400755 Evidence Based Nursing 1

Qualitative Research 2

Prepared by: Dr Lauretta Luck 2008

Revised by: Dr Kath Peters 2009

Objectives
● By the end of this session & with additional
readings you will be able to;
– Understand how data is collected in
qualitative research
– Describe how data analysis is undertaken
in qualitative studies
– Identify aspects of rigor in qualitative
research
– Understand how human ethical principles
relate to qualitative research

Qualitative Designs
Overview from Qualitative Lecture 1
● Very broad goal is to gain subjective
understandings of individuals or groups
● Incorporates interpretative and naturalistic
inquiry
● Multiple methods available
● Not as clear-cut or prescriptive as quantitative
research the design may change as
opportunities occur during the research

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 Sample Size
● Sample size – enough to explore the phenomenon.
● Data saturation – when no new information is
yielded from additional data collection.
● For example phenomenology typically fewer than
10 participants; ethnography 25 – 50 participants
(Polit & Beck, 2008).

● There is no need to generalise findings so no need

for statistical significance or representation.

Data Collection Techniques

● Interviews – structured, unstructured or semi-
structured.
● Participant observation 4 levels; complete
participant; participant as observer; observer as
participant or the complete observer (de Laine,
1997).

● Equipment and resources – interview room

(confidentiality & anonymity), digital recorder,
field journals and/or protocols.

Data Collection Techniques

● Interview schedule usually includes the
interview questions (broadly). Questions are
needed for focus. Establishing rapport and
concluding the interview (and research) process
are important.

● Observation schedule may be used for field

notes & can be structured or unstructured. The
field researcher needs to find a time & place to
write notes.

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 Transcription
● All data, interviews and field notes are
transcribed verbatim (Polit & Beck, 2008).
● This ensures the knowledge revealed reflects
the subjective understandings of the
participants – not the reconstructions of the
researcher. This adds to the rigour of the study.
● The researcher immerses themself in the data;
transcripts are read & re-read to ensure
understanding of meaning (Jackson & Borbasi, 2008).

Data Analysis
● Content analysis systematically uncovers ideas
and themes from text. It seeks to interpret,
explain and understand, rather than simply
describe. The goal is to summarise or reduce
large quantities of text to manageable
categories thus shaping themes (Gray, 2004).

● Most common forms of data analysis are

Thematic Analysis and Content Analysis.

Data Analysis – Thematic Analysis

● Thematic analysis is a form of content analysis.

● Thematic analysis is commonly used in nursing

research and aims to re-present the participants’
perspective of events, beliefs and experiences
by systematically drawing inferences from the
text (Boyatzis, 1998; Hsieh & Shannon, 2005).

● Themes are discovered that re-present the

participants experience.

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 Rigour in Qualitative Research
● Rigour in qualitative research applies to the
entire research process.

● Rigour may be established by examining areas

such as:
1. Credibility
2. Confirmability (Auditability)
3. Transferability (Guba, 1990)

Credibility
Are findings true? Can they be believed?

Some steps to establish credibility:

– Check data ‘makes sense’, is accurate and
consistent
– Does it use a variety of informants
– Was there sufficient time to develop trust/rapport
with informants
– Was there feedback to / or from the study
participants
– Search for conflicting data

Researcher Credibility
● Researcher’s training, experience, qualifications.
● Reflexivity: recognition that researcher is integral
part of research process and ‘neutrality and
detachment’ impossible.

● Researcher should be explicit about any relevant

personal and professional information.

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 Confirmability (Auditability)
● Ability of others to follow data collection
procedures and analysis and come to similar
conclusion as researcher
● Audit trail
 Documentation of all decisions relating to
framework,method and analysis
● Review of procedures/analysis by independent
auditor; conclusions similar

Transferability (Generalisability)
Are results applicable outside the
research situation?
● There should be sufficient information so
others can evaluate the extent to which
the findings are fitting to other situations

Ethics in Qualitative Research

In addition to the usual ethics practices, qualitative
researchers consider;
– Informed consent prior to any data collection –
including the time that may be required for
participation
– Confidentiality and anonymity – also in the
reporting of results or any subsequent papers
– Understanding there may be a need for
psychological support

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 References
Boyatzis, R. E. (1998). Transforming qualitative information: Thematic
analysis and code development. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications,
Inc.
de Laine, M. (1997). Ethnography: Theory and applications in Health
research. Sydney: MacLennan & Petty Pty Limited.
Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2000). The discipline and practice of
qualitative research. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of
Qualitative Research (2nd ed., pp. 1 - 28). Thousand Oaks, California:
Sage Publications Inc.
Gray, D. E. (2004). Doing research in the real world. London: Sage
Publications Ltd.
Guba, E. G. (1990). The alternative paradigm dialog. In E. G. Guba (Ed.),
The paradigm dialog (pp. 17-27). California: Sage Publications, Inc.
Hardy, M., & Bryman, A. (2004). Introduction: common threads among
techniques of data analysis. In M. Hardy & A. Bryman (Eds.), Handbook
of data analysis (pp. 1-13). London: Sage Publications Inc.

References continued.
Hsieh, H.-F., & Shannon, S. E. (2005). Three approaches to qualitative
content analysis. Qualitative Health Research, 15(9), 1277-1288.
Jackson, D., & Borbasi, S. (2008). Qualitative research: The whole
picture. In S. Borbasi, D. Jackson & R. W. Langford (Eds.), Navigating
the maze of nursing research: An interactive learning adventure (2nd
ed., pp. 153-178). Sydney: Elsevier, Australia.
Polit, D. F., & Beck, C. T. (2006). Essentials of nursing research:
Methods, appraisal and utilization (6th ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott
Williams & Wilkins.
Polit, D. F., & Beck, C. T. (2008). Introduction to nursing research in an
evidenced-based practice environment. In D. F. Polit & C. T. Beck
(Eds.), Nursing research: Generating and assessing evidence for
nursing practice (pp. 3-27). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.