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Spectrometry refers to the technique used and how spectroscopy is measured. It can also include other
techniques such as mass spectrometry where there is energy but no light.?
 may refer to:

3 Ion-mobility spectrometry, an analytical technique used to separate and identify ionized molecules in
the gas phase based on their ion mobility in a carrier buffer gas
3 Mass spectrometry, an analytical technique that measures the mass-to-charge ratio of charged
particles
3 Rutherford backscattering spectrometry, an analytical technique used to determine the structure and
composition of materials by measuring the backscattering of a beam of high energy ions impinging on
a sample
3 Neutron triple-axis spectrometry, a technique used in inelastic neutron scattering




 

Spectrometers are analytical instruments, used to identify or confirm the chemical species, chemical
structure or concentration of substances in a sample. There are many types of spectrometers, with
many possible variations and modifications that can specialize or extend the usefulness of an
instrument. In most cases, a sample submitted to spectrometric analysis must be quite pure to avoid
confounding results.


 

 Spectrometry is based on interactions between matter and energy. A sample perturbed with a
specific kind of energy will respond in a way that is characteristic of the sample. Depending on the
method, a sample will respond to an energy input by absorbing energy, releasing energy or perhaps
even by undergoing a permanent physical change. If a sample gives no response in a particular
instrument, there is information in that result as well.

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 In a colorimeter, a sample is exposed to a single wavelength of light, or is scanned with many
different wavelengths of light. The light is in the visible band of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Colored liquids reflect, transmit (let pass) or absorb different colors of light to different degrees.
Colorimetry is useful for determining the concentration of a known substance in solution, by
measuring a sample's transmittance or absorbance at a fixed wavelength and comparing the result
 to a calibration curve. A calibration curve is obtained by analyzing a series of standard solutions of
known concentration.

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 Ultraviolet (UV) spectroscopy works on a principle similar to that of colorimetry, except the light
applied to the sample is in the ultraviolet range. UV spectroscopy is also called electronic
spectroscopy, because the absorbance characteristics of a sample depends on the configuration of
electrons in the chemical bonds of the sample compound. UV spectrometers are used to study
chemical bonding and to determine the concentrations of substances (nucleic acids for example)
that do not interact with visible light.

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 Infrared (IR) spectrometers measure the response of a sample when exposed to infrared light. A
range of IR wavelengths are passed through the sample to record the absorbance. IR spectroscopy
is also called vibrational or rotational spectroscopy because the vibrational and rotational
frequencies of atoms bonded to each other, are the same as the frequencies of IR radiation. IR
spectrometers are used to identify unknown compounds or to confirm their identity since the IR
spectrum of a substance is essentially unique.

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 Atomic spectrometers are used to analyze the elemental composition of samples and to determine
the concentrations of elements of interest. There are two basic types of atomic spectrometers---
emission and absorbance. In either case a liquid or gaseous sample is sent to a flame where the
sample is decomposed into atoms or ions of the elements present in the sample. In an emission
instrument, the wavelengths of light released by the ionized atoms are detected. In an absorbance
instrument, light of specified wavelengths is passed through the energized atoms to a detector. The
wavelengths of the emissions or absorbances are characteristic of the elements present.

 
 
 Mass spectrometers are used to analyze and identify the chemical structure of molecules, especially
large and complex ones. A sample is injected into the instrument and ionized (either chemically or
with an electron beam) to knock off electrons and create positively charged ions. Sometimes the
sample molecules are broken into smaller ionized fragments in the process. The ions are passed
through a magnetic field, causing the charged particles to follow a curved path to strike a detector at
different locations. Heavier particles follow a different path than lighter ones, and the sample is
identified by comparing the result to those produced by standard samples of known composition

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 The principle of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) is based on the fact that an
 atom has a magnetic moment, just like a
 spinning charge acting as a tiny magnet,
 governed by quantum mechanics, aligning
 in a magnetic field as the needle of a compass in the Earth¶s magnetic field. The
 principle of NMR consists in inducing, and
 detecting, the transition, for the nuclear
 magnetic moment, from the lowest energy
 level to the highest energy level, through
 absorption of electromagnetic radiation
 of a wavelength lying in the radiofrequency
 region: when the energy of the photon
 precisely matches the energy difference
 between the two levels, absorption occurs.
 Nuclei having numbers of protons, and
 neutrons that are both even exhibit zero
 spin. Carbon 12 and oxygen 16 atoms,
 which are very widespread in nature, thus
 have zero spin. On the other hand, hydrogen only has one single proton, and its
 nuclear magnetic moment equals 1/2: it
 may thus take on two possible energy states, corresponding to the two orientation
 states of its spin, relative to the magnetic field. Measuring the resonance frequency in the
electromagnetic field allowing transition from one of these energy
 states to the other enables the molecules to be analyzed. This frequency is fixed,
 however the various nuclei in a molecule
 do not all resonate at the same frequency,
 since their magnetic environment is modified by their chemical (electronic) environment.
 Many NMR spectra exhibit more peaks
 than there are protons in the nucleus,
 owing to the interactions between protons
 and their neighbors. Two nuclei may interact within the molecule, though they are
 separated by several chemical bonds: this
 is known as interatomic coupling. This
 interaction endows the NMR spectrum
 with a fine structure.

 
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 Mass spectrometry is a highly sensitive
 detection and identification technique, allowing determination of molecular structures, and thus of a
sample¶s composition.
 This is not, strictly speaking, a form of spectrometry, since it is not concerned with
 discrete energy levels. What is its principle? A compound introduced into the device
 is vaporized, and subsequently ionized by
 an electron bombardment source (at 70 eV).
 The ion thus obtained, termed a molecular ion, allows the compound¶s molar mass
 to be determined. Breaking chemical bonds
 within the compound may yield characteristic fragment ions. These are then sorted according to their
mass/charge ratio
 in an analyzer, through application of a
 magnetic and/or electric field, then collected by a detector, which amplifies the
 signal associated to the ions, which arrive
 with varying delays. A data processing system converts the information from the
 detector into a mass spectrum, readout of
 which, by comparing it with reference spectra, allows the identity details of the molecule to be drawn
up. Through use of a highresolution mass spectrometer, the exact
 mass of the compound may be determined, together with isotope percentages for
 each constituent atom.
 Choice of ionization method is directly
 related to the nature of the sample, and
 the type of analysis. If mass spectrometry has gradually adapted to meet the growing demands from
chemists, and biologists (separation of increasingly complex,
 highly polarized mixtures, determination
 of ever higher molecular masses on samples of ever more constricted sizes), this
 is essentially due to advances in ionization techniques, these including secondary
 ion mass spectrometry (SIMS), chemical
 ionization, thermospray ionization, and
 fast atom bombardment (FAB) sources,
 further comprising, from the 1980s,
 matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization (MALDI), and electrospray ionization
 (ESI), together with advances in detection
 techniques, from time-of-flight (TOF) measurement to ³ion traps´ (ITs), through quadrupoles (MS or
Q).
 In proteomics, for instance, only MALDI,
 ESI and SELDI (surface-enhanced laser
 desorption ionization) are employed.
 mobility spectrometry (IMS) is a chemical analysis technique in the gaseous
 phase, which consists in subjecting a gas
 to an electric field. Ionized molecules
 acquire a velocity that is characteristic for
 the ion, since this depends on mass, and
 charge. Arrival of the ions on one of the
 plates generating the field results in a current, which is recorded. The length of time
 after which a peak occurs can be related
 to the nature of the ion causing it.
 Scientists often make use of a coupling of
 devices each belonging to one of the two main families of analytical techniques (see
 Box E, What is chromatography?), e.g. of a
 chromatograph with a mass spectrometer (or an electron-capture detector [ECD]),
 particularly for the investigation of trace
 complex mixtures.

There are as many different types of spectroscopy as there are energy sources!
Here are some examples:

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Energy from celestial objects is used to analyze their chemical composition,
density, pressure, temperature, magnetic fields, velocity, and other characteristics.
There are many energy types (spectroscopies) that may be used in astronomical
spectroscopy.

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Energy absorbed by the sample is used to assess its characteristics. Sometimes
absorbed energy causes light to be released from the sample, which may be
measured by a technique such as fluorescence spectroscopy.

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This is the study of substances in thin films or on surfaces. The sample is
penetrated by an energy beam one or more times and the reflected energy is
analyzed. Attenuated total reflectance spectroscopy and the related technique
called frustrated multiple internal reflection spectroscopy are used to analyze
coatings and opaque liquids.
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This is a microwave technique based on splitting electronic energy fields in a
magnetic field. It is used to determine structures of samples containing unpaired
electrons.

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There are several types of electron spectroscopy, all associated with measuring
changes in electronic energy levels.

 
 
 
 
This is a family of spectroscopic techniques in which the sample is irradiated by all relevant
wavelengths simultaneously for a short period of time. The absorption spectrum is obtained by
applying a mathematical analysis to the resulting energy pattern.


 
 
Gamma radiation is the energy source in this type of spectroscopy, which includes activation
analysis and Mossbauer spectroscopy.

 
 
 
The infrared absorption spectrum of a substance is sometimes called its molecular fingerprint.
Although frequently used to identify materials, infrared spectroscopy also may be used to
quantify the number of absorbing molecules.

 
 
 
Absorption spectroscopy, fluorescence spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and surface-enhanced
Raman spectroscopy commonly use laser light as an energy source. Laser spectroscopies provide
information about the interaction of coherent light with matter. Laser spectrocopy generally has
high resolution and sensitivity.


 


A mass spectrometer source produces ions. Information about a sample may be obtained by
analyzing the dispersion of ions when they interact with the sample, generally using the mass-to-
charge ratio.


 

   

 
 
In this type of spectroscopy, each optical wavelength that is recorded is encoded with an audio
frequency containing the original wavelength information. A wavelength analyzer can then
reconstruct the original spectrum.


 
 
Raman scattering of light by molecules may be used to provide information on a sample's
chemical composition and molecular structure.
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This technique involves excitation of inner electrons of atoms, which may be seen as x-ray
absorption. An x-ray fluorescence emission spectrum may be produced when an electron falls
from a higher energy state into the vacancy created by the absorbed energy.