JOURNAL OF APPLIED PHYSICS 102, 054514 共2007兲

Inversion layer formation in organic field-effect devices

Th. Lindner and G. Paascha兲
Leibniz Institute for Solid State and Materials Research IFW Dresden, PF 270116, D-01171 Dresden,
Germany
共Received 20 April 2007; accepted 17 July 2007; published online 14 September 2007兲
One of the challenges for polymer electronics is the realization of complementary
metal-oxide-semiconductor circuits, requiring both n- and p-channel transistors on the chip. The
difficulty to create both accumulation and inversion layers in the same material has been attributed
to obstacles to the synthesis of metallic source/drain contacts for efficient injection of both electrons
and holes, and also to the fact that the electron and hole mobilities differ often by several orders
of magnitude. Although the formation of inversion layers has been well understood in
microelectronics, it has to be studied anew for organics, since the mobility and the intrinsic density
are many orders of magnitude lower. An analytical estimate of the relation between relevant
characteristic times reveals the peculiarities occurring in the organics. Detailed insight is obtained
from a numerical simulation study for metal-oxide-semiconductor capacitors and transistors of
different design. In simulated quasistatic capacitance-voltage characteristics hysteresis effects
are obtained due to the inversion layer formation process. This mechanism can be understood
by inspecting the internal density profiles obtained by the simulation. In addition, capaci-
tance-frequency characteristics are simulated and analyzed in more detail with equivalent circuit
models that describe the simulated characteristics well. Here, the relaxation times characterizing the
transition between the maximum capacitance and the geometrical capacitance are determined by
resistances and capacitances of sublayers, which can be ascribed different regions as oxide, bulk,
depletion, accumulation, or inversion. Both the design and the source/drain contact properties
influence the characteristics significantly. © 2007 American Institute of Physics.
关DOI: 10.1063/1.2776235兴

I. INTRODUCTION
There has been an increasing interest in organic electron-
ics in recent years. Organic field-effect transistors 共FETs兲 are
particularly attractive for low-cost and low-performance ap-
plications, such as organic displays,1 organic complementary
circuits,2–5 and all-polymer integrated circuits.6–8 One of the
challenges for polymer electronics is the realization of
complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor 共CMOS兲 circuits
requiring both n- and p-channel transistors on the chip. Ad-
vantages of digital circuits using complementary logic in-
clude lower power dissipation, more robust operation, better
noise margins, and ease of circuit design. This counts, of
course, also for organic-based electronics.
Organic semiconductors are usually unintentionally
p-doped, i.e., application of a negative gate voltage in or-
ganic thin-film transistors 共TFTs兲 results in the formation of
a hole accumulation layer at the semiconductor-insulator in-
terface forming the current channel. For the reversed polar-
ity, an inversion layer of electrons should appear, but this is
usually not observed. This has been attributed, on the one
hand, to the difficulty in engineering the metallic source/
drain contacts for efficient injection of both electrons and
holes,9 and on the other hand, to the fact that in the past
reported electron mobilities are usually several orders of
magnitude lower than those of the holes. But, good ohmic
a兲
Corresponding author. Electronic mail: g.paasch@ifw-dresden.de. URL:
http://www.ifw-dresden.de/institutes/itf/members/paasch
contacts for the injection of both holes and electrons into the
same material are possible, e.g., by bilayer source/drain con-
tacts. Also, a high work function, nonoxidizing metal 共gold兲
as source/drain contact material can give good performance
for both p- and n-channel transistors.5 The low electron mo-
bility values can be caused by charge trapping in the semi-
conductor or at the semiconductor-insulator interface. In the
second case, extrinsic impurities are important. Indeed, cur-
rent limiting trap states can be avoided by improved techno-
logical processing. Thus, the data presented in Ref. 10 pro-
vide evidence that silanol groups present at the commonly
used SiO2 dielectric interface can quench n-channel activity
of organic semiconductors.
Both p- and n-channel operation in a single organic
field-effect transistor is realized in so-called ambipolar or-
ganic TFTs. The first report on ambipolar operation was for a
device employing a heterostructure with two separate or-
ganic semiconductors as active layers; one electron- and one
hole-conducting material.11 In this structure, identical Au
electrodes as source and drain contacts are used, leading to a
limitation of electron injection. In another ambipolar hetero-
structure organic FET with two active organic semiconductor
layers, source and drain electrodes of Au and Mg,
respectively,12,13 are used to optimize hole and n-electron
injection. In order to achieve n- and p-channel conduction, as
well as efficient injection of both types of carriers in the
same material, a single layer device based on an interpen-
etrating network of two materials as active layer was
realized.14 Even single layer devices with an active layer

0021-8979/2007/102共5兲/054514/12/$23.00 102, 054514-1 © 2007 American Institute of Physics

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 054514-2 Th. Lindner and G. Paasch J. Appl. Phys. 102, 054514 共2007兲

consisting of a single organic material were realized, which

are capable of operating in both p- and n-channel
regimes.4,10,14
In view of the experimental progress in realizing
single layer organic TFTs with both p-accumulation and
n-inversion channels, it is worth to consider the conditions
for the inversion layer formation theoretically by numerical
simulation. Here, the interplay of different influencing fac-
tors will be demonstrated, such as the width of the gap 关more
common are at present organic wide gap materials, but
smaller gaps as 1.5 eV 共Ref. 15兲 or even below 1 eV 共Refs.
16 and 17兲 are known兴, different geometries of TFTs and
metal-oxide-semiconductor 共MOS兲 capacitors, material prop-
erties of contacts and the organic layer, and measuring con-
ditions.

II. DEVICE SIMULATION AND MATERIAL

PARAMETERS

Simulations using the drift-diffusion model 共DDM兲 were

carried out for both MOS capacitors and TFTs with an or-
ganic semiconductor as an active layer. In the present inves-
tigation, the two-dimensional 共2D兲 device simulation pro-
gram ISE-TCAD18 is used. The applicability of the DDM to
organic materials has been discussed in Refs. 19–21. Suc-
cessful simulations of organic light-emitting diodes19,22–24
and field-effect devices25–29 have been performed. The pro-
gram solves simultaneously the Poisson equation for the
electrical potential ␾ and the continuity equations for the
hole 共p兲 and electron 共n兲 densities. Here we mention
shortly19,20 that the Poisson equation and the continuity equa-
tions are of course of general validity. The current density as
composed of drift and diffusion contributions as used in the
DDM is also valid for transport in the organics. In the
nondegenerate limit the hole 共p兲 and electron 共n兲 den-
sities are connected with the hole and electron quasi-
Fermi potentials ␾Fp and ␾Fn by p = ni exp关e共␾Fp − ␾兲 / kBT兴
and n = ni exp关e共␾ − ␾Fn兲 / kBT兴. The intrinsic density ni
= 冑NVNC exp关−Eg / 2kBT兴 is connected with the gap energy
Eg and the effective densities of states NV and NC. For a
molecular material one has to use the molecular or monomer
density instead of the “effective density of states.”19 For a
polymer with a Gaussian 共or exponential兲 density of trans-
port states it has been shown in Ref. 21 that the nondegen-
erate approximation results in a surprising good approxima-
tion for the accumulation charge per unit area, which is just
the quantity that determines the current in the transistor
channel. There remains only a small error in the flatband
voltage, which can be corrected afterwards if needed. Details
of the simulation method are summarized in Refs. 27–29.
The simulated device structures are shown in Fig. 1. The
MOS capacitor has a thickness of the organic layer of dorg cap
= 150 nm 关Fig. 1共a兲兴, which is larger than the depletion
length for the chosen doping. In the case of the frequency
response also a layer thickness dorg cap
= 50 nm less than the
depletion length is chosen. For the thin-film transistor 关Figs.
1共b兲 and 1共c兲兴 an organic layer thickness of dorgtft
= 50 nm is
chosen, since a thickness less than the depletion layer length
is essential for the TFT operation.20 TFTs with either source
FIG. 1. 共a兲 Simulated MOS structure, 共b兲 top contact 共TOC兲 field-effect
thin-film transistor, and 共c兲 bottom contact 共BOC兲 field-effect thin-film
transistor.
and drain as top contacts 共TOC兲 关Fig. 1共b兲兴 or bottom con-
tacts 共BOC兲 关Fig. 1共c兲兴 are considered. The channel length is
L = 1 ␮m, the source and drain contact lengths are 1 ␮m. In
the simulations the device width is always w = 1 ␮m and the
insulator thickness dox = 50 nm. The gate contact area is in
all cases 3 ␮m ⫻ 1 ␮m. The gate contact material is char-
acterized solely by its work function. Here we have chosen
⌽G = 4.05 eV for both devices, which corresponds to the us-
age of n+-poly-Si as contact material. The metal work func-
tions of the bulk contact ⌽B and of the source/drain contacts
⌽S/D, respectively, are varied in order to describe either a
neutral ohmic contact for holes or an accumulation contact
for either holes or electrons.
The following material parameters are used: The dielec-
tric constant of the insulator is ␧ox = 3.9 共SiO2兲. For the band
gap Eg of the organic semiconductor three different values
are used: 2.0, 1.2, and 0.8 eV. The larger value is typical for
the material used at present but low-band-gap organics have
been reported also.15–17 Further parameters of the organic
material are chosen as follows; dielectric constant ␧ = 3.24;
electron affinity ␹ = 3.0 eV; minority carrier life time ␶n
= 10−5 s for electrons and ␶ p = 3 ⫻ 10−6 s for holes 共Si values
have been used due to the lack of reliable data for organics;
one estimate of ␶n = 10−4 s has been given only for electrons
in poly-phenylenevinylene in Ref. 30; the relevant relaxation
time for inversion layer formation 关Eq. 共3兲兴 is much stronger

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 054514-3 Th. Lindner and G. Paasch
influenced by the uncertainty concerning the intrinsic den-
sity兲; mobilities ␮n = ␮ p = 10−3 cm2 / V s; and effective den-
sity of states NC = NV = 1021 cm−3 共monomer density兲. As a
basic doping concentration a value of NA = 1017 cm−3 is cho-
sen modeling the usually occurring unintentional p doping.
Quasistatic capacitance-voltage 共C − V兲 characteristics
were simulated as follows. At first, a gate-bulk voltage 共gate-
source voltage兲 of VGB共VGS兲 = + 20 V is applied and held
fixed over a waiting time of 100 s and then the voltage is
changed linearly in time with a ramp rate of R = 0.1 V / s up
to VGB共VGS兲 = −20 V. After a further waiting time of 100 s
the back sweep starts with the same ramp rate. The voltage
applied to the gate electrode of the device changes with time
共R = dVGB / dt兲. By simulation the resulting charging current
flowing to the gate electrode IG is obtained, which is con-
nected to the charge at the gate electrode QG by IG
= dQG / dt. Finally, the capacitance can be calculated after-
wards using one of the two relations: C共VGB兲 = 兩IG共VGB兲兩 / R
or C共VGB兲 = dQG共VGB兲 / dVGB.
For the frequency response the dependency of the ca-
pacitance on the frequency of an applied high-frequency 共hf兲
signal 关capacitance-frequency 共C − f兲 characteristics兴 for a
given gate-bulk voltage is simulated as follows: At first, the
gate-bulk voltage of VGB = + 10 V and VGB = −10 V, respec-
tively, is applied successively in steps of 1 V and then held
fixed while the simulation of the C − f curve is performed.
III. VOLTAGE SWEEP, TRANSPORT, AND CARRIER
GENERATION
For silicon electronics, the different processes determin-
ing inversion layer formation have been analyzed in Refs.
31–33. For temperatures below ⬇410 K generation recom-
bination is dominant; for higher temperatures diffusion be-
comes dominant 共in these devices a bulk region is present兲.
Thereby, generation recombination through traps in the junc-
tion region is much more effective than through surface
states, since only trap levels near midgap and close to the
Fermi level contribute significantly. The minority carrier re-
sponse time is then determined by generation 关see Eq. 共3兲
below兴. For minority carriers in silicon at room temperature
the response time is typically 0.01− 1 s, i.e., they respond to
a maximum frequency of 100 Hz. The fact that silicon tran-
sistors operate also at GHz frequencies is due to a third
mechanism: In the conventional transistor structure minority
carriers can be injected easily from the source and drain re-
gions, which are doped oppositely to the substrate and which
are in close contact to the channel region.
In organic electronics based on large band-gap organic
materials, the generation process is very inefficient. More-
over, another device structure is used, usually the thin-film
design with bottom or top source/drain contacts. In addition,
the usual MOSFET has a back contact which is missing in
the TFT, but is present in capacitors used for C − V and C
− f measurements. Thus, for organic electronics there is a
need to consider anew the processes determining inversion.
For a qualitative understanding of C − V and C − f char-
acteristics, it is useful to discuss the relevant time constants
characterizing the measuring process, transport, and genera-
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J. Appl. Phys. 102, 054514 共2007兲
FIG. 2. Relaxation times as function of the gap energy: Measurement
共dashed兲 Eq. 共1a兲 and 共1b兲, dielectric of minority carriers 共dash-dotted兲 Eq.
共2兲, dielectric of majority carriers 共dotted兲 Eq. 共2兲, generation of inversion
charge of minority carriers 共solid兲 Eq. 共3兲. A doping concentration of Ndop
= NA = 1017 cm−3 is supposed.
tion of minority carriers. The quasistatic measurements are
carried out with a ramp rate R, which is determined by the
measuring equipment 共developed especially for Si devices兲.
Thus a range of R = 0.1, . . . , 1 V / s is typical.25 For a ramp
rate of R = 0.1 V / s the characteristic time constant is
1 V
␶meas = = 10 s. 共1a兲
R
In contrast, dynamic measurements are usually carried out at
a fixed frequency f and thus
␶meas = f −1 . 共1b兲
In the case of impedance measurement a large frequency
range is accessible 共f = 10−3 , . . . , 107 Hz, ␶meas
3 −7
= 10 , . . . , 10 s兲.
Transport is characterized by the dielectric relaxation
time for the carrier species “j,”
␧ 0␧
␶d,j = , 共2兲
␬j
where ␬ j = en j␮ j is the electrical conductivity of the respec-
tive species with concentration n j and mobility ␮ j. The car-
riers can follow the external signal for ␶d,j
␶meas 关or equiva-
lently n j␮ j  ␧0␧ / 共e␶meas兲兴. For an unintentionally p-doped
polymer 共n j = p = 1017 cm−3兲 with a relatively high mobility
as required in a transistor, say ␮ j = ␮ p = 10−3 cm2 V−1 s−1,
one has 共␧ = 3 as typical value兲 for majority carriers ␶d,p
⬇ 10−8 s and this condition is fulfilled not only for the qua-
sistatic regime according to Eq. 共1a兲 and 共1b兲, but also for
the frequency response up to f ⬇ 107 Hz 共compare Fig. 2兲.
Under this condition the p-accumulation layer can be formed
共if the contacts are ohmic for holes兲 for large negative gate-
bulk and gate-source voltages, respectively. Since the semi-
conductor capacitance increases strongly in accumulation,
one measures then the oxide capacitance 共see Figs. 3 and 6兲
because both are in series.
It must be mentioned here that the response time of the
carriers depends on the actual concentration n j, which varies
within the MOS device by orders of magnitude. Therefore,
the carrier response time is locally different within the device
depending on the variation of the carrier concentration n j.
 054514-4 Th. Lindner and G. Paasch
FIG. 3. Simulated quasistatic C − V characteristics of the MOS structure
关Fig. 1共a兲兴 共ramp rate 0.1 V / s兲 for different values of the band gap. The
work function of the bulk contact material is always aligned with the maxi-
mum of the valence band, so its absolute value changes with the band gap
共ohmic contact, accumulation contact兲. Work function of the gate contact
material 4.05 eV, doping NA = 1017 cm−3, contact area 3 ␮m ⫻ 1 ␮m.
Regions with a low carrier concentration are most limiting.
Such inhomogeneities and the influence of the oxide capaci-
tance can be described by equivalent circuit models as dem-
onstrated below.
The run of the C − V curve between accumulation and
depletion is determined by the depletion length in the semi-
conductor. If it is small, i.e., if there are many charge carriers
共high doping兲, the capacitance decreases gradually. On the
other hand, if there are only few carriers, the depletion zone
increases very fast with increasing voltage and the capaci-
tance drops down in a narrow voltage range near the flatband
voltage.
There are several mechanisms which are able to supply
minority carriers to change the charge in the inversion
layer.31 Generation of minority carriers by light is not con-
sidered here. Then one has in the MOS capacitor two mecha-
nisms. Generation of minority carriers is determined by the
relaxation time25,31
␶inv =
1 Ndop
冑␶ n ␶ p . 共3兲
冑2 ni
Here ␶n and ␶ p are the minority charge carrier lifetimes of
electrons and holes, respectively, Ndop is the concentration
of ionized dopants, and the intrinsic density
ni ⬀ exp关−Eg / 2kBT兴 decreases exponentially with increasing
gap energy Eg. The other mechanism is generation/injection
of minority carriers at the bulk contact followed by diffusion
through the bulk region of the semiconductor and drift
through the depletion layer. For p material with concentra-
tion NA of ionized acceptors the bulk minority density is n
= n2i / NA, and the corresponding dielectric relaxation time
␶d,n ⬀ n−2
i . The relations between the relaxation times deter-
mine what happens during the measurement. Minority carrier
current and generation of minority carriers act in parallel in
the formation of the inversion layer; in this case, the faster
process is determinative. As demonstrated in Fig. 2 共param-
eters according to the preceding section兲, this is the genera-
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J. Appl. Phys. 102, 054514 共2007兲
tion process for a gap ⱖ0.75 eV. However, for a gap
Eg  1.25 eV, the measurement is faster and there is no in-
version layer formation. On the other hand, for very low gap
共Eg ⬍ 0.75 eV兲 one has ␶d,n
␶inv
␶meas; the inversion
layer is formed by the minority carrier current even without
generation. For somewhat larger gap, generation dominates
and at about Eg = 1.25 eV measuring is as fast as generation.
Then, the formation of the inversion layer is slowed down.
And since recombination for the back voltage sweep is fast,
one has in this region a hysteresis, for an even larger gap
inversion layer generation is too slow and only depletion is
obtained. Corresponding simulated dependencies will be dis-
cussed in the next section.
IV. FORMATION OF THE INVERSION LAYER
IN ORGANICS WITH DIFFERENT GAP WIDTH
A. MOS capacitor
The conditions for the formation of an inversion layer
have been discussed in Sec. III. Determinative are the relax-
ation times for generation of minority charge carriers ␶inv 共3兲
共Refs. 25 and 31兲 and the dielectric relaxation time for mi-
nority carriers 共electrons for p material兲 ␶d,n = ␧␧0NA / 共e␮n2i 兲,
both compared to the characteristic time of the measurement
共1a兲 and 共1b兲. Depending on the width of the gap of the used
semiconductor material, different C − V characteristics are
expected as discussed in connection with Fig. 2. Now in Fig.
3 an example will be presented for different gap widths Eg
= 2.0, 1.2, 0.8 eV 共and the same affinity兲. We have chosen
bulk p doping with completely ionized acceptors of the con-
centration 1017 cm−3; the bulk Fermi energy lies 0.238 eV
above the valence band edge. To ensure similar conditions at
the bulk contact, the work function of the metallic contact
was chosen such that it is aligned with the valence band
edge. Thus, its value changes with the band gap but there is
always a hole accumulation 共ohmic兲 contact. The work func-
tion of the gate contact material is ⌽G = 4.05 eV. Then, for
the chosen three values of the gap the flatband voltages are
−0.712, +0.088, +0.488 V. This shift is clearly visible in
Fig. 3 at the transition into the oxide capacitance 共where the
curvature changes兲. For a large band gap of 2 eV, as dis-
cussed in Sec. III, transport of minority carriers is negligible,
and compared to the ramp rate generation of minority carri-
ers is too slow for the formation of the inversion layer. In-
deed, there is only a transition of the C − V characteristic
from the oxide capacitance at negative voltages 共accumula-
tion兲 to the geometrical capacitance at positive voltages. The
value of the latter corresponds to a fully depleted organic
layer. Since the gate electric field cannot be screened by an
inversion layer, the width of the depletion in the semiconduc-
tor increases until the whole layer is depleted. In contrast, in
the case of a small band gap of 0.8 eV, the time for the
formation of the inversion layer is small compared to the
measuring period and a usual quasistatic C − V characteristics
is obtained. Especially in this case one gets the same behav-
ior even without including any recombination process in the
calculation 关Shockley-Hall-Read 共SHR兲 is normally used兴 as
discussed above. Evidently, due to the small band gap the
charge carrier concentration in the material is high enough
 054514-5 Th. Lindner and G. Paasch
FIG. 4. Profiles of the 共a兲 current densities, 共b兲 charge carrier densities, and
共c兲 recombination/generation rate in the middle of the MOS capacitor from
the bulk contact 共y = 0兲 to the gate 共y = 0.2 ␮m兲 for the CV characteristics
with Eg = 1.2 eV in Fig. 3 at VGB = + 5 V.
for a minority carrier current from the bulk to the interface.
But for a larger band gap 共Eg ⬎ 1 eV, compare Fig. 2兲 the
bulk minority carrier concentration is too low and the inver-
sion charges can be created only by generation. In case of the
medium band gap of 1.2 eV, during the measuring period
inversion is formed slowly and thus with increasing positive
voltages the capacitance increases gradually until the oxide
capacitance is reached. In contrast to the formation, the re-
duction of the inversion layer takes place rather fast and the
characteristics for the sweep direction from positive to nega-
tive voltages is identical with the common quasistatic char-
acteristics. The sharp increase of the capacitance from VGB
= + 20 V to VGB = + 18 V is discussed below.
The reason for this hysteresis is a recombination rate
considerably higher than the generation rate for the forma-
tion of the inversion layer. This is demonstrated in Fig. 4,
where profiles of 共a兲 current densities, 共b兲 carrier concentra-
tions, and 共c兲 recombination rate are shown along the middle
of the MOS capacitor. The bulk contact is at y = 0 ␮m, the
interface at y = 0.15 ␮m, and the gate contact at y = 0.2 ␮m.
All profiles correspond to an applied gate voltage of VGB
= + 5 V, i.e., in the range of hysteresis 共Fig. 3, Eg = 1.2 V兲.
In Fig. 4共a兲 the current densities for electron-, hole-, and
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J. Appl. Phys. 102, 054514 共2007兲
displacement currents are depicted. They are different for the
two sweep directions. Of course, in the oxide there is only a
displacement current density. Since the reduction of the in-
version layer takes place much faster 共accordingly a faster
change of the electric field across the oxide occurs兲 this den-
sity has to be larger for the sweep from positive to negative
voltages. For this sweep direction the displacement current is
zero in the semiconductor 共apart from the decrease in a nar-
row region immediately at the interface兲. However, for the
opposite sweep direction, the displacement current density is
at first 2 ⫻ 10−9 A / cm2 and drops down to zero in the middle
of the semiconductor layer with approaching the bulk con-
tact. Since inversion builds up slowly, the depletion zone
extends at first deep into the semiconductor, with gradually
increasing inversion layer formation; its width decreases un-
til the inversion layer is completely formed. Finally, the
width of the depletion zone reaches a value, which is con-
nected with the surface potential at inversion 共this is the
usual maximum depletion layer width, but if there is no in-
version layer the depletion zone has, of course, a larger
width兲. In case of a completely depleted semiconductor layer
the displacement current density would not drop down to
zero up to the bulk contact. The electron current is prominent
only near the oxide interface, where electrons are generated
or where they recombine 关compare with Fig. 4共c兲兴. Directly
at the interface this current drops down to zero and is not
relevant in the bulk p-type semiconductor. Toward the inter-
face the hole current decreases, corresponding to the rise of
the electron current, and is of course zero directly at the
oxide interface. The sum of both is called conduction cur-
rent. In the bulk material it is solely given by the hole current
and it is different for both sweep directions at the bulk con-
tact. These two values of the hole current density, or equiva-
lently, the difference of the total current densities 共jtot = jn
+ j p + jdisplace兲 at the gate and the bulk contact results in the
corresponding currents and capacitances of the C − V charac-
teristic, respectively, at VGB = + 5 V for both sweep direc-
tions. In Fig. 4共b兲 the electron and hole densities are de-
picted. They differ substantially for both voltage sweep
directions 共note the logarithmic scale兲. For the sweep from
negative to positive voltages the semiconducting layer be-
comes at first partially depleted, since the generation of in-
version charges is very slow. This results in much lower
charge carrier concentrations 共and stronger band bending兲
than for the opposite sweep. The recombination and genera-
tion rate is determined by the deviation of the carrier densi-
ties from equilibrium. The rate is largest at the position
where both carrier concentrations are equal. As these densi-
ties are different for the two sweep directions, the generation
rate for the creation of inversion charges and the recombina-
tion rate for their reduction are different. This is explicitly
shown in Fig. 4共c兲. Even though the generation of carriers
occurs in a broader region of the semiconductor, its rate is
significantly lower than the recombination rate. This explains
the observed hysteresis in Fig. 3. The maximum recombina-
tion rate is at the position where electron- and hole-charge
densities, as well as the current densities, are equal.
Now we consider in more detail the capacitance at VGB
= + 20 V for the medium band gap of Eg = 1.2 V. As already
 054514-6 Th. Lindner and G. Paasch
FIG. 5. Hole and electron densities in the middle of the MOS capacitor from
the bulk contact 共y = 0兲 to the insulator interface 共y = 0.15 ␮m兲 at an applied
voltage of VGB = + 20 V. Compared are density profiles before 共dashed line兲
and after 共dotted line兲 the waiting time of 100 s at VGB = + 20 V with equi-
librium distribution 共solid line兲.
discussed in connection with Fig. 4共b兲 inversion builds up
slowly, a depletion zone extends at first deep into the semi-
conductor, and with gradually increasing inversion layer for-
mation its width decreases until the inversion layer is com-
pletely formed leading to the gradual increase of the
capacitance for the sweep direction from negative to positive
gate voltages. However, the formation of this deep depletion
zone takes place very fast while its following reduction is a
slow process. Due to the low carrier densities in that region
the dielectric relaxation time is very large and therefore the
redistribution to equilibrium 共especially of the electrons兲 is
very slow, in addition to the slow carrier generation. In Fig.
5 carrier density profiles are depicted from the bulk contact
to the insulator interface in the middle of the MOS capacitor
at VGB = + 20 V. It is clearly visible that the charge density
distribution at the end of the voltage sweep from negative to
positive gate voltage 共dashed lines, before waiting time兲 is
far away from equilibrium 共solid lines兲, even though the ox-
ide capacitance is nearly reached in the C − V characteristics
at this point 共compare Fig. 3兲. Solely direct at the interface
the electron density is equal to the equilibrium value. Also,
after the waiting time 共here 100 s兲, before starting the back
voltage sweep 共dotted lines兲, equilibrium is not completely
reached; carrier generation still takes place. This causes the
C − V curve for the back sweep from positive to negative
voltage to start with a value below the oxide capacitance.
Until equilibrium is reached, there is no effective recombi-
nation 共because there are less charge carriers than in equilib-
rium兲 that results in a reduced hole current from bulk contact
to the recombination zone connected with a lower capaci-
tance. Simulation shows that this behavior at VGB = + 20 V is
still present for a longer waiting time of 500 s, i.e., a fairly
long time is necessary to reach the equilibrium charge carrier
distribution, because in approaching equilibrium the genera-
tion rate will decrease.
B. Thin-film top contact transistor
Similarly, as in the capacitor 关Fig. 1共a兲兴 one can also
obtain quasistatic C − V characteristics for the TOC transistor
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J. Appl. Phys. 102, 054514 共2007兲
FIG. 6. Simulated quasistatic C − V characteristics of the TOC transistor
关Fig. 1共b兲兴 共ramp rate 0.1 V / s兲 for different values of the band gap. The
work function of the source- and drain-contact material is always aligned
with the maximum of the valence band, so its absolute value changes with
the band gap 共ohmic contact, accumulation contact兲. The gate contact area is
3 ␮m ⫻ 1 ␮m and 1 ␮m ⫻ 1 ␮m for source and drain. Other parameters
as in Fig. 3.
structure 关Fig. 1共b兲兴 if source and drain are set to zero volt-
age while the voltage ramp is applied to the gate. The result-
ing characteristics are depicted in Fig. 6, again for three dif-
ferent gap widths. Compared to the capacitor only the device
structure is changed, since in contrast to the bulk contact in
the capacitor the source and drain contacts are separated by
the channel. In addition, the organic layer is only 50 nm
thick. All other parameters are the same as for the quasistatic
C − V characteristics of the capacitor 共Fig. 3兲. As visible from
Fig. 6, the qualitative dependencies remain the same. The
oxide capacitance 共which is equal for both device structures兲
is obtained for sufficiently large negative gate voltages. The
flatband voltage depends on the gap width for the same rea-
son as explained for the capacitor in Sec. IV A. Again, the
appearance of inversion for sufficiently large positive gate
voltages depends on the gap width. For a small gap, inver-
sion charges can be generated fast enough and a usual qua-
sistatic characteristic is obtained. In case of the large band
gap the inversion layer is not formed, and for positive volt-
ages there is only a transition of the C − V characteristics to
the geometrical capacitance. In the TOC structure its value
must be determined numerically. But a good estimate is ob-
tained if one considers, besides the smaller organic layer
thickness, only the area of source and drain as contact area,
i.e., 2 ⫻ 共1 ␮m ⫻ 1 ␮m兲. With the common analytic expres-
sions a value of 0.626 fF is then obtained for the geometrical
capacitance compared to a simulated value of 0.656 fF ex-
tracted from Fig. 6. Of course, for the value of the oxide
capacitance the whole device area of 3 ␮m ⫻ 1 ␮m must be
considered because the accumulation layer formed at the in-
terface to the insulator extends over the whole length of the
device. Finally, for a medium gap width hysteresis arises. For
both sweep directions the increase of the capacitance is much
slower than in the capacitor. Because of the much thinner
organic layer the carrier generation zone cannot expand as
much as in the capacitor. Therefore, in this transistor struc-
 054514-7 Th. Lindner and G. Paasch J. Appl. Phys. 102, 054514 共2007兲

ture generation is lower and the reduction of the deep deple-

tion zone 共which is formed because the generation of inver-
sion charges is too slow兲 takes much more time.

V. QUASISTATIC C − V CURVES FOR TFTS WITH WIDE

GAP ORGANICS AND WITH DIFFERENT SOURCE/
DRAIN WORK FUNCTIONS

In most organic materials generation of carriers is too

inefficient due to the large gap, even at low frequencies. To
obtain both accumulation and inversion in a thin-film tran-
sistor with such material, it is necessary to inject both types
of carriers via source and drain. This can be achieved either
by using different contact materials or by contacts which
allow for efficient injection of both carrier types for some
reason 共both have been realized in ambipolar transistors; see
Sec. I兲. This is in contrast to a conventional transistor struc-
ture, which is usually a 4-terminal device. There, the bulk
contact is ohmic for majority carriers and allows for injection
to obtain accumulation. Source and drain are doped oppo-
sitely to the substrate and allow therefore injection of minor-
ity carriers. But in a thin-film structure the bulk contact is
missing.
In the preceding Sec. IV the work function of the bulk
contact or of the source/drain contacts was chosen such that
it is aligned with the valence band edge. Thus, with the cho-
sen p doping, these contacts are hole accumulation 共ohmic兲
contacts. In this case inversion at the interface of the organic
layer with the oxide could not be achieved for the wide gap
organic material. In this section it is demonstrated how dif-
ferent choices of the materials for source and drain influence
the channel formation of TOC and BOC transistors. We con-
sider the cases when the contact work function is as before
aligned with the valence band 共⌽ = 5 eV, hole injecting con-
tact兲 or with the conduction band 共⌽ = 3 eV, electron inject-
ing contact兲. Quasistatic C − V characteristics 共ramp rate
0.1 V / s兲 are shown for the TOC transistor in Fig. 7共a兲 and
for the BOC transistor in Fig. 7共b兲. The work functions of the
source/drain contacts are chosen as indicated in the figure. If
the work functions for source and drain are the same, one
obtains for the larger 共lower兲 work function accumulation
共inversion兲 for larger negative 共positive兲 gate-source voltage
and hence the capacitance approaches the oxide capacitance,
whereas for larger positive 共negative兲 gate-source voltage the
geometric capacitance is approached, which is different for
the TOC and BOC structures. Due to the used p doping the
transition from accumulation to depletion is different from
the transition from inversion to depletion. On the other hand,
for different work functions for source and drain one has
good inversion charge injection from one contact and good
accumulation charge injection from the other contact. There-
fore, both inversion and accumulation do occur. Thus, the
oxide capacitance value is reached for negative and positive
gate-source voltages as well. Such a structure has been ex-
ploited in ambipolar TFTs, but the disadvantage of such de-
vices is that they do not really have an off-state.
FIG. 7. Quasistatic C − V characteristics 共ramp rate 0.1 V / s兲 for the 共a兲
TOC and 共b兲 BOC transistors. The work functions of the source/drain con-
tacts are chosen as indicated.
VI. FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF MOS CAPACITORS
The frequency response is characterized by the complex
frequency dependent impedance Ẑ, or alternatively the ad-
mittance Ŷ, the dielectric function ⑀ˆ , or the modulus M̂,
which are connected among each other by
dV̂GS
Ẑ = = Z⬘ + iZ⬙ = Ŷ −1 = 共i␻C + G兲−1 , 共4兲
dÎ
Ŷ
⑀ˆ = ⑀⬘ + i⑀⬙ = = M̂ −1 . 共5兲
i␻Cgeo
Since real and imaginary parts of each quantity are not inde-
pendent, one of them contains the full information. However,
due to the different asymptotic dependencies, usually one
quantity gives at best an immediate insight. For a capacitive
device this is of course the capacitance C. Nevertheless, di-
rect information on relaxation times can be better seen from
the imaginary part ⑀⬙ of the dielectric function.
In the following, examples for the simulated frequency
response are analyzed for MOS capacitors with the structure
shown in Fig. 1共a兲. The gap width of the organic semicon-
ductor is 2 eV. Inspection of internal density profiles allows
one to understand the rather different dependencies obtained
for capacitors with thickness of the organic layer smaller or
larger than the depletion length. Moreover, lumped equiva-
lent circuit models will be discussed, which are suitable to
analyze measured data and the elements of which are
uniquely assigned to sublayers of the organic layer.

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 054514-8 Th. Lindner and G. Paasch
FIG. 8. C − f characteristics for the MOS capacitor according to Fig. 1共a兲
with a reduced organic layer thickness of dorg = 50 nm for a positive gate-
bulk voltage of VGB = + 10 V 共a兲 and a negative gate-bulk voltage of VGB
= −10 V 共b兲. For the work function of the bulk contact material two differ-
ent values are used: ⌽B = 3 eV and ⌽B = 5 eV. The curves with open sym-
bols are for the equivalent circuit models. In 共a兲 also the imaginary part of
the dielectric function is shown for ⌽B = 3 eV.
As mentioned above, a p-doped organic semiconductor
is considered 共NA− = 1017 cm−3 for dorg = 50 nm and NA− = 5
⫻ 1017 cm−3 for dorg = 150 nm兲. With such a doping a hole-
accumulation bulk contact is usually chosen 共we use in the
simulation the bulk contact work function ⌽B = 5.0 eV兲 and
the notation 共p-兲accumulation 共inversion兲 refers to the charge
at the interface when a negative 共positive兲 gate-bulk voltage
is applied. However, being interested in an n channel in the p
material one could also consider the influence of a bulk con-
tact with electron accumulation; thus we consider also a bulk
contact work function of ⌽B = 3.0 eV, but the notations
共p-兲accumulation and inversion will be used as defined be-
fore. Thin-film MOS capacitors are considered with a thick-
ness of the organic layer of dorg = 50 nm 共150 nm兲, which is
smaller 共larger兲 than the depletion length for the chosen dop-
ing. The capacitance of the semiconductor layer is Corg
= ␧0␧orgA / dorg and the oxide capacitance is Cox = ␧0␧oxA / dox
= 2.07 fF. Thus the geometrical capacitance is for the thinner
organic layer Cgeo = 共Cox −1
兲 = 0.95 fF and 0.45 fF for
−1 −1
+ Corg
the thicker layer. It should be noticed that in the inversion
regime charge carrier generation/recombination is negligible
in the considered frequency range due to the large band gap
as mentioned before.
In Fig. 8 the C − f characteristics are shown for the MOS
capacitor with the thinner organic layer. Figure 8共a兲 is for a
positive gate-bulk voltage of VGB = + 10 V, i.e., inversion of
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J. Appl. Phys. 102, 054514 共2007兲
FIG. 9. Electron 共n兲 and hole concentration profiles from the bulk contact
共y = 0兲 to the interface to the oxide 共y = 0.05 ␮m兲 for the C − f characteristics
of Fig. 8 of the MOS capacitor with a reduced organic layer thickness of
dorg = 50 nm for a positive gate-bulk voltage of VGB = + 10 V 共a兲 and a nega-
tive gate-bulk voltage of VGB = −10 V 共b兲. For the work function of the bulk
contact material two different values are used: ⌽B = 3 eV and ⌽B = 5 eV.
the p-type material at the interface to the oxide and Fig. 8共b兲
for a negative gate-bulk voltage of VGB = −10 V, leading to
hole accumulation at the interface to the oxide. At first the
situation will be analyzed for the positive gate-bulk voltage.
Here, for the hole injection bulk contact with the larger work
function the geometrical capacitance is obtained for the
whole frequency range. On the other hand, for the low work
function bulk contact one has a clear transition between the
oxide capacitance at low frequencies and the geometrical ca-
pacitance at high frequencies with a transition frequency of
2 ⫻ 105 Hz marking the maximum of ⑀⬙ in Fig. 8共a兲. In ad-
dition, at higher frequencies there is a plateau of the capaci-
tance, which is 1.04 fF slightly larger than the geometrical
capacitance and the final transition to the latter is flattened
and occurs at about 5 ⫻ 107 Hz. In ⑀⬙ a hint for a second
maximum is visible also. The reason for these dependencies
becomes clear from the simulated concentration profiles de-
picted in Fig. 9共a兲. For the larger bulk contact work function
the electron density is so small there, that in the thin layer,
inversion is not achieved at the interface to the oxide. Apart
from a tiny region near the hole injecting bulk contact both
concentrations are negligibly small, the layer is depleted, and
hence only the geometrical capacitance occurs. But for the
lower work function one has at the bulk contact and at the
interface to the oxide a high electron concentration, the mini-
mum in between is n ⬇ 2 ⫻ 1015 cm−3, and the whole layer is
flooded by minority carriers. Disregarding first the transition
 054514-9 Th. Lindner and G. Paasch J. Appl. Phys. 102, 054514 共2007兲

at higher frequency, this situation can be modeled 共see Ap-

pendix兲 by an equivalent circuit with the oxide capacitance
in series with a parallel connection of the capacitance of the
organic layer and its resistance 共Rn兲 with an averaged elec-
tron concentration 关model 1, Eq. 共A1兲 with only one R − C
term兴. This leads to the capacitance
1 + ␻2R2nCorg共Corg + Cox兲 1 + ␻ 2␶ 1␶ 2
C = Cox = Cox , 共6兲
1 + ␻2R2n共Corg + Cox兲2 1 + ␻2␶22

␶1 = RnCorg, ␶2 = Rn共Corg + Cox兲, 共7兲

describing the transition from the oxide capacitance to the
geometrical capacitance, and the inflection point is deter-
mined by the relaxation time ␶2 and not simply by the dielec-
tric relaxation time ␶1 of the minority carriers. The simulated
capacitance is well described by this simple dependency as
visible in Fig. 8共a兲 with Rn = 1.58⫻ 108 ⍀ as the only param-
eter. From this value and the chosen mobility, one obtains the
averaged electron density as n = 6.6⫻ 1015 cm−3, which is
close to the simulated minimum. Using the full Eq. 共A1兲
共model 2兲 the whole frequency dependence of the capaci-
tance is described well including the low plateau and the
transition at higher frequency. From the two capacitances
and resistances obtained from the nonlinear fit 共and using the
mobility as used in the simulation兲 one obtains for the thick-
ness and the averaged electron concentration in the inversion
layer d2 ⬇ 8 nm and n2 ⬇ 1.2⫻ 1018 cm−3 and for the re-
maining part of the organic layer d1 ⬇ 41 nm and n1 ⬇ 5.2
⫻ 1015 cm−3. Values close to these ones are obtained already
from the three capacitances and two transition frequencies
extracted from Fig. 8共a兲 and Eqs. 共A2兲 and 共A3兲. It is re-
markable that the simple model 共A1兲 with only two R − C
terms results in such good description, although the electron
density is strongly inhomogeneous as seen in Fig. 9共a兲兲.
Moreover, though the large inversion capacitance is not vis-
ible directly 共since it is larger than the oxide capacitance兲 it
determines the higher transition and can therefore be de-
tected.
The situation is almost analog for the negative gate-bulk
voltage of VGB = −10 V 关Fig. 8共b兲兴. Now for the electron
injection bulk contact with the lower work function the geo-
metrical capacitance is obtained for the whole frequency
range. For the hole injecting bulk contact with the higher
work function one has the transition between the oxide ca-
pacitance at low frequencies and the geometrical capacitance
at high frequencies, but with a higher transition frequency.
Thus, it is close to the second, higher transition frequency
and instead of the low plateau in the capacitance one has
only a smeared out transition. Indeed, simulated concentra-
tions 关Fig. 9共b兲兴 show that for the smaller bulk contact work
function the whole layer is almost depleted from both elec-
trons and holes, apart from a narrow region near the bulk
contact 共with high electron concentration兲. On the other
hand, for the larger work function one has at the bulk contact
and at the interface to the oxide a high hole concentration,
the minimum in between is p ⬇ 1.1⫻ 1017 cm−3, larger than
for electrons in the former case due to the doping. Again,
already model 1 关Eq. 共6兲兴 describes the simulations well, of
course with Rn replaced by R p. The chosen value of 5.42
FIG. 10. C − f characteristics for the MOS capacitor according to Fig. 1共a兲
with layer thickness of dorg = 150 nm for a positive gate-bulk voltage of
VGB = + 10 V 共a兲 and a negative gate-bulk voltage of VGB = −10 V 共b兲. For
the work function of the bulk contact material two different values are used:
⌽B = 3 eV and ⌽B = 5 eV. The curves with open symbols are for the equiva-
lent circuit models.
⫻ 106 ⍀ is smaller corresponding to an averaged hole con-
centration of p = 1.9⫻ 1017 cm−3, again close to the simu-
lated minimum. With the full Eq. 共A1兲 共model 2兲 the whole
frequency dependence of the capacitance is described well
including the smeared out transition. From the two capaci-
tances and resistances obtained from the nonlinear fit 共and
using the mobility as used in the simulation兲 one obtains for
the thickness and the averaged hole concentration in the ac-
cumulation layer d2 ⬇ 8.5 nm and p2 ⬇ 1.9⫻ 1018 cm−3, and
for the remaining bulk part of the organic layer d1 ⬇ 41 nm
and p1 ⬇ 1.5⫻ 1017 cm−3 共close to the doping level of
1017 cm−3兲.
The capacitance-frequency dependency is quite different
for the thicker layer 共Fig. 10兲. Here the oxide capacitance is
reached as maximum capacitance at low frequencies only for
the negative gate-bulk voltage and the hole injecting large
work function bulk contact. For the electron injecting 共hole
blocking兲 low work function contact the maximum capaci-
tance is much lower and the same is the case for inversion
for both types of contacts. The transition frequencies are near
together for the four cases, however slightly larger when the
maximum capacitance is lower. For an understanding one
can inspect at first the simulated profiles of holes in Fig. 11
for the curves from Fig. 10. The electron concentration is
negligibly small, except for a 2-nm accumulation layer at the
low work function bulk contact. It is clearly seen that in the

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 054514-10 Th. Lindner and G. Paasch
FIG. 11. Hole concentration profiles from the bulk contact 共y = 0兲 to the
interface to the oxide 共y = 0.15 ␮m兲 for the C − f characteristics of Fig. 10 of
the MOS capacitor with the organic layer thickness of dorg = 150 nm for a
positive gate-bulk voltage of VGB = + 10 V 共a兲 and a negative gate-bulk volt-
age of VGB = −10 V 共b兲. For the work function of the bulk contact material
two different values are used: ⌽B = 3 eV and ⌽B = 5 eV.
middle of the layer one has bulk concentrations since the
layer thickness is larger than the depletion length. Thus, in
all cases one has a bulk region with the hole concentration
given by the doping level and a negligible electron concen-
tration. But for the low work function contact one has a
depletion zone of holes of a width ddepl = 39 nm. In inversion
and for the hole injecting contact there is a depletion zone
near the interface to the oxide with ddepl = 32 nm, and for the
electron injecting contact there are depletion zones on both
sides of the layer, the total width of which is ddepl = 49 nm.
Thus, the model 共A1兲 can be simplified by setting the resis-
tance of the depletion layer as very large. Then one can de-
scribe the system by an equivalent circuit model, which is a
series connection of the oxide capacitance with the capaci-
tance Cdep of the respective depletion layer and with a paral-
lel connection of the bulk capacitance Cbulk and resistance
R p,bulk, the latter with the bulk hole concentration and a
length dbulk = dorg − ddepl. The total capacitance is then given
by
1 + ␻ 2␶ 1␶ 2
C = Cins , 共8兲
1 + ␻2␶22
CoxCdep
Cins = , 共9兲
Cox + Cdep
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J. Appl. Phys. 102, 054514 共2007兲
␶1 = R p,bulkCbulk, ␶2 = R p,bulk共Cbulk + Cins兲. 共10兲
The maximum capacitance is reduced to Cins and the transi-
tion frequency is determined by ␶2, which explains the
slightly different values visible in Fig. 10. The model depen-
dency is shown also in Fig. 10. Thereby ddepl is chosen to fit
the maximum capacitance; the values for accumulation with
electron injection bulk contact, inversion with hole contact,
and electron contact are 38, 32, and 45 nm, almost the same
as obtained directly in the simulation. From the value of
R p,bulk needed to fit the transition frequency one obtains for
the bulk hole concentration values between 4.2⫻ 1017 cm−3
and 5.3⫻ 1017 cm−3 near the simulation input of 5
⫻ 1017 cm−3.
Thus, the frequency response of thin organic capacitors
can be rather different depending on doping, thickness, and
type of the bulk contact. However, it can be modeled rather
simply by appropriately specifying the equivalent circuit
model 共A1兲.
VII. CONCLUSIONS
In the usually unintentionally p-doped organics used in
TFTs with high work function metal contacts as source and
drain, a p-accumulation channel is formed as the on state for
negative gate voltage. For using the advantages of CMOS
circuitry, and also inversion, that means n-channel formation
is needed. Since the organic TFTs differ from the usual
MOSFETs by the missing back contact and usage of metals
for source and drain contacts, and since the organics for the
active layer are until now usually wide gap materials and
have a low mobility, inversion layer formation has been ana-
lyzed for organic field-effect devices. This work is intended
partly also to stimulate experimental investigations on the
inversion layer formation in organic TFTs and MOS struc-
tures. So far, only steady-state measurements have been re-
ported on the ambipolar devices, where an inversion channel
is formed.
A general insight is obtained comparing relaxation times.
For the chosen characteristic mobility values 关for very low
gap 共Eg ⬍ 0.75 eV兲 one has ␶d,n
␶inv
␶meas兴, the inversion
layer is formed by the minority carrier current without gen-
eration. For somewhat larger gap, generation dominates
compared with minority carrier current, the formation of the
inversion layer is slowed down, and since recombination for
the back voltage sweep is fast, one has in this region a hys-
teresis. For a gap Eg  1.25 eV, the measurement is faster
and there is no inversion layer formation.
More details are obtained from the numerical simula-
tions taking into account the geometry of MOS capacitors
and TFTs and the type of contacts. For the MOS capacitors
with different gap widths Eg = 2.0, 1.2, and 0.8 eV of the
organics and a hole injecting bulk contact, the qualitative
expectations are confirmed. For a large band gap transport of
minority carriers is negligible, and compared to the ramp rate
generation of minority carriers is too slow for the formation
of the inversion layer and the layer becomes fully depleted
for larger positive gate voltage; whereas for small band gap a
usual quasistatic C − V characteristic is obtained indeed with-
out generation of minority carriers. In case of the medium
 054514-11 Th. Lindner and G. Paasch J. Appl. Phys. 102, 054514 共2007兲

band gap, during the measuring period inversion is formed ␶ 1 = R 1C 1, ␶ 2 = R 2C 2, ␶1,ox = R1Cox, ␶2,ox = R2Cox .
slowly, whereas the reduction of the inversion layer takes
place rather fast and the characteristics for the sweep direc- Actually, a closer inspection shows that one has only two
tion from positive to negative voltages are identical with the resonance frequencies. The relaxation time for the lower fre-
common quasistatic characteristics. Simulated profiles of quency is given by
current densities, concentrations, and recombination support
this interpretation in detail and also a peculiar dependency ␶low = ␶1 + ␶2 + ␶1,ox + ␶2,ox = R1共C1 + Cox兲 + R2共C2
occurring when changing the sweep direction at larger posi-
tive voltage. + Cox兲 → R1共C1 + Cox兲 for R1  R2 , 共A2兲
The qualitative dependencies and the influence of the
gap width remain the same for quasistatic C − V characteris- and that one for the higher frequency is determined by
tics of a top contact transistor 共source/drain at zero voltage兲
while the voltage ramp is applied to the gate. Quantitative 1 ␶low
=
differences occur only due to the different geometry and ␶high ␶1␶2 + ␶1␶2,ox + ␶2␶1,ox

冉 冊 冉 冊
layer thickness.
For TOC and BOC TFTs with a wide gap organic layer 1 Cgeo 1 Cgeo
= 1− + 1−
accumulation and inversion are possible if the source and R 1C 1 C1 R 2C 2 C2
drain contacts are from different materials, one hole injecting
and the other one electron injecting. Such structures have
been used in ambipolar TFTs, but the disadvantage of such
→
1
冉
R 2C 2
1−
Cgeo
C2
冊 for R1  R2 . 共A3兲

devices is that they do not really have an off state.

The simulations show that the frequency response of thin Remarkably, in both cases the corresponding simple R − C
organic MOS capacitors can be rather different depending on product is only an approximation.
doping, thickness, and type of the bulk contact. Of special 1
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