Professional Documents
Culture Documents
INTRODUCTION
• Two types research in education
• Differ in the nature data is collected
• Quantitative and Qualitative
• Also known as Positivist & Postpositivist
respectively
• Qualitative is sometimes called case study
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• Knowledge is developed by
collecting numerical data on
Quantitative observable behaviors
• The data is subjected to
numerical analysis
• Knowledge is developed by
primarily verbal data through
Qualitative intensive study of cases
• The data is subjected to
analytical analysis
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Quantitative vs Qualitative
• Is one approach better than the other?
• Do they complement each other in some way?
• Do they produce conflicting findings?
Answers:
• Qualitative – best to discover themes and
relationship at case level (discovery)
• Quantitative – bet used to validate those
themes and relationships in samples and
population (confirmatory)
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Learning Styles
Qualitative •Visual
•Auditory
•Reading /
Writing
preference
Interview
•Kinesthetic
Quantitative
•Visual
•Auditory
•Reading /
Create & Writing
Distribute Survey preference
•Kinesthetic
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DIFFERENCES
Quantitative Qualitative
Social reality is
Assume an
constructed by
objective social
the participants
role
in it
DIFFERENCES
Quantitative Qualitative
View causal
relationship among
Causal relationship
social phenomena
is human intention
from a mechanistic
perspective
Detached,
objective from
Personally involved
participants &
setting
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DIFFERENCES
Quantitative Qualitative
Study
populations & Study cases
samples
Study meanings
Study behavior
created and
& observable
internal
phenomenon
phenomenon
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DIFFERENCES
Quantitative Qualitative
Analyze social
Make holistic
realities into
observations
variables
Use preconceived
concepts & Discover concepts
theories to & theories after
determine data to data collected
collect
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DIFFERENCES
Quantitative Qualitative
Generate Generate
numerical verbal &
data pictorial data
DIFFERENCES
Quantitative Qualitative
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
METHODOLOGIES
Methodologies
• Experimental
• Single subject
• Correlational
• Causal comparative
• Survey
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Experimental Research
• Attempts to influence/manipulate a variable
• Best for testing hypotheses of cause-and-effect
relationship
• In education – use to test effects of various
practices e.g.:
▫ Teaching techniques
▫ Organization of curriculum
▫ Content
▫ Instructional programs etc
• On outcomes e.g.:
▫ Academic achievement
▫ School climate etc.
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EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
• Looking at the effect(s) of independent
variable(s) on 1 or more dependent variables
• Independent variable aka:
▫ Experimental, treatment, intervention
• Dependent variable aka:
▫ Criterion, posttest
• Involves:
▫ One group receiving the experimental treatment-
experimental group
▫ One comparison group not receiving the
treatment – control group
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EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
A new reading
Experimental program
Post-Test
Post
Pre-test
test
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
• Randomization a key element
▫ Random assignment of students to experimental
and control group
▫ To make the groups equivalent – differ only by
chance
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VALIDITY PROBLEMS
• Problem in establishing suitable controls – that the
posttest result is only influence by the treatment
• Control against or elimination of extraneous
variables
▫ Affect the internal validity of the experiment
• Extraneous varibale
▫ Any variable other than the treatment variable that,
if not controlled, can affect the experimental
outcome
• Internal validity
▫ The extent to which extraneous variables have been
controlled by the researcher so that any observed
effect can be attributed solely to the treatment
variable
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EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES
• Influence of other events
History
• Test – wise
Testing
EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES
Statistical • When using the same pre and
Regression post test
EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES
Experimental Treatment • Control group seek access to
Diffusion treatment
Quasi- • Static-group
Experimental • Nonequivalent control-group
• Two factor
Factorial • Three factor
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CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
• Purpose – to discover relationships between
variables through correlational statistic
• Relationship between
anxiety & self-esteem
Explanatory • Between intelligence &
academic achievement
CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
• Relationship can be postive or negative
• Relationship is presented in a scattergram
(scatter plot)
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CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
Positive Negative
Correlation Correlation
Absence of
Correlation
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CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
• The more education people have, the greater
the income
▫ Positive or negative relationship?
• As people get older, they often lose their
memory
▫ Positive or negative relationship?
• Can we say:
▫ Education causes higher income?
▫ Aging causes memory loss?
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CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
•NO
• Correlation is not equal to causation
• All we can say is that there’s is a relationship
between these two variables
• Although we think the relationship is causal, we
cannot assume without conducting experiment
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CAUSAL COMPARATIVE
• The study of cause-and-effect relationship
• To explain educational phenomenons
• Attempts to determine the cause, or reason, for
pre-existing differences in groups of individuals
• Also called ‘ex post facto’ (Latin – after the fact)
• Both the effect and the alleged cause have already
occurred and must be studied in retrospect
• The basic causal-comparative approach involves
starting with an effect and seeking possible causes
• Another approach starts with cause and
investigates its effects on some variable
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CAUSAL COMPARATIVE
• The presumed cause – independent variables
• The presumed effect – dependent variables
• Example:
▫ Introduction of KPI on teachers’ morale
▫ Introduction of KPI– independent variables
▫ Teachers’ morale – dependent variables
• Or
▫ Teachers’ morale – independent variable
▫ Absenteeism – dependent variable
• Different from experimental, causal
comparative does not manipulate variables
(sex, ethnicity etc)
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CAUSAL COMPARATIVE
• IV: presumed cause
▫ Groups formed on the basis of how much TV they
watch, and compared on academic achievement
(GPA).
• DV: presumed effect
▫ Groups formed on the basis of gender, and
compared on strength of career aspirations.
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CAUSAL COMPARATIVE
• IV: presumed effect
▫ Groups formed on the basis of whether they
dropped out of high school, and compared on
lack of mentoring relationship.
• DV: presumed cause
▫ Groups formed on the basis of difficulty in
learning to read, and compared on time parent
spent reading to child.
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CAUSAL COMPARATIVE
When to use:
1. When it is unethical to manipulate an
independent variable (e.g. diet)
CAUSAL COMPARATIVE
• Examples:
▫ A researcher measured the mathematical
reasoning ability of young children who had
enrolled in Montessori schools and compared the
scores with a group of similar children who had
not been to Montessori schools.
CAUSAL COMPARATIVE
• How do you analyze:
▫ t tests, ANOVA, ANCOVA when two or more groups
are being compared.
▫ Regression analysis when there are multiple
independent variables.
▫ MANOVA, and multivariate regression, when
there are multiple dependent variables.
▫ Path analysis and structural equation modeling
when the theoretical causal paths are being
investigated.
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CAUSAL COMPARATIVE
• Which of the following questions would lend
themselves well to causal-comparative research?
1. How many students were enrolled in PSYC101 this
semester?
2. Which subject do high school students like least?
3. How do elementary school teachers teach phonics?
4. Are two-year-old girls more aggressive than two-
year-old boys?
5. How might Jimmy Thomas be helped to read?
6. Is teacher enthusiasm related to student success in
academic classes?
7. What is the best way to teach arithmetic?
8. Do female students perform better in literature
classes than male students?
9. Does sleep (amount of time) affect academic
performance of students at college
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CAUSAL COMPARATIVE
• Example ( Green & Jaquess)
▫ The effect of part-time employment on high
school students’ academic achievement
▫ Sample – 44 high school juniors, employed and
not employed (have already occurred, you do not
make them work – unethical)
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SURVEY RESEARCH
• Also known as Descriptive Research
• Purpose – to describe the natural or man-made
phenomena
▫ The form, actions, changes over time,
similarities with other phenomena
• In education – it involves making careful
description of educational phenomena
• Concerned primarily with determining “what
is”
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SURVEY RESEARCH
• Examples:
▫ How many teachers in the state of Selangor hold
favourable attitudes toward ETeMS?
▫ How do adolescent spend their time?
▫ What have been the reactions of school
administrators to innovations in teaching physical
science?
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SURVEY RESEARCH
Types of survey:
• Cross-sectional
• Longitudinal
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SURVEY RESEARCH
• Cross - sectional
▫ Data are obtained at one point in time but
groups of different ages, or different stages of
development
• Example:
▫ How students’ attitude towards art change from
Year 5 to Form 3?
▫ Samples are selected from each grade
▫ Administer a questionnaire to all of them on the
same date or within narrow range of dates
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SURVEY RESEARCH
• Longitudinal
▫ Collecting data from a sample at different points
in time in order to study changes and continuity
in the sample’s characteristics
• Example:
▫ The development of art appreciation among
primary school children
• Types:
▫ Trend
▫ Cohort
▫ Panel
▫ Cross sectional
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SURVEY RESEARCH
• Describe change by selecting a different
sample at each data collection point of
SURVEY RESEARCH
SURVEY RESEARCH
• Measurement types
▫ Questionnaire
▫ Classroom observation checklist
▫ Standardized achievement tests
▫ Attitudes scales
▫ Interviews
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SURVEY RESEARCH
• Statistics in survey research
▫ Measures of central tendency
Mean
Median
Mode
▫ Measures of variability
Standard deviation
Variance
Range
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QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
• General Features (may not be in all types)
▫ The natural setting is the direct source of data
and the researcher is the key instrument
▫ Qualitative data are collected in the form of
words or pictures rather than numbers
▫ Qualitative researchers are concerned with
process as well as product
▫ Qualitative researchers tend to analyze their
data inductively
▫ How people make sense of their lives is a major
concern to qualitative research
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Inductive analysis
Holistic perspective
Qualitative data
Dynamic
Context sensivity
Emphatic neutrality
Design flexibility
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QUALITATIVE – STEPS
1. Identification of the phenomenon
2. Identification of the participants
3. Generation of hypotheses
4. Data collection
5. Data analysis
6. Interpretations and conclusions
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QUALITATIVE – APPROACHES
NARRATIVE GROUNDED
PHENOMENOLOGY
RESEARCH THEORY
NARRATIVE
•Study life experiences of
people
•As told to the researcher
•The participant recalls
one or more special
events (epiphany)
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PHENOMENOLOGY
• Reactions to or perceptions of a particular
phenomenon
• e.g. what is like to teach science in rural
school
• Data – through in-depth interview
• Seek to identify, understand & describe
commonalities of perceptions &
interpretations
• Malay students in Chinese schools
• Data collected are clustered into themes
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GROUNDED THEORY
• Intention is to generate theory in
data from participants who have
experienced the process
• Generalizations are developed from
the data
• Use of constant comparative method
• Data collected through one-on-one
interview, focus group, observations
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Theory further
More data Theory
developed,
collected revised
clarified
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CASE STUDIES
• Objects of research are called cases
• A case – a particular instance of a
phenomenon
• Phenomenon:
• Programs
• Curricula
• Roles
• Events
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CASE STUDIES
•Widespread in education
•Purpose:
•To produced detailed
description of a phenomenon
•To develop explanation of it
•To evaluate it
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CASE STUDIES
•Example
•Dona Kagan examined the
effects of a staff development
program on the professional lives
of 4 elementary school teachers
•Audio-taped 90 minute interview
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ETHNOGRAPHY
• First hand, intensive study of the features of a
given culture and the patterns in those features
• If reader can understand the culture by reading
an ethnographic research, then it is a good
research
• Originally developed by anthropologist
• Data collected through, observation, interview
and documents
• Participant observation – be part of the culture
and make observation
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ETHNOGRAPHY
• Examples:
• The Orang Asli school
• Racial interactions in urban school
• Bullying in secondary school
• Power in the dorm
• Teachers teaching style
• Practicum trainees
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HISTORICAL RESEARCH
•Systematic process of data
collection to answer questions
about a phenomenon for the
purpose of gaining a better
understanding of present
institutions, practices, trends,
and issues in education
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HISTORICAL RESEARCH
•Examples:
•The changes in the status of
teachers in the public eyes
from 1900 – 2000
•Pondok schools
•Art curriculum over the years
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HISTORICAL RESEARCH
• Purpose:
• To make aware of past failures & success
• To learn from the past to improve the
present / future
• To assist making prediction
• To test hypotheses concerning
relationships or trends
• To understand present educational
policies and practices more fully
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HISTORICAL RESEARCH
•Sources
•Documents
•Numerical records
•Oral statements
•Relics
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