stage of photosynthesis occurs
here
- other structures like DNA and ribosomes are in the stroma

light turned off


relative
amount GP

RuBP

time

After the light is turned off, the level of GP gradually rises as it is being produced still from
remaining stores of ATP and NADPH. The level of RuBP gradually falls as it is being
converted to GP and not being regenerated.
LIMITING FACTORS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

- at any given moment the actual rate of reaction is controlled by one limiting factor
(even though all will be in operation)
- this factor will be the least favourable one

Light intensity:

Rate of
photosynthesis

3
2

1
Light intensity

Point 1 – With no light, there is no photosynthesis.


Point 2 – As the light intensity increases, the rate of photosynthesis increases, so there is
a linear constant gradient.
Point 3 – After this point, even if the light intensity increases, the plant cannot physically
absorb more light and photosynthesize faster, so the graph levels off.

At 2, light intensity is the limiting factor. At 3, another factor is limiting the rate.

Temperature:
- above 25°C the enzymes begin to denature

CO2 concentration:
- high conc. limits photorespiration, where O2 takes position on RuBP carboxylase
instead of CO2. This reduces the amount of carboxylation that can occur.

Compensation point:
- at a certain light intensity, the amount of CO2 absorbed and O2 released by
photosynthesis will equal the amount of CO2 released and O2 absorbed by respiration
- this is the light compensation point
- until this point is reached, there is no net gain, as all of the photosynthesis products
are being used for respiration
FEEDING RELATIONSHIPS

SUN ENERGY LOST AS HEAT

PHOTOSYNTHESIS RESPIRATION

PRODUCERS HERBIVORES CARNIVORES

OMNIVORES

DECOMPOSERS

- sunlight is the ultimate source of energy in most ecosystems


- organic substances are made by plants in photosynthesis
- organic substances are eaten by animals
- hence producers and consumers

- relationships are illustrated as food chains


grass → insect → frog → snake → eagle
producer 1° consumer 2° consumer 3° consumer 4° consumer
- arrows indicate the flow of energy
- the order of the consumers indicates its position in the chain
- to work out the order of a consumer, count the no. of arrows back to the producer
- the level of energy drops as order increases
- 2° consumers and higher are usually predators
- they could also be scavengers or parasites
- trophic level also describes the position of an organism in a chain, including the
producer
- e.g. a snake is a third order/tertiary consumer and occupies the fourth trophic level

Decomposers:
- organisms that break down the dead remains and waste material of plants/animals
- they break down complex molecules into simpler ones and so obtain their energy
- bacteria and fungi (decomposers) and soil invertebrates like earthworms (detritivores)
are the main ones
Food webs:
- organisms can exist at more than one trophic level
- relationships are not fixed – they can vary with time of year, age, and population size

Pyramids of number:
- represents the number of organisms at each trophic level
- doesn‟t reflect the size of the organisms

Biomass:
- the total DRY MASS of plants/animals in a particular place
- measured in gm-2 on land and gm-3 in water

Pyramids of biomass:
- represents the dry mass of living material at each trophic level (the standing crop)

Energy data:
- reflects amount of energy storage in organisms with the same biomass
- complex and time consuming to collect
- measured in kJm-2year-1

Pyramids of energy:
- represents the amount of energy available to the next trophic level
- energy is lost through use and waste
ENERGY LOSSES

- only 1-3% of light reaching earth is captured by green plants


- 90% of the Sun‟s energy is reflected back into space

In a leaf
- 50% are the wrong wavelength
- 5% are reflected back
- 5% are transmitted through the leaf
- 40% are absorbed by chlorophyll
o 30.8% are lost in chemical inefficiencies
o 9.2% are used
- gross primary production is all the energy produced by the plant
 3.7% are used in respiration
 5.5% are left for the next trophic level
- net primary production is the energy available for the next trophic level

net primary production = gross primary production – respiratory losses


net primary production = total input – total losses

NB the word “primary” is used here as it is relating to producers

In consumers
- 33% as heat loss
- 63% in waste
- 4% for growth
- some parts of organisms are not eaten

The efficiency of energy transfers:


Sun to producers 1-3%
Producers to consumers 5-10%
Consumers to consumers 15-20%

Other factors can affect energy transfer:


- age: older animals are less efficient
- feeding types: herbivores are less efficient
- body temperature: warm-blooded animals are less efficient

- Food chains are limited as there is insufficient energy to support a breeding population
at higher trophic levels
- Biomass is lower at higher trophic levels
- Total energy stored reduces at higher trophic levels

% efficiency = (energy AFTER transfer ÷ energy BEFORE transfer) x 100


AGRICULTURAL ECOSYSTEMS

- an ecosystem managed by humans


- to maximise the amount of energy available from the sun transferred to humans
- necessary as humans can be at the third or fourth trophic level
- based on domesticated plants and animals
- farmers increase productivity by channelling most of the energy in a food web into
human food chains

Improving productivity
1) Area covered by crop
- the larger the surface area of ground covered by leaves of the crop, the greater the
productivity
- based on a monoculture
- non-crop species are removed to eliminate competition
- this reduced species diversity
- removal of hedgerows also removes vital corridors for animal movement

2) Improve photosynthetic efficiency


- through the manipulation of the limiting factors of photosynthesis, then the overall rate
and efficiency can be improved
- most applicable in an enclosed environment

3) Improve health and growth of plants


- healthy and fast growing plants produce a higher yield
- to achieve this, farmers control pests and provide nutrients

Fertilisers
- added to soil to improve the growth (and yield) of crop plants
- intensive farming required regular fertiliser applications to replace the nutrients lost
when the previous crop was harvested

Nitrate fertilisers:
- plants need nitrogen to make proteins and DNA
- planets quickly make these from nitrates in soil
- this leads to rapid growth, faster development, taller plants, bigger leaf area
- bigger leaf area = rapid rate of photosynthesis
- this leads to greater productivity and increased yield

Types of fertiliser:
- organic fertiliser is made from dead/decaying remains of living organisms
- inorganic fertiliser is made industrially from chemicals

Organic fertiliser:
- improves soil structure
- easy and cheap to obtain
- slow release of nutrients (relies on decomposition)
- unknown composition
- difficult to store and apply
- unpleasant
- can spread pathogens

Inorganic fertiliser:
- easy to store, handle, and apply
- instantly available to plants
- known composition
- expensive
- can create serious pollution

Costs and yields:


- increased yield must offset of inorganic fertiliser
- there is NOT a directly proportional relationship between amount of fertiliser added
and increased yield
- amounts applied must be calculated and controlled

yield of
wheat /
tonnes 3 4
per 5
hectare
2

mass of nitrogenous fertiliser added / kg per hectare

Point 1 – With no fertiliser added, there is a base rate of crop yield.


Point 2 – As fertiliser is added, crop yield increases due to increased productivity.
Point 3 – The maximum yield is reached as plants are at maximum productivity for the
conditions in this field.
Point 4 – The addition of fertiliser does not improve crop yield. Extra cost would be
incurred with no extra crop to set off.
Point 5 – With even more addition of fertiliser, there is an adverse effect on productivity
and a reduction in yield.
Eutrophication:
- pollution caused by inorganic fertilisers getting into water courses
- mainly caused by high levels of nitrate and phosphate
- the fertiliser is soluble in water
- rain will cause run-off or leaching of the fertiliser
- the fertiliser can now reach water courses
- in the water it stimulates the growth of algae (an algal bloom)
- they can grow so much it prevents light penetration below the water surface
- plants below this level die due to lack of light
- they fall to the bottom, where bacteria decompose them
- because of the vast amount of decomposition, oxygen in the water is quickly used up
- animals in the water die due to lack of oxygen
- ultimately the water can become lifeless, anaerobic and stagnant
INTENSIVE FARMING

- aims to produce maximum yield of meat/eggs/milk etc. at the lowest cost


- minimises energy lost from respiration
- this will convert the smallest amount of food energy into the greatest animal mass
- requires close control of the animals and their environment
- achieved by keeping animals in confined spaces
- restricts movement so less energy is used in muscles
- reduces heat loss as the environment is warm
- feeding is controlled so the animal receives the optimum amount for maximum growth
and less waste
- predators and parasites are excluded from the environment
- selective breeding produces efficiency
- antibiotics to keep animals healthy (not done so much now)
- hormones increase growth rate
- slaughtered while young so conversion of energy to biomass is maximised

Biological issues:
- does maximise productivity
- diseases spread quickly
- use of antibiotics can develop antibiotic resistance in bacteria
- uses less space, leaving more land for natural habitats
- large amounts of waste produced
- selective breeding reduces genetic diversity and alleles in the gene pool

Economic issues:
- food is cheaper
- food is poor quality
- intensive rearing requires a large energy input from fossil fuels

Ethical issues:
- is food good quality?
- food may contain antibiotics and hormones which humans then eat
- animal welfare – methods may stress animals out
CARBON CYCLE

Decomposition:
- bacteria secrete enzymes onto surface
- products of this decomposition are absorbed by the bacteria
- some get used by respiration
- respiration produces CO2
- CO2 escapes from the soil into the atmosphere

- the primary active reservoir in the carbon cycle is CO2 in the atmosphere
- plants use this carbon in photosynthesis
- it is then passed through a grazing food chain
- respiration returns some carbon back to the atmosphere
- decomposers/detritivores use waste and dead bodies for food
- this produces CO2 as a waste gas
- the two other secondary reservoirs in the carbon cycle are sedimentary rocks (mainly
chalk and limestone) and fossil fuels

ATMOSPHERE
combustion

photosynthesis
respiration

FOSSIL
respiration FUELS

grazing food chain


PLANTS ANIMALS
decomposition

respiration

decomposition ROCKS

partial
decomposition

DECOMPOSERS
THE NITROGEN CYCLE

- nitrogen is central in amino acids as it forms part of the amine group


- nitrogen in the atmosphere is very unreactive

Nitrogen fixation:
- nitrogen fixing bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen to nitrates (N2 to NO3) so it can
be used by plants
- reduced to form ammonia (NH3) by free-living bacteria (azotobacter) to make amino
acids which are released by death and decay of the bacteria
- in root nodules on roots of legumes there are symbiotic bacteria (rhizobium)
- mutualistic relationship as plant gets amino acids and bacteria gets carbohydrates
- the roots are ploughed back in to release these chemicals
- lightning can fix some atmospheric nitrogen to soluble nitrate

Assimilation by animals:
- plant protein is assimilated by animals

Decomposition:
- heterotrophic decay organisms break down proteins
- nitrogen can be released

Ammonification:
- nitrogen from proteins is converted to the ammonium ion
- aerobic bacteria and fungi (e.g. penicillin) deaminate amino acids to ammonia

Nitrification:
- ammonia is converted to nitrite (NO2)
- bacteria (nitrosomonas) oxidise ammonium ions to nitrite
- nitrite is converted to nitrate by aerobic bacteria
- nitrification is an oxidation reaction
- soil needs to be lightly structured, well aerated and well drained
- farmers plough regularly and add organic matter

Denitrification:
- in waterlogged soil, anaerobic bacteria convert nitrate to nitrogen gas

NITROGEN IN THE ATMOSPHERE


nitrogen
fixation
denitrification

nitrification
PLANT PROTEIN NITRATE IN SOIL NITRITES IN SOIL

nitrification
death ammonification
ANIMAL PROTEIN AMMONIA IN SOIL
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

Dynamic ecosystems:
- abiotic and biotic factors are constantly changing in an ecosystem
- communities therefore also change as a response
- this change is called ecological succession
- primary succession begins with no living community
- secondary succession is an alteration in an existing climax community

Primary succession:
- the colonisation of bare rock (e.g. glacial retreat, sand dunes, volcanic eruption,
sediment disposition) or open water (e.g. land subsidence, damming of rivers, rivers
changing course)
- environmental conditions are harsh
- there can be large fluctuations in temp. and water availability, high wind speeds, no
shelter, and high salinity
- there is no habitat to provide food or a niche
- means low biodiversity

Colonisation:
- first species to arrive have to be plants because they can support themselves through
photosynthesis
- these are pioneer plants:
o can reach the new habitat
o seeds/spores are very light in mass, produced in large quantities, and
dispersed by the winds
o can be dispersed over huge distances
o need to germinate and grow quickly
o they complete their life cycle quickly
o they have the ability to go dormant and then start growing again in response
to changing conditions
o they can photosynthesize as light is the only energy source available
o they may also have the ability to fix nitrogen
- over time the environment begins to change due to their existence
- weathering and erosion break down rock to form small inorganic molecules which form
the beginning of soil
- the presence of humus (decomposed organic matter) provides a supply of mineral ions
for plants growing in the soil
- soil starts to hold water
- environment becomes less harsh so biodiversity increases because new species of
plants can now live there
- species become taller and bigger than the pioneers
- they start competing for light, space, water, mineral ions
- the larger new arrivals will win and the pioneer species will die out from the community
Summary:
The species of the pioneer community alter the environment so that other species are able
to move into the ecosystem. This results in competition which alters the make-up of the
community.

The climax community:


- this becomes a continuous process until a state of relative equilibrium is reached
- a stable and balanced community with very little, if any, species change
- in most areas this is a forest
- however, the activities of man means this is not the case in most areas
- climax plant species:
o have large seeds that don‟t travel far
o are slow growing
o are long lived

Animals:
- initially there are none
- as the plant community increases in size and numbers animals can move in as there
are habitats and food available
- as the community becomes more diverse, more animals can find a niche
- biodiversity increases as the environment is less harsh and more species are able to
survive there

Secondary succession:
- there is a regression from an existing succession
- the new succession starts building on the remains of the previous one, with the
presence of well-developed soil
- caused by fire, disease, and clearance by man
- much more rapid than primary succession
- seeds/spores from surrounding areas move in
- the environment is not too harsh
CONSERVATION

- management of earth‟s natural resources so that maximum use can be made of them
now and in the future
- involves human intervention to maintain ecosystems and biodiversity

Reasons to conserve:
ethical:- coexistence and respect for other living organisms
economic:- we use plants and animals for useful and valuable substances
cultural:- plants, animals and their habitats are used by humans for recreation and
pleasure

How is it carried out?


- management of succession
- habitats are managed so their desired stage in succession is maintained
- e.g. regular burning of heather will retain moorland and prevent succession to
woodland

Data:
- management strategies need to be based on information
- need to consider population numbers, feeding relationships, and levels of abiotic
factors

Effects on food webs:


- feeding relationships in a habitat can be changed as a result
- measures may stimulate an increase in the population of a predator, which reduces
the population of its prey
INHERITANCE

Genotype:
- genetic composition of an organism
- describes all of the alleles that an organism contains
- can change as a result of mutations

Phenotype:
- observable characteristics of an organism
- result of the interaction between expression of genotype and the environment

Gene:
- a section of DNA
- determines a single characteristic of an organism
- the position of a gene on a chromosome is known as the locus

Allele:
- alternative form of a gene
- genes exist in two or more different forms

Co-dominant alleles:
- both alleles contribute to the phenotype
- phenotype can have either a blend of both features or both features represented

Multiple alleles:
- gene has more than 2 alleles
- but only 2 alleles can be present in a single organism

Chromosome:
- a strand of DNA found in the nucleus of a cell
- each chromosome consists of one DNA molecule and histone proteins

Chromatid:
- one of the two identical strands of genetic material that make up a chromosome during
cell division

Monohybrid inheritance:
- law of independent segregation – in diploid organisms, characteristics are determined
by alleles that occur in pairs. only one pair of alleles can be present in a single
gamete.
- a test cross determines the genotype in individuals with a dominant phenotype. the
dominant phenotype is crossed with a recessive individual.
SEX INHERITANCE & LINKAGE

- embryo develops testes because of a gene on the Y chromosome (SRY gene – sex
determining region of the Y chromosome)
- testes make androgen, which makes the embryo develop into a male
- if no hormone is present, embryo develops into a female

Sex linkage:
- any gene carried on X or Y is said to be sex linked
- arms of the X are longer than Y
- there can be no masking of recessive genes in this area

no corresponding
gene is on X
position on Y
CO-DOMINANCE & MULTIPLE ALLELES

Co-dominance:
- monohybrid inheritance occurs when one characteristic is controlled by one gene
- each gene can have two alleles
- in co-dominance, one allele is not dominant to another – both show their effect in the
phenotype

e.g. gene determining rose colour has 2 alleles


CW produces a white protein
CR produces a red protein
so there are 3 possible genotypes and phenotypes
CWCW = white flower
CWCR = pink flower
CRCR = red flower
- the heterozygous condition produces an intermediate phenotype because both alleles
produce functional proteins

male: red CRCR female: white CWCW


gametes: CR and CR gametes: CW and CW

Male
R
C CR
CW CRCW CRCW
Female
CW CRCW CRCW

offspring: 100% pink CRCW

Multiple alleles:
- each gene can have more than two alleles
- an organism can only have two alleles

e.g. ABO blood grouping system


there are 3 alleles – A, B, O – found at the gene locus I

IAIA / IAIO = A IBIB / IBIO = B IAIB = AB IOIO = O

male: IAIB AB female: IOIO O

Male
A
I IB
IO IA IO IB I O
Female
IO IA IO IB I O

offspring: 50% IAIO A 50% IBIO B


THE HARDY-WEINBERG PRINCIPLE

- based on a calculation of allele frequency in a population


- gene pool = total no. of alleles of a single gene in the genotypes of individuals of a
population
- allele frequency = proportion of an allele in the gene pool

Assumptions:
- population is large
- no migration into/out of population
- random mating
- all genotypes are equally fertile (no selection)
- no mutations

Equation:
- the sum total of A and a alleles in genotypes in the population is the gene pool
- p = frequency of dominant A allele
- q = frequency of recessive a allele
- if there are 2 alleles, p + q = 1
- 4 possible arrangements of 2 alleles: AA, Aa, aA, aa
- p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
- frequency of each genotype is:
AA = p2 Aa = 2pq aa = q2

e.g. 1 in 25000 display a characteristic due to recessive allele a


freq. of recessive allele a = 1 ÷ 25000 = 0.00004
= 0.0063
freq. of dominant allele A = 1 – 0.0063 = 0.9937
freq. of heterozygous = 2 x 0.0063 x 0.9937 = 0.0125
NATURAL SELECTION

Process:
1) Variation in organisms exists
2) Reproduction: plenty of natural resources means offspring are more likely to survive
3) Overproduction: too many offspring are produced
4) Struggle for existence: competition exists
5) Harsh conditions: survival of the fittest
6) Genes passed on: genes that favour survival are passed on to offspring

Directional selection:
- favours individuals and changes the characteristics of a population
- to start with, the population follows a normal distribution with 2 extremities
- the environment changes, and those with favourable characteristics (usually at 1
extreme) survive whilst those with the unfavourable characteristic (at the other
extreme) die
- once the environment changes completely, more generations are being made
- those with the unfavourable characteristic die out
- alleles for the favourable characteristic remain in the gene pool
- normal distribution is restored, the characteristic has been changed, and the mean and
normal distribution curve has shifted

Stabilising selection:
- favours the average of a population and preserves the characteristics
- the normal distribution curve is narrowed to cut off both extremities
- the mean is preserved
- all alleles will be passed on
SPECIATION

Species:
- organisms that have similar characteristics that can reproduce to have fertile offspring
- belong to the same gene pool
- consist of one or more population
- within a population, individuals breed
- individuals can breed with one from another population of the same species
- if 2 populations are separated, the flow of alleles between them ceases

Geographical isolation:
- a physical barrier preventing 2 populations breeding, e.g. oceans, rivers, mountains

- In a single forest habitat, species X form a single gene pool and freely interbreed in the
forest.
- Climate changes and dries out so the forest separates. 2 groups of species X cannot
reach each other.
- New forest A where group X1 live becomes colder and wetter. New forest B where
group X2 live becomes warmer and drier.
- Group X1 adapts because phenotypes are selected in order to survive. Group X2
adapts become different phenotypes are selected from forest A.
- Continued adaptation leads to the evolution of 2 new species – species Y and Z.
- Further climate changes lead to the regrowth of the original forest. The 2 new species
cannot breed. Each species has its own gene pool.

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