ACTIVE CARBON

Activated carbon is charcoal that has been treated with oxygen to open up millions of tiny pores
between the carbon atoms. The treated or activated carbon has a massive surface area (2000 -
3000 square metres per gram of activated carbon) making it highly effective at adsorbing tastes
and odours, as well as chlorine and organic colour from water.

An activated carbon filter is a filter housing (either a cartridge filter housing or a granular
activated carbon media filter is used for activated carbon filtration) containing granular activated
carbon or an activated carbon block cartridge.

Low flow applications - activated carbon cartridge filters: water flows from the outside of the
activated carbon cartridge to the inside of the activated carbon cartridge, through a collector tube,
and out to process or the point-of-use. When the activated carbon becomes exhausted, or blocked
with suspended matter, the cartridge has to be replaced.

High flow applications – Aquamarine use conventional multimedia sand filter design, replacing
all or a portion of the multimedia filter repack with granular activated carbon. This allows the
filter to act as both a sand filter and an activated carbon filter, removing suspended particles,
taste and odour, chlorine and organic colour. When the activated carbon becomes blocked with
suspended matter, the filter can be backwashed in the same way as a conventional sand filter.
When the activated carbon in the filter becomes exhausted, it is usually replaced, although some
of the systems we manufacture are fitted with steam sterilization components, to regenerate the
activated carbon bed

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BOILER MAINATENANCE TIPS

Following is a suggested list of points that we feel require daily recordings:

 Water Level
 Low Water Cut Off Tested
 Blowdown Water Column
 Blowdown Boiler
 Visual check of Combustion
 Boiler Operating Pressure/Temperature
 Feedwater Pressure/Temperature

 Condensate Temperature
 Feedwater Pump Operation
 Flue Gas Temperature
  Gas Pressure
 Oil Pressure and Temperature
 General Boiler/Burner Operation

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Boiler Blowdown

Blowdown of steam boilers is very often a highly neglected or abused aspect of routine boiler
room maintenance. The purpose of boiler blowdown is to control solids in the boiler water.
Blowdown protects boiler surfaces from severe scaling or corrosion problems that can result
otherwise.

SEE BOILER BLOWDOWN VALVE

There are two types of boiler blowdowns - continuous and manual. A continuous blowdown
utilizes a calibrated valve and a blowdown tap near the boiler water surface. As the name
implies, it continuously takes water from the top of the boiler at a predetermined rate

 A continuous blowdown is an optional feature and may not be included on your steam boiler.
However, all steam boilers should include a means for manual blowdown as standard equipment.

Manual blowdowns are accomplished through tapings at the bottom of the boiler. These
openings allow for the removal of solids that settle at the bottom of the boiler. Manual blowdown
is also used to keep water level control devices and cutoffs clean of any solids that would
interfere with their operation. All steam boilers require manual blowdown whether or not they
are supplied with continuous blowdowns.

Proper blowdown is performed as follows:

Blowdown should be done with the boiler under a light load. Open the blowdown valve nearest
the boiler first. This should be a quick opening valve. Crack open the downstream valve until the
line is warm. Then open the valve at a steady rate to drop the water level in the sight glass ½
inch. Then close it quickly being sure that the hand wheel is backed off slightly from full close to
relieve strain on the valve packing. Close the valve nearest the boiler.

 
Repeat the above steps if the boiler has a second blowdown tapping. Water columns should be
blown down at least once a shift to keep the bowls clean. Care should be taken to prevent low
water shutdown if this will affect process load. 

Please keep in mind that all blowdown piping should be checked once a year for obstructions.

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Water Hardness in boilers and scale formation

Since water is the key ingredient used in a boiler system, it is important to understand just
exactly what is in the water you will be using. We recommend that customers have a water
analysis performed so they have a true picture of what they are dealing with.

One of items that will be quantified in the analysis is the hardness. This is really the amount of
mineral contamination that is found in your water. This degree of contamination can be
measured by either a chemical analysis or by measuring the water's ability to conduct (or resist)
an electrical current.
Hardness can be reported in one of three different expressions:

Mg/l - milligrams per liter

Ppm - parts per million
Gpg - grains per gallon

We normally work with the grains per gallon expression as it is the easiest for all to understand.
Imagine if you took a pill that weighed 8 grains and dissolved it in 1 gallon of pure water. The
result would be 8 grains per gallon. Simple and easy to understand, however, other like to
express water hardness as mg/l or ppm. Here is a table that can help you make the conversion:

Gpg X 17.1 = ppm

Gpg X 17.1 = mg/l
Ppm X .05833 = gpg
Mg/l divided by 17.1 = gpg

Water hardness becomes an issue as soon as heat is applied in the boiler system. The most
common problem is that of scale formation, a problem that will rob your system of the efficiency
it was designed to deliver.

The following formula demonstrates scale formation.

To protect your boiler system, invest in an ion exchange water softener.

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Boiler Water Quality Recommendations

Refer to the following table for recommended boiler water quality for Total Dissolved Solids
(TDS), Alkalinity and Hardness.
Proper Feedwater Treatment is an absolute necessity!

Unless your boiler receives water of proper quality, the boiler's life will be needlessly shortened.
A steam plant's water supply may originate from rivers, ponds, under ground wells, etc.  Each
water supply source requires a specific analysis. Depending upon this analysis, various
pretreatment methods may be employed to prepare makeup water for your boiler feedwater
system.

General Information on Water Treatment

Suspended solids represent the undissolved matter in water, including dirt, silt, biological
growth, vegetation, and insoluble organic matter.

When minerals dissolve in water, ions are

formed. The sum of all minerals or ions in
the water in the total dissolved solids or the
TDS.
 
Iron can be soluble or insoluble. Insoluble
iron can clog valves and strainers and can
cause excessive sludge build up in low lying
areas of a water system. It also leads to
boiler deposits that can cause tube failure.
Soluble iron can interfere in many
processes, such as printing or the dying of
cloth. In domestic water systems, porcelain
fixtures can be stained by as little as 0.25
ppm of iron.

Water Hardness is the measure of calcium and magnesium content as calcium carbonate
equivalents. Water Hardness is the primary source of scale in boiler equipment.

Silica in boiler feedwater can also cause hard dense scale with a high resistance to heat transfer.

Alkalinity is a measure of the capacity of water to neutralize strong acid. In natural waters, the
capacity is attributable to bases, such as bicarbonates, carbonates, and hydroxides; as well as
silicates, borates, ammonia, phosphates, and organic bases. These bases, especially bicarbonates
and carbonates, break down to form carbon dioxide in steam, which is a major factor in the
corrosion of condensate lines. Alkalinity also contributes to foaming and carryover in boilers.

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ALKALINITY AND FEED WATER

PRETREATMENT

Addressing Alkalinity & Feedwater Pretreatment

All boilers, regardless of their design, require some degree of feedwater pretreatment. This
pretreatment process addresses the three specific areas: water hardness, Total dissolved solids
and alkalinity levels. Since we discussed water hardness and TDS in previous boiler tips we felt
is was time to address alkalinity.

Acceptable Levels of Alkalinity

Alkalinity, like hardness and TDS, is expressed as parts per million (ppm). The acceptable level
of alkalinity in a boiler depends largely upon the pressure that the boiler will be operating at. In a
low pressure boiler, this level should not exceed 700 ppm. If the alkalinity level exceeds 700
ppm it may result in a breakdown of the bicarbonate producing carbonate and liberate free
carbon dioxide with the steam. This presence of carbon dioxide will corrode steam and return
lines. 

THE MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE CONCENTRATION OF ALKALINITY WITHIN A

LOW PRESSURE BOILER IS 700 PPM.

Dealkalization

Dealkalization is the process in which softened water is passed through a treatment tank that
contains an anion resin. This anion resin removes anions such as sulfate, nitrate, carbonate and
bicarbonate. These anions are then replaced by chloride. Sodium chloride (salt) is then used to
regenerate the unit with the anion exchange resin.

Hard water has the ability to precipitate calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide within a
dealkalizer, therefore it is necessary to have softened water fed to the system. In addition, the
anion exchange bed is susceptible to fouling due to suspended solids. dealkalizer. The resin in a
dealkalizer is lighter than that found in a water softener. This means that the backwash rate will
be much slower and insufficient to remove any suspended material. 

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Boiler Feed Pumps

Boiler feed pumps are an important part of any boiler operation. They control the amount of
water fed to the boiler and the manner in which it is fed.

Centrifugal - Continuous
Turbine - Intermittent

In order to properly select a boiler feed pump five key points must be considered:

Will the pumps operation be continuous or intermittent?

This is an operational question and is often answered by the type of level

control found on the boiler that the pump will be servicing. As a general
rule of thumb, boilers with a capacity of 10,000 lbs./hr. or less utilize a
float type switch that starts and stops the boiler feed pump to satisfy a
predetermined water level within the boiler. This is a classic intermittent
operation.
Boilers with capacities exceeding 10,000 lb./hr. typically employs a modulating feed water
regulator and will continuously feed water to the boiler at various rates depending upon the water
level in the boiler. 

By knowing which operation you are to satisfy, you can determine which pump design is best
suited for your application. As a general rule of thumb a turbine pump is used in an on-off
situation and a centrifugal pump is used for continuous operation. But remember, this is a
general rule and is some cases a centrifugal could be used for an on-off application and a turbine
for continuous. 

What is the temperature of the water being pumped?

It is also important to know the temperature of water you intend to pump. Most pumps can
usually handle 215 oF to 230o F, other pumps are available that can handle higher temperatures
by using external water-cooling. Keep in mind that a deaerator pump must be able to handle
higher temperatures because they operate a 5 psi or 227o F. 

What is the required capacity?

How much water you intend to pump is dependent upon the evaporation rate of the boiler the
pump will service. A safe figure for an on-off application would be 2 times the evaporation rate
of the boiler. With a modulating level control, a factor of 1.3 times the evaporation rate plus
recirculation is recommended. 

What is the desired discharge pressure?

When you pump directly into the boiler you will need to overcome the pressure in the boiler as
well as any piping losses. You can chose the right pump by looking at the pump curves to
determine which will accomplish this task. Should you have a modulating valve in the discharge
line, the minimum you will need to add to the boiler operating pressure will be 20 to 25 lbs.
Make sure that the pump can handle the pressure along with the flow rate needed. With an on-off
level control the pumps should be designed for the relief valve pressure.

What is the NPSH or net positive suction head required?

This is the last piece of information that you will need. This is the minimum absolute pressure at
the suction nozzle at which the pump can operate. To avoid pump cavitation, the NPSHA of the
system must be greater than the NPSHR of the pump. In other words, the available NPSH must
be higher than the required. We have always sized our deaerator stands to be two feet higher than
the NPSH needed for the pump selection. Remember, the water level in the storage tank adds to
the safety margin

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Deaeration of Boiler Feedwater

Pour yourself a tall glass of cold water. Place it in front of you and read on.

The water you have just poured for yourself is much like the feedwater you may be sending
directly into your boiler. 

It contains among other things, dissolved gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide that can be
particularly destructive to feed lines, condensers and to your boiler.

The oxygen in this raw feedwater is released within the boiler as a result of heat and rises in the
form of bubbles. These bubbles attach themselves to the boiler tubes, water legs and the sides of
the boiler drum shell at the water line.

The oxygen along with the carbon dioxide attacks the iron and set up chemical musical chairs in
which the steel in your system will always lose. This destructive game will continue until either
all the oxygen is entirely removed from the water or the steel or iron is dissolved.

A deaerator will prevent the game from ever starting. This piece of equipment removes corrosive
gases from boiler feedwater and preheats the water prior to entrance into the boiler.

A deaerator should be considered if any of the following situations occur:

Your boiler plant operates at 75 psig or greater.

Your boiler plant has limited standby capacity.
Production depends on your continuous boiler operation.
Your boiler plant uses 25% or more cold water makeup.

Now take a good look at that glass of water you poured earlier. Those little bubbles that have
formed on the inside of the glass are just what we have been describing. Imagine the inside of
your boiler system with high temperatures and high pressures. If you don't have a deaerator,
maybe it is time to consider one.

COMMON WATER IMPURITIES

Impurity Source Effect

Algae organic growth fouling
Calcium mineral deposits scale
Carbon dioxide dissolved gases corrosion
Chloride mineral deposits corrosion
Free acids Indus. Wastes corrosion
Hardness mineral deposits scale
Magnesium mineral deposits scale
Oxygen dissolved gases corrosion
Silica mineral deposits scale
Suspended solids undissolved matter fouling/scale
There are five major problems directly associated with water quality that will effect boiler
performance. These are:

Scale formation
Corrosion
Fouling
Foaming
Embrillement

SCALE is a very hard substance that adheres directly to heating surfaces forming a layer of
insulation. This layer of insulation will decrease heat transfer efficiency. Scale also results in
metal fatigue/failure from overheating, energy waste, high maintenance costs and unnecessary
safety risks. A one-sixteenth inch thickness of scale in a firetube boiler can result in a 12.5%
increase in fuel consumption.

CORROSIONis defined as the destruction of a metal by chemical or electromechanical reaction

with its environment. The metal is eaten away in much the same manner as fender rusts on a car.
Corrosion dramatically increases maintenance costs and can cause unnecessary safety risks. It
will occur when levels of oxygen or carbon dioxide are high, where pH values are low, where
contact occurs between dissimilar metals and in damp environment or corrosive atmospheres.

Corrosion is an electrochemical process in which electricity flows through a solution of ions

between areas of metal. Deterioration occurs when the current leaves the negatively charged
metal or anode and travels through the solution to the positively charged metal or cathode,
completing an electrical circuit in much the same manner as a battery cell. The anode and the
cathode can be different metals or areas of the same metal. Corrosion occurs when there is a
difference in the electrical potential between them. 

FOULING occurs when a restriction develops in piping and equipment passageways and results
in inefficient water flow. The fouling of boiler room equipment directly impacts energy
efficiencies and cost of operations.

FOAMING is a condition in which concentrations of soluble salts, aggravated by grease,

suspended solids or organic matter, create frothy bubbles or foam in the steam space of a boiler.
When these bubbles collapse it creates a liquid that is carried over into the steam system.
Foaming degrades steam quality and in some cases can create a water slug that is discharged into
the steam lines.

CAUSTIC EMBRITTLEMENTwill occur when there is a high concentration of alkaline salts

(a pH value of 11 or greater) that will liberate hydrogen absorbed by the iron in the steel. Caustic
embrittlement will be more evident in high temperature areas of the boiler's waterside and
manifests itself in the form of hairline cracks.