7: Power, Politics and Influence:

Project Teams

Learning outcomes from this unit

At the end of this unit you should be able to fully appreciate role of politics
in the world of project management.

You should understand that the positive control of persons, organisations

and authorities is essential to the successful discharge of the project
management function. You should be familiar with a range of leadership
styles, the types of contributors that will be found in typical projects and
how they may be classified and you should understand the need for project
managers to be competant vertical managers as well as horizontal or matrix
managers.

You should understand that the use of the term politics in project
management should not be misinterpreted to mean manipulation which
would be a negative approach to influence and will ultimately damage the
trust that is essential for effective project management.

Again, at the end of the unit you are expected to be capable of discussing
these issues fully in the context of improving project management
performance from that which was described in Unit 1.

Recommended reading for Unit 7

Morris, P W G. The Management of Projects, Thomas Telford Ltd. 1994,
ISBN: 0 7277 1693 X

Other to be confirmed.

Heriot-Watt University Unit 7 - 1

7.1 Summary
In the unit on Project Management performance we concluded that project
management does not always deliver project objectives in a consistent or a
reliable manner. We saw that there were two aspects to the modern project
management discipline; organisation (strategy) and systems (tools).

We concluded that one possible reason for the failure of PM to consistently

deliver results was that there may be too great an influence placed upon
tools and systems and too little emphasis placed upon strategy, in the widest
definition of that term.

In this unit we explore strategy and we are particularly concerned with the
means by which project managers win support for their project and its
objectives. We deal with the role of power, influence and politics and we
see that these aspects are important concepts that must be grasped and
embraced by project managers to allow them to fulfil their leadership role
and therefore to improve the reliability of project delivery and
accomplishment.

We begin by examining the various sources of power and influence

available to the project manager. This is followed by an examination of the
various types of project participant that are involved in typical projects and
we mention some basic methods that are suitable for the management of
each. Finally we consider the need for project managers to be able to
manage upwards and some of the aspects that are key to the project manager
in achieving this function. The role of politics in project management is
vital and can have a dramatic influence on the propensity for project
success. This is what this unit aims to demonstrate.

Question

Why should we be concerned with politics and influence in project

management and is it a good thing for us to be concerned with?

7.2 Introduction
In the unit concerning the past performance of project management we saw
that the general record of project management in the specific context of UK
construction is not entirely healthy.

We saw that project management has two primary dimensions, the

organisational dimension and the operational dimension. Project
managements history, particularly in the cas eof the UK construction sector,
reveals that until recently there has been greater emphasis upon the

Heriot-Watt University Unit 7 - 2

operational (tools) side of the project management discipline than there has
been upon the organisational (strategic) side. We saw that project
management has an inescapable burden to deliver projects within agreed
time, cost and quality standards and that this is true regardless of what other
criteria we may consider to be of additional relevance. The delivery of time,
cost and quality targets may be argued as the raison d’etre of the
contemporary project management discipline. However, in the previous
unit, various studies were examined and these led us to the conclusion that
project managements ability to deliver such targets consistently and reliably
may be viewed at best as highly questionable.

A number of possible reasons for the perceived PM failure were discussed,

however, what appeared clear, at least in the case of the UK construction
sector, was that there was insufficient emphasis placed upon the
organisational and strategic dimensions of PM in the typical UK
construction project and that it is likely that there is too great an emphasis
upon the operational dimension and on the numerous tools and systems that
are associated with that operational dimension.

For the time being, and in the absence of evidence to the contrary, we will
hold that the above hypothesis is in fact true. Consequently we will make
the large assumption that if PM in construction is to be made to work
consistently and reliably in a replicatable manner our attention must be
focused on the organisational and strategic dimension. Here we enter the
realm of project leadership.

We are now going to examine the role of project management in terms of

Power, Politics, Influence and Leadership.

7.3 Power, Politics and Influence!

The debate we are about to enter is somewhat controversial! We have
already seen that PM as a discipline can be highly focused on tools and
systems to monitor and control project events. PM has been defined as a
systems management task that merely involves preplanning, monitoring and
controlling. At one level we can see that such a definition has considerable
merit and application, however, there is a large stumbling block that must be
overcome with such a definition and this is, how does the PM gain the
authorityto plan, monitor and control. Is it enough to simply train an
individual in advanced project management tools and techniques and
subsequently send them off into the field and expect them to be able to
implement those tools and expect them to gain the rewards as a matter of
course. It is highly likely that we would all agree that such an approach
would be highly unlikely to work; by themselves, the tools and techniques
merely represent a gun without any bullets or a bullet without a gun,
depending on how we might choose to look at it!! To be effective, the PM
must gain a position of authority and respect in order that he or she can
control the project without interference or buffeting from others who happen

Heriot-Watt University Unit 7 - 3

to be involved. This is, of course, a task that is easier said than done! This
avenue of thought opens up the whole area of leadership; are leaders born or
can they be trained? Some in the PM discipline hold to the former position,
however, looking at the PM discipline from a wide perspective it is clear
that there is much faith and expectation in the latter, if we accept that PM is
about leadership rather than about tools and systems.

Given the background we have previously explored and given our

hypothesis that the problem with PM concerns a lack of effectiveness in the
organisational dimension, it is inevitable that we must conclude that the PM
must be a leader and that he or she must be in a position of leadership.

There is certainly no doubt that amongst human beings, some are what we
may like to term ‘natural born leaders’. Such individuals seem to exhibit a
natural charisma and an inherent ability to captivate and motivate others
towards the accomplishment of various goals. However, we may easily
contend that these individuals are few and far between (well in academia at
least!!). If project management and construction in general must rely on
such individuals, it seems apparent that we will always have trouble as there
are simply not enough of them to go around. We can be sure of this because
the past performance of project management, which included a smattering
of these individuals, is so universally dismal! Therefore, we must accept
that there is some degree of training that can be undertaken to try to enable
PM’s to be leaders. The leadership role that has to be accomplished by
project managers is one whereby they are able to gain support for their
project and its objectives by way of their interpersonal power and influence.

This is really about politics. A project manager really needs to become a

politician at some level if projects are to be delivered successfully. The
political role will change between the various stages in the project life cycle,
however, it will always be present. The PM must be skilled in dealing with
individuals or organisations who can either block or facilitate project
accomplishment and they must be skilled in managing upwards in terms of
managing key relationships with project sponsors and senior management.

The PM is first and foremost a politician and is concerned with power and
influence.

Contemporary project managers must have a keen understanding of this and

how these attributes relate to project performance and outcomes. Most
PM’s operate in project environments where they do not or cannot directly
control most of the people or organisations charged with delivering their
success. Our task now is to explore interpersonal power and influence and
leadership techniques.

Heriot-Watt University Unit 7 - 4

7.4 Politics and Power: a good thing!
Often we can assume that politics and seeking to gain influence can be an
unhealthy and an undesirable thing; indeed these things can be damaging if
misdirected. This is because, in the workplace, politics can often be
associated with negative actions between individuals or between
departments or even between companies. However, politics can refer to the
positive actions of keeping peoples interest and motivation in a project and
in insuring that the necessary support and resources are being provided to
the project. It is in this arena that the project manager needs to use political
influence as opposed to in any negative or destructive (empire building)
way. We are going to examine a number of examples of positive political
actions that can be applied by project managers and we will look at a
number of methods for exercising upward influence and the challenges and
consequences that can follow when political action is enacted in a project. It
is important, nevertheless, to remember that power and political actions are
often affected by the precise cultural nature of the particular project that the
project manager is operating in. In other words, what works in one scenario
may not necessarily work in the next. Therefore the project manager must
be politically flexible between different projects.

7.5 Project Management Influence

Question

In your opinion, how can project managers exert influence in

order to secure the accomplishment of project objectives.

A number of research and empirical studies have identified 5 main sources

of influence that can be used by project managers to gain project support.
These are:-

(i) Authority
(ii) Reward Power
(iii) Punishment Power
(iv) Expert Power
(v) Referent Power

These will be briefly discussed below. The following text is largely based
upon a research paper presented by Wilemon (2002) at an international
conference on Project Management held in Singapore.

Authority
This refers to the formal authority that is given to a project manager at
appointment. This has always been a problem in the case of UK
construction projects. Therefore it is imperative that the project manager
insures that they are properly empowered with the appropriate formal

Heriot-Watt University Unit 7 - 5

(contractual) authority at the start of the project. If such authority is not
secured, it is highly likely that the PM process will be largely emasculated
during the whole of the project life cycle.

Observers have commented that a project manager has as much authority as

others in the project think they have. Therefore, it is clear that the project
manager must have the appropriate contractual authority afforded to them,
however, they must then act in a way that is commensurate with that
authority. However, it is important to note that this is not about the project
manager being overly authoritative in terms of management style. This can,
in reality, be highly detrimental and damaging to a project. Rather it is
about properly commanding the influence and scope of control that has been
given to the project manager and using that to acquire the necessary support
for the project and for its objectives.

Reward Power
This influence source has been defined as the ability to gain support for the
project purely because the project participants value the reward that they
believe the project manager is capable of securing for them.

We may want to pause for thought here and question whether the project
manager in the typical UK construction project set up is afforded any reward
power at all!!! It appears to be a necessary commodity for successful
project management influence and therefore for Project Management per se.
Therefore we need to consider what we must do if we find it to be largely
absent.

The rewards include; the ability to promote, the ability to influence salary
increases, the ability to grant recognition, the ability to help in the
achievement of positive visibility, the ability to assign interesting work and
the ability to offer learning and development opportunities.

The project manager should have two broad types of reward power at their
disposal. The first is direct reward power the second is indirect reward
power. Clearly the direct reward power is that over which the project
manager has complete authority and control. The indirect is the power he or
she has to influence others who themselves have direct reward power to
dispense to project participants. Clearly in the construction context, because
of the contemporary set up, the project manager is more concerned with
indirect reward power since the project manager is often a consultant
managing other consultants or contractors that are employed by a client
rather than by the project manager per se. There may of course be
exceptions to this, however, in the general case that would be rare.

What we must recognise is that the indirect reward power is a legitimate

tool and it must be used by project managers as they seek to win support for
their project and its objectives.

Heriot-Watt University Unit 7 - 6

Punishment Power
This is the power or influence to block or withhold the rewards we have
already spoken about. This is a source of influence that is best avoided or
guarded against by wise project managers. This is because punishment
scenarios tend to result in a strongly negative impact on the project at one or
more levels. If punishment is offered as a motivator, it is unlikely that the
contributors will offer the project (or the project manager) their whole
hearted commitment. Rather contributors may ‘work to rule’, that is do the
minimum necessary to avoid punishment or worse, they may remove
themselves from the project all together or refuse to become involved in the
first place.

However, when project targets are being compromised, it may be necessary

to exercise punishment power in order to bring the project back on track.
This requires skill and great dilligence on the part of the project manager if
the negative consequences of an adversarial action are to be avoided or
minimised/ controlled. In the case of the UK construction sector, many of
the punishment power vehicles reside in the formal contracts, however,
these are often highly adversarial and are normally unhelpful to the needs of
a particular project at the time when the need is greatest.

Expert Power
Expert power is defined as the ability to gain support or influence because
the contributors have respect for the project managers knowledge and
expertise. There are two types: the first comes from the specific technical
knowledge the project manager brings to the project. The second comes
from the project managers known general management competencies.

Referent Power
Referent power is the ability to gain support or influence for a project
because the contributors identify with the personality or some other attribute
of the project manager. The attractiveness of a project to a contributor is
also a major source of referent power. This is where the contributor can see
what they will gain from the project as a result of their contributing to its
successful completion. This source of influence could also be described as
project identification and it is a particularly fruitful source for project
managers.

7.6 Leadership Styles

Evidence suggests that there are two main leadership styles that are evident
within the project management discipline. The first relies heavily on the use
of formal authority, reward power and punishment. The second is more
concerned with the use of referent power. It is difficult to identify which
style is prominent or even most desirable in the case of the UK construction
sector. Few project managers working in the UK environment are afforded
the extent of formal authority that would enable them to be fully effective in
the use of that authority or indeed in the realm of reward or punishment for

Heriot-Watt University Unit 7 - 7

which the formal authority is prerequisite. This means that the use of
referent power is more likely to be the norm. However, we have seen that
project management in the UK does not work in an effective way.

This tends to suggest that project managers cannot rely on the use of
referent power alone and do indeed need a degree of formal authority,
reward power and punishment power to progress toward the effective
control of projects.

There is no one way to determine which power sources will be the most
effective in different project management situations or scenarios.
Nevertheless the following diagnostic questions (as suggested by Wilemon,
2000) may be asked in each project scenario to assist the project manager in
determining which power sources are likely to work and which are not:-

(i) What is the relationship of the project manager to the project client,
the project sponsors and how credible is the project manager to each
of the major stakeholder groups.

(ii) How important is this project to this client.

(iii) How much experience does the client have in managing projects.

(iv) How much freedom is being provided to the project manager to plan
and execute the project.

(v) What is the relationship between the project manager and the other
expert consultants in the project.

(vi) How much formal authority has been afforded the project manager.

(vii) What direct rewards is the project manager capable of dispensing.

(viii) What indirect rewards will be meaningful to project contributors.

(ix) What rewards can the project manager withhold from project
contributors.

(x) What is the experience and background of the project manager in

managing projects of this type and what is the perceived track record
amongst project contributors.

(xi) What technical skills are particularly important to the accomplishment

of this project.

(xii) How attractive is this project to project contributors.

Heriot-Watt University Unit 7 - 8

Answers to some of these questions can better help the project manager to
appreciate the power sources that will be of most value in progressing a
project towards its targets. One thing that must always be remembered is
that how the project manager deals with the individuals or contributing
organisations in the project environment can significantly impact the
projects propensity for success or failure and this holds true regardless of
what systems, processes or tools may be subsequently applied.

7.7 Political strategies for managing project

participants
Projects are constantly changing. The PM has a role to play in progressing a
project through all of the various project life cycle stages. During those
various phases of the project life cycle the project manager will encounter
many different organisations who may make or break the project. Some
parties to the project will be continuous throughout the project, for example,
the Architect, the Client etc.; others will have a more transitory role, for
example, planners, suppliers etc. The project manager has to recognise that
his or her role as politician will change during the different phases of the
project and that the different parties to the project will require differing
political management. Past research has identified that project participants
may be categorised into five main groups, depending upon their role in the
project and dependent upon their view as to its content, scope and success
factors.

The categories that can be used to describe the parties involved in projects
are as follows:-

(i) Allies
(ii) Opponents
(iii) Bedfellows
(iv) Fencesitters
(v) Adversaries

We will briefly consider each in turn.

Allies
These are parties or organisations that believe in the project that is being
managed. There is a high degree of mutual trust between project managers
and allies. The project manager can rely on the support of allies and often
the allies will go out and win support for the project independently of the
project manager. What is important here for the project manager is to insure
that the bond between them and their allies is strong and will be enduring.

It is important to keep allies ‘on-side’ and to fully involve them and

communicate with them concerning ideas and strategies for project planning
delivery and completion. Good management of allies ends up with them

Heriot-Watt University Unit 7 - 9

empowering the project to a greater or lesser degree and clearly this can be
significant in increasing a projects propensity for success.

Opponents
In the case of opponents, there is trust between them and the project
manager, however, they disagree with the projects objectives, purpose or
direction. For example, there could be a high degree of trust between a
project manager and an environmental group. Each party trusts the integrity
of the other but they have a different outlook on what the project will
achieve. Opponents can be useful because they help the project manager
and the client think the projects objectives through. They may also help to
refine the project or to improve it. Opponents can also be useful sounding
boards during the early phases of a project. The more credible an opponent
is, the more attentative must be in addressing their concerns. Often, in the
case of opponents there will be areas of agreement as well as disagreement;
it is therefore possible to progress projects through various stages even
though there are areas of disagreement. What is important is that these areas
of disagreement and agreement are clearly understood. Anticipating
objections is also a necessary part of managing opponents.

Bedfellows
In this case, the contributor or other party may well be in agreement with the
project and its objectives, however, there is a low level of trust between
them and the project manager. Project managers need to be careful when
dealing with bedfellows. One key in dealing with bedfellows is to
continually work on the basis of the agreement that exists between them.
Most of the project support can be won on the basis of agreement. The vital
ingredient is to guard against doing anything that would further degregate
trust. Thus, if it is known that future project developments are likely to
affect the relationship it is vital that the project manager manage that so that
broad agreement on the main project outcomes can be maintained. If the
bedfellow ends up in disagreement over an objective as a result of a change
the project may be jeapordised in some way. On the plus side, when a
bedfellow is carefully managed on the basis of agreement, they can be
turned into an ally when the level of mutual trust is increased.

Fence Sitters
These are organisations that do not have a particular view on the outcomes
of the project, for or against. They may be involved but they perhaps don’t
have an interest in the way things turn out. Dealing with a fencesitter can be
a very frustrating experience for a project manager. A recommended
approach is to confront them and ascertain exactly where they stand on
particular project issues. If the project manager can establish where the
fencesitter really stands that can be the basis for useful progress and
management. The least recommended approach in the case of fencesitters is
for the project manager to take a passive approach; rather assertiveness and
willingness to confront is the key management requirement.

Heriot-Watt University Unit 7 - 10

Adversaries
Parties to projects become adversaries when the project manager has been
unable to secure agreement or trust at any level. This is the most difficult
type of project participant that the project manager must deal with. An
adversary, lets say planning authorities or local residents, can become a
serious obstacle that can prevent a project from being progressed. In this
case it is often necessary to try to change one aspect of the project to try to
accommodate the adversaries objection without jeapordising the wider
objectives of the project. Where this cannot be done, or where the adversary
is blocking the project on unreasonable grounds, the project manager may
have no ability to change the situation by themselves and may have to
appeal to a higher authority.

The project manager must adopt a different political response for each
category of project participant with the aim of securing the projects core
aims or perhaps refining them so they enhance the overall aims of the
project. How the project manager manages each type is critical to the
success or failure of the project. One thing that does not work is managing
each party in the same way. The project manager may have to be highly
flexible and adaptable and adopt different leadership styles with different
parties. It is also necessary to note that the role adopted by a particular
organisation may alter during the different stages of the project life cycle,
therefore, the project manager may need to continually monitor the situation
and adapt/ adjust the management style accordingly.

7.8 Managing upwards (Clients and Stakeholders)

Much of the above is focused on the project manager handling parties in the
horizontal project structure ie. Other consultants, contractors and the like.
The project manager may will think of such as his or her peer group.
Managing these relationships well is vital in securing project success,
however, of equal importance is the task of managing upwards. There are
four important concepts that PM’s need to be aware of in managing
superiors (whether they be superior managers or clients, other stakeholders
or all of these). These are:-

(i) Visibility
(ii) Priority
(iii) Accessibility
(iv) Credibility

Each will be briefly addressed.

Visibility
It is important that the project and its progress are transparent to
stakeholders, however, the level of transparency or visibility needs to be
managed depending on the project situation at given times. When the
project is performing well and good progress is being made the level of

Heriot-Watt University Unit 7 - 11

transparency or visibility needs to be increased; it is important that those
funding the project can see that objectives are being fulfilled since this will
guarantee the future commitment of funds. When the project develops
problems (as all projects will) visibility needs to be reduced not so that
problems are hidden, but so time can be purchased to fix the problem. This
way the problem can be presented as solved at the right time. The project
can be presented as solved at the right time. The project manager must
never attempt to conceal problems that are unresolvable without the
involvement of superiors as nothing will be quicker to destroy the project
managers credibility.

Priority
The project manager must be aware that it will be necessary to fight for
resources to accomplish the project that he or she is responsible for. Most
clients will be funding more than one project at any single point in time and
new projects will be starting during the lifespan of existing projects. It is
therefore essential to ensure that the particular project that the project
manager is progressing always has appropriate priority in the clients
commitments. Again, this is an aspect of project management that must be
cultivated since it is far removed from the systems and tools concerned with
the operational dimension.

Accessibility
Accessibility is unlikely to be a problem in the case of most construction
project management scenarios as the project manager, as the clients
representative, will almost always be granted accessibility to the senior
management within that client. Nevertheless, it is important that
accessibility is there so that the project manager can secure visibility and
priority for the project. In a construction scenario, a lack of accessibility
may occur if the project manager is not managing horizontal relationships
with other consultants in an appropriate way. In other words, an Architect
or Engineer could end up dominating project meetings with a client and this
could unbalance a project if the client ends up placing too much emphasis or
resource on one particular area. The project manager must guard against
this. Here the leadership issue is clear and the need for accessibility to be
carefully managed is apparent.

Credibility
Credibility is vital. The client must be able to trust the project managers
ability, judgement and performance. To a large degree this depends on the
performance of the project but it also depends on the openness and
truthfulness that exists between the project manager and the client.

The project manager needs to be continually managing these four criteria to

make sure that each is approproiate to the projects needs at any given time.
Again, it is clear that the control of these variables can considerably
influence a projects propensity for success. Clients are often blamed for
poor project outcomes as a result of changing project specifications and
such like. The project manager must politically manage the client as well as

Heriot-Watt University Unit 7 - 12

the contributors to guard against unhelpful and unnecessary alterations
which may well compromise the overall quality of the project outcomes.

7.9 Self Assessment Questions

(i) Successful project management is primarily concerned with power,

politics and influence.

Evaluate this statement

(ii) A project manager must be a politician.

Fully Evaluate this statement.

Heriot-Watt University Unit 7 - 13

Heriot-Watt University Unit 7 - 14